THE CELL

Dr.HEGAZY

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 The Cell (2021) |1

THE CELL
Eukaryotic cell (‫)الخليه ذات النواه‬

Cytoplasm Nucleus

Cytosol Suspended bodies

Organelles Inclusions
Membranous Stored Food

Non Membranous Stored pigment

ORGANELLES ‫عضيات الخليه‬

o They are minute ‫ صغيره جدا‬structures → carry out specific functions in the cytoplasm.

Organelles may be:

Membranous: Non Membranous:

- Cell membrane. - Ribosomes.
- Mitochondria - Filaments.
- Endoplasmic reticulum. - Microtubules.
- Golgi complex. - Centriole.
- Lysosomes. - Cilia & Flagella.
- Peroxisomes.

‫يجب ان تفكر في‬ organelle ‫فى أى‬

1- Definition.
2- Site.
3- Structure = L.M + E.M.
4- Function.:
 The Cell (2021) |2

1- Cell Membrane ‫غشاء الخليه‬

♣ Definition:
- membranous organelle.
- It is the outer limiting membrane of the cell.
♣ L.M.:
o Not visible by L.M. because: its thickness is only 7-10 nm.

♣ E.M:
Trilaminar appearance
Appear with

- Inner & outer dark layers

- With middle electron light layer inbetween.

♣ Molecular Structure :
➢ Plasma membrane is formed of: lipids 30%
Proteins 60-70%
Carbohydrates 10%

Phospholipid

Lipids
Cholesterol

Phospholipid bilayer :
• The structural unit of the cell membrane.
• The phospholipid molecule has:
Hydrophilic portion:

Hydrophobic portion: o Polar head formed of

o Nonpolar tail phosphate group.
o 2 fatty acid chains o Directed towards the extra
o Directed towards the & intracellular fluid.
center of the membrane.
 The Cell (2021) |3
Cholesterol :

- Present in both outer and inner layer of phospholipids.

- It is responsible for the structural stability of cell membrane.

\
Integral memb. proteins
Membrane proteins
Peripheral memb.

- It help in Stabilization of the cell membrane.

- They are of 2 types: Integral & peripheral.
-

Integral memb. proteins : (intrinsic)

• Are imbedded in the lipid bilayer.

Transmembrane Protein:
Act as:
• Most numerous type. • Receptors : e.g. hormone receptors
• Extend across both lipid layers • Carrier proteins

They act as:

❖ Carrier proteins which may perform passive or active transport

.
❖ Channels passive transport. For small water soluble molecules

❖ Pump active transport e.g. ion pumps or Na-K pump

 The Cell (2021) |4
Peripheral memb. proteins : (extrinsic)

o Not embedded in the lipid layers.

o Loosely bound on the inner & outer surfaces of the cell membrane.
o [more on the inner surface]
o Usually act as support for the cytoskeleton.

Carbohydrates :
Composed of oligosaccharide chains that may attach to:

▪ Glycolipids & glycoproteins

Glycolipids & glycoproteins project from the outer cell surface to form

Cell Coat = Glycocalyx

Cell Coat
o Glycoprotein & glycolipids coat on the outer surface of the cell membrane.
o With L.M. : stained with PAS stain.

Functions of cell coat:

✓ Cellular adhesion.
✓ Cell recognition (cell antigenicity)
✓ Receptor formation
✓ Formation of basement membrane.

Functions of cell membrane:

1. Preservation of the cell integrity.

2. Exchange of substances between the cell and its surrounding by several
ways:
a. Diffusion.
b. Active transport: Sodium pump
c. Selective transport
3. Endocytosis
- Phagoctosis particulate (hard substances)
- Pinocytosis – pinocytic vesicles
- Receptor mediated
4. Functions of cell coat ……
 The Cell (2021) |5

2- MITOCHONDRIA
♣ Definition:

Membranous organelle
It is the power house of the cell.

♣ Site: very neumerous in active cells e.g. liver c

That need high energy requirements.

o Iron HX. Or Silver stain (not well seen by Hx E ).

♣ L.M.:
o Supravital Stain : Janus Green B
Stained with o Phase contrast microscope

oval or elongated 0.5-1 x 5-10 um [the largest organelle]

♣ E.M: (structure):

2 unit membranes.

Outer: Smooth
Inner: has shelf like folds called
Cristae

- Cristae are tubular in shape in steroid forming cells.

- Cristea carry enzymes of oxidative phosphorylation → form ATP

Mitochondrial matrix:

Contains:

 enzymes of kreb`s cycle & fatty acid oxidation

 Ribosomes, RNA, mitochondrial DNA .
 Matrix granules rich with calcium [mitochondrial granules].
 The Cell (2021) |6

N.B:
- matrix contains kreb`s cycle enzymes.
- Cristea carries oxidative phosphorylation enzymes.
♣ function:

o Energy production :formation of ATP through phosporylatin of ADP

o Have role in calcium metabolism.
o In steroid forming cells : mitochondria contain enzymes for steroids formation

(N.B: in some mitochondria the enzyme ATP synthetase is replaced by thermogenin enzyme to produce heat)

Structure function relationship:

o Mitochondria lie close to the part of the cell having the highest energy requirement
[e.g. cilia at apex of ciliated cells & basal region in ion transporting cells]
o Number of cristea increase if more ATP is needed
o Mitochondria originate by fission ‫ تنقسم‬, its life span is about 10 days.
o Cells rich in mitochondria usualy have acidophilic cytoplasm.
o Mitochondria change shape, move & grow
 The Cell (2021) |7

3- Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (sER)

♣ Definition: membranous organelle
♣ L.M.: not seen by light microscope.
♣ Site:
Liver Cells
numerous in:
Steroid Forming Cells
e.g. adrenal cortex

Muscle Cells
♣ E.M.:
➢ Branching & anastomosing tubules.
➢ continuous with rER.
➢ Not studded with ribosomes.
♣ Function:
o Lipid metabolism (Glycogen formation)
o Glycogen synthesis in liver & muscle
o Detoxification of drugs e.g. barbiturates ‫دواء للصرع‬
o Calcium regulation

4- Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (rER)

♣ Definition: membranous organelle
♣ Site: In cells secreting proteins e.g. fibroblasts, osteoblast &plasma cells…….
♣ L.M.: Its site appears as areas of
Localized Basophilia.
♣ E.M:
o with each other.
o Continuous with sER & outer nuclear membrane.
o Its outer cytoplasmic surface is studded with ribosomes.

♣ Functions: Protein synthesis

nucleus
Formation of:

1- Secretory proteins.
2- Lysosomal enzymes.
3- Integral membrane proteins.
rER
These products are packed in (transfer vesicles) then rough endoplasmic reticulum
transported to Golgi apparatus to be modified)
 The Cell (2021) |8

5- Golgi apparatus
♣ Definition: membranous organelle
♣ Site:
• Numerous in protein secreting cells:

♣ L.M.: Not stained with H&E. Stained with silver stain.

o In H&X stained sections, the site of Golgi apparatus  appear as unstained area
This occurs in
Negative Golgi Image
Plasma Cells & Osteoblast

♣ E.M:

1- Golgi saccules:
• 3- 10 Saucer shaped flattened cisternae.
• Arranged in stack ‫صف‬

The stack has: Cis face

Bottom Immature convex face.

Top Mature concave face. Trans face

Golgi is a polar organelle

2- Transfere Vesicles:

o Small vesicles Transfere secretory proteins from rER to Cis face of Golgi apparatus.
o Also transfere proteins from Golgi cistrerne to another.

3- Secretory Vesicles:

o Arise from trans face of Golgi by budding.

o Released At cell surface by exocytosis.
 The Cell (2021) |9
♣ Functions:
o Modification of secretory proteins:
sulphation , glycosylation & lipoprotein formation.
o Sorting & Packaging of secretory products:
 Secretory proteins  Secretory vesicles.
 Hydrolytic enzymes  Lysosomes.
o Distribution & recycling of membrane proteins

Endocytosis ‫بلعمه‬
It is ingestion ‫ بلع‬of substances from outside the cell into the cytoplasm in a membranous vesicle.
TYPES:
1. Phagocytosis:
o cell engulfs solid particles within a vesicle  phagocytic vesicle or phagosome.
o done by specialized [phagocytic] cells e.g. neutrophils and monocytes.
2. Pinocytosis:
o cell engulfs extra-cellular fluid  pinocytic vesicle.
o Done by most of the body cells
3. Receptor mediated endocytosis:
selective uptake of certain molecules (ligand e.g. hormones & lipoproteins) by receptors in the cell
membrane. formation of coated vesicle .

Coated vesicle is surrounded by a coat of cytoplasmic protein (Clathrin coat)

coated vesicle fuses with (ENDOSOME) before going to lysosomes.
 The Cell (2021) | 10

6- Lysosomes:
♣ Definition:
✓ Membranous organelles
✓ Contain hydrolytic enzymes [e.g. acid hydrolases] ‫انزيمات محـلّلــه‬
separating it from the cytosol.

♣ Site:
o More numerous in phagocytic cells. [macrophages] ‫خــاليا بــالعــه كــبـرى‬
o Lysosomes present in all cells except RBCs.
♣ L.M:
Acid phosphatase technique
o Not stained by H & E.
o Demonstrated by (Histochemical method)

♣ E.M:
 Spherical membrane bound vesicles , with variable electron density.
 Originate by budding from the Trans face of Golgi complex
 Primary lysosomes have homogenous electron dense content
 Secondary lysosomes have heterogenous electron dense content

♣ Types of lysosomes: ‫هـــامه‬

1 -Primary lysosomes ➔ recently formed and don’t contain digested material.

2 -Secondary lysosomes: fuse with ‫يندمج مع‬
a. Phagosome (particulate) ➔ heterolysosome
b. autophagic vacuole (old nonfunctioning organelles) ➔ autophagolysosome
c. pinocytotic vesicle (Fluid)
3-Residual body➔ lysosome with undigested particles are retained in it
 The Cell (2021) | 11

Residual bodies:
Membrane bound vesicles containing the indigested materials.

Fate of residual bodies :

o Exocytosed or.
o Accumulate in long lived cells [e.g. nerve cells & cardiac muscles]
golden yellow pigment. 
Lipofuscin Pigment.

♣ Function of lysosome:
o Intracellular digestion
o Postmortem Cellular degradation ‫تحلّل الخاليا بعد الموت‬
o

7- Peroxisomes:
♣ Definition:
Membranous organelles
♣ Site: [more in kidney & liver cells] ‫اماكن تخلّص الجسم من االدويه‬

♣ L.M: : histo-chemical staining. [for catalase enz.]

♣ E.M:
Rounded or ovoid vesicles with central electron dense core ‫قلب‬
Contain: peroxidase & catalase enzymes
present near sER.
Originate by division (fission) from preexisting peroxisomes.

♣ Function: kills microorganisms.

o Formation of hydrogen peroxide H2O2
o Detoxification of some drugs & molecules . e g. ethanol
o B-oxidation of fatty acids.

Excess H2O2 is degraded by Catalase enz.

Peroxisome & mitochondria:

o both originate by fission & have enzymes of B oxidation of fatty acids

o life span of peroxisome 5 days while mitochondria 10 days
 The Cell (2021) | 12

8- Ribosomes:
♣ Definition: Non membranous organelles.
♣ Site: free ribosomes: in dividing cells
Attached ribosomes (rER) : in protein secreting cells

♣ L.M.: Stain with Hx (basophilic).

N.B: Polyribosomes (Polysomes):
cells rich in ribosomes show Basophilic cytoplasm.
groups of ribosomes reading the same messenger RNA (mRNA).

- basophilia in cytoplasm changes according to the arrangement of Ribosomes.

Diffuse Basophilia: caused by Free Ribosomes
Localized basoph ilia: caused by attached ribosomes (to rER)
Spotty basophilia: caused by polysomes e.g. Nissle Granules in nerve cells

♣ L.M:
Appear as electron dense granules.
Each ribosome consists of 2 subunits. Small subunit & large subunit.
Each subunit is formed of Ribonuclo-protein.
Ribosomes are formed in the Nucleolus.

♣ Function:
Synthesis of proteins.
Free ribosomes cytoplasmic proteins.
Attached ribosomes
secretory proteins
lysosomal enzymes
membrane proteins.
 The Cell (2021) | 13

Cytoskeleton:
Structural meshwork  maintain the cell shape

Formed of :
1- Microtubules
2- Filaments : intermediate filaments & thin filaments.

N.B:
the general function of microtubules & filaments is:
- Cellular support
- Intracellular transport.

9- Filaments:
Nonmembranous thread like structures

Have 3 types:

Thin filaments (Microfilaments):

Also called Actin Filaments 6- 7nm

Function:

✓ supportive function.

➢ Form a supportive network below cell membrane called: cell cortex or terminal web
‫علشان تحميه‬
➢ Form Core of microvilli [‫]اصابع غير متحركه على سطح الخليه لزيادة مساحة السطح‬

✓ Intracellular transport
Microfilaments [actin filaments] are Polar structures ‫ ليهم اتجاهات‬have + & - ends

➢
 The Cell (2021) | 14

Thick filaments : 14-15nm

Also called Myosin filaments.

✓ Contractile filaments found in muscles.
✓ muscle contraction

Intermediate filaments : 10nm.

- Heterogenous ‫ متنوعه‬group of filaments ‫مختلفة االنواع‬

- Mainly SUPPORTIVE in function.
Include different types:
• Keratofilaments : (keratin filaments): in epithelial cells
• Neurofilaments : in nerve cell.
• Glial filaments: in glial cells (nervous tissue)
• Desmin filaments : in muscle fibers.
• Vimentin filaments:
in vascular smooth muscles & fibroblasts.
• Lamin filaments : form the nuclear support
• Lamin filaments : supporting the inner nuclear envelope.
Functions of filaments:

➢ Together with the microtubules they form the cytoskeleton

➢ Distribution of the tensile forces throughout the cells
ّ
e.g. in smooth muscles and keratinocytes of skin. ..‫توزع قوة الشد‬
➢ They are involved in muscle contraction .
➢ They play a role in cell division. [constriction ring] ‫هناخدها بعدين‬

10- Microtubules
- Non membranous
- tubular structure of supportive function
- its diameter 25 nm
♣ L.M:

• stained by Immuno Histo Chemical staining

Using Florescent anti tubulin antibody

♣ E.M:
o Slender tubular structure of variable length.
o It is formed of small protein units TUBULIN
o Tubulin is arranged into longitudinal rows called
Protofilament
 The Cell (2021) | 15

o The circumference of the completed microtubule is formed of

13 protofilaments

start of microtubule formation occur at special sites in the

cytoplasm called Microtubules Organizaton Centers

MTOC
s
These sites are usually near the centrioles

Functions:

o Cellular support formation of cytoskeleton.

o Intracellular transport of vesicles & macromolecules.
(Through motor proteins. e.g. kinesin & dynein.)
o Formation of Mitotic spindle during cell division.
o Formation of Centrioles, Cilia & Flagella.

Polar structures : ‫ليهم اتجاهات‬

➢ Golgi apparatus.
➢ Microtubules.
➢ Microfilaments [actin filaments]
 The Cell (2021) | 16

11- Centrioles :
♣ Definition: non membranous organelles
♣ Site:
- Most cells contain 1 pair of Centrioles
- Centrioles + the surrounding area  Centrosome
- Usually located near the nucleus & Golgi apparatus
♣ L.M:
• Iron Hx stain
♣ E.M:
Centrioles appear as 2 cylindrical structures
Arranged perpendicular to each other within the centrosome

Each Centriole is made of 9 triplets of microtubules.

Functions:
• Centrosomes [ Centrioles + the surrounding area ]
are considered the MTOCs.
• Formation of mitotic spindle.
• Form the Basal Bodies of Cilia & Flagella.

12- Cilia:
Motile Hair like structure extend from the cell surface e.g. respiratory tract.
May reach about 200-300 cilia on the single cell.
- Each cilium is 5-15 um long & 0.2 um in diameter.
E.M:
- Cilium is formed of :

Intracellular basal portion:  Basal Body

Extending portion:  Shaft or Axoneme.

Basal Body :
• Similar to the Centriole in structure
(9 triplets of microtubules)
 The Cell (2021) | 17

Axoneme or Shaft :
Extend on the apical cell surface

Formed of microtubules

Rootle Filamentous structures that anchor Cilia to cytoskeleton

ts:
Functions:
Rhythmic beating to move film of mucous on the cell surface in one direction.

13- Flagella :
✓ Similar to cilia.
✓ The difference is:
✓ Flagella are longer than cilia (50 um long).
✓ Each cell has only one flagellum e.g. tail of sperm.
 The Cell (2021) | 18

INCLUSIONS
• Non living bodies suspended in the cytoplasm .

They are: Stored food.

Stored Pigment.

Stored food:

GLYCOGEN: FAT Droplets:

L.M: H&E: not stained.

L.M: H&E: not stained.
PAS : purple. or Best's carmine: red
Sudan III: orange in color.
E.M:
E.M.:
Granular appearance of 2 forms:
Large droplets electron dense.
 α Granules: in liver arranged in rosettes
Lipid droplets are not bounded by membrane.
 β Granules: in muscle cells single electron
dense granules.
Glycogen granules are not bounded by a membrane.

Stored Pigment:
Exogenous Pigments:

o Lipochromes: e.g. carotene present in vegitables

o Dust: in respiratory tract cells
o Minerals: silver & lead.
o Tattoo marks.

Endogenous Pigments:
The most numerous
endogenous pigment
▪ Hemoglobin: in RBCs.
▪ Myoglobin: in skeletal muscles.
▪ Melanin pigment: in skin & hair.
▪ Lipofuscin pigment: (aging pigment) golden yellow pigment , in non dividing cells.

The only inclusion that is

bounded by membrane.
 The Cell (2021) | 19
NUCLEUS
▪ DNA is segregated in the nucleus &
▪ Surrounded by nuclear envelope
▪ The nucleus of any cell when not in division is called Interphase nucleus:

Stain: basophilic by H&E Due to nucleic acid.

Shape: variable in shape, may be elongated, ovoid or flat.

Site: may be central, eccentric, basal or eccentric.

Number:
o Mononuclear: most body cells.
o Binucleated: liver cells.
o Multinucleated: osteoclasts.
L.M:
Appearance of nucleus varies according to cellular activity.
- Closed face nucleus: Darkly stained in inactive cells.

- Open face (Vesicular) nucleus:

Pale stained in active cells. e.g. liver cells.

Components of nucleus:
1) Nuclear envelope.
2) Chromatin.
3) Nucleolus.
4) Nuclear sap.
 The Cell (2021) | 20
L.M:
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
- Dark basophilic thin line around nucleus.

Due to presence of: - peripheral chromatin on its inner surface &

- Nuclear envelope disappears during cell division & reformed in the new cells.
E.M:
Made of 2 parallel unit membranes with space inbetween

perinuclear space
25 nm
Outer Nuclear Membrane:

o Continuous with the rER. & Studded with ribosomes.

Inner Nuclear Membrane:

o Its inner surface Give attachment for peripheral chromatin

Nuclear Pores:

o The outer & inner nuclear membranes are continuous at the nuclear pores.
o Nuclear pores function:
For exchange of molecules between the nucleus & cytoplasm.

CHROMATIN
• LM: Is a basophilic nuclear material

When packed form chromosomes.

Formed of:
- DNA filaments that coil around histone proteins.

• EM: it appears as 2 types

heterochromatin & euchromatin

 The Cell (2021) | 21

Distribution of Chromatin:
:

• Peripheral chromatin :
Attached to the inner surface of the nuclear envelope).

• Nucleolus associated chromatin .

• Chromatin islands : scattered in the nuclear sap.

NUCLEOLUS
Site where rRNA is synthesized and assembled to form ribosomes.

L.M:
o Basophilic with H&E (well seen in open face nuclei)
o Usually the nucleus contains 1 or 2 nuclei.
o More prominent ‫ ظاهره بوضوح‬in protein secretory cells
E.M:

Sponge like network. Contain:

Electron dense area (pars fibrosa and pars granulosa) together
with light areas
 The Cell (2021) | 22
2 electron dense areas :
Pars Fibrosa:

❖ Fine filamentous material formed of rRNA strands.

Pars Granulosa:

❖ Site where rRNA combines with proteins to form ribosomal subunits

❖ Granules represent newly formed ribosomes

DNA Organizer:
Pale areas.

o Contains DNA from which rRNA is encoded

Function of nucleolus :
transcription of ribosomal RNA & formation of ribosomal subunits.

Nuclear Signs of cell death

pyknosis: Nucleus becomes shrunken, Dark & usually eccentric.

Karyorrhrxis: Nucleus is broken up into small fragments.

Karyolysis: Nucleus disappears.

Types of cell death:

Apoptosis:
✓ Automatic single cell death genetically programmed at the end of the cell life span.
Necrosis or Degeneration:
✓ Cell death due to toxins or cell injury.
 The Cell (2021) | 23

CELL CYCLE
It’s the life cycle of the cell

Its divided into 2 Phases:

o Interphase:
o Mitosis: M Phase

Interphase stage
• It is the stage between two mitotic divisions when the cell rest.
• It consists of three phases:
1. G1phase
- It is the first gap (G1) between mitosis & S phase.
- Chromosome number is 46 s- chromosomes
- During this phase the cell grows and proteins &synthesized,

Most body cell are in G1 phase and many cells enter in a prolonged G1
phase and may leave the cell cycle as in non-renewable nerve cells

2. S phase: DNA replication chromosomal duplication (46 d chromosomes)

3. G2 phase
- It is the second gap phase
- Cells prepare for mitosis

(centrioles grow, RNA and proteins are synthesized)

 The Cell (2021) | 24

Mitosis
- It is the process by which the cell divides to give 2 daughter cells similar
to the mother cell.

It includes 4 stages:

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase

1- Prophase: during which:
- Nuclear membrane disappears
- Nucleolus disappears
- Chromatin threads of the chromosomes condense
- Formation of mitotic spindle

2- Metaphase:
-Chromosomes condense more &
appear as 2 chromatin threads attached at the centromere.
-Chromosomes become arranged in the equatorial plane of the cell

3- Anaphase:
-The 2 chromatids of each chromosome separate at the centomere and migrate to the
opposite poles of the cells

4- Telophase:
-Contractile ring is formed and the cell divides in 2 cells; each containing 46s-
chromosomes