ANATOMY: LE ​1​ | TRANS​ 1

1.01A Epithelium and Glands

MELISSA C. CALILAO, MD, DPPS, DPSA | 08/11/2020

` ● Inner leaflet of the bilayer is composed of covalently attached,

OUTLINE hydrophobic fatty acid chains.
I. The Cell VI. Glandular Epithelium
II. Introduction Classifications
III. Junctional Complexes A. Path of release
A. Cell-to-Cell B. Number of cells
Adhesions C. Type of Secretion
B. Cell-to-Extracellular D. Morphology
Matrix Junctions E. Mechanism of
IV.Specializations of the Product Release
Apical Cell Surface VII.Histogenesis of
V. Covering Epithelium Epithelium
A. Simple Epithelium VIII. Epithelial Cell Renewal
B. Stratified Epithelium IX. Review Quiz
X. References
XI. Appendix

❗ 📣 📖 📋
Remember Lecturer Book Previous Trans
​

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Figure 1. ​Structure of the lipid bilayer​[Alberts et al. 6th ed]
• To be able to distinguish the specific types of epithelial
tissue shown to them by differentiating its characteristics,
morphology, and functions.

I. THE CELL
A. CELL STRUCTURES

Nucleus
● Stores and processes genetic information
● Composed of:
→ Chromosomes
▪ Chromatin
▪ Usually directed towards the exterior/lumen
− DNA and DNA-binding proteins
− Chromosomal DNA carries the genetic information
encoding cellular RNA and protein molecules
→ Nuclear Membrane
▪ Separates nuclear contents from cytoplasm
▪ Equipped with complex protein pores which allow
movement of molecules between the nucleus and Figure 2.​ Structure of a typical phospholipid​[Alberts et al. 6th ed]
cytoplasm Cytoskeleton
→ Nucleoli
▪ Synthesis of ribosomal RNA ● Comprised of networks of filamentous proteins responsible for
the special organization of cytosolic components
Lipid Bilayer ● Membrane bound organelles (i.e. mitochondria) are loosely
● A thin, polar, lipid membrane that contains two layers of trapped by the cytoskeleton.
phospholipids that composes the cell membrane ● Supports and maintains the shape of the cell
● Composed of amphiphilic phospholipids with a hydrophilic ● Allows for movement within the cell
phosphate head and a hydrophobic tail that consists of two ● Composed of:
fatty acid chains. → Microfilaments
● Outer leaflet of the lipid bilayer is composed of ​sphingolipids ▪ Contractile protein filaments
and phosphatidylcholine​ – single lipid rich rafts raised ▪ Function in muscle contraction and other cellular
above the rest of the leaflet recruit specific membrane movements
proteins. ▪ The actin network (composed of microfilaments) is a
→ Raft rigidity is caused by tight packing of cholesterol dynamic structure with continuous directional
molecules against straight sphingolipids hydrocarbon polymerization and disassembly
chains. − Inside microvilli, actin filaments form tight parallel
→ Outside the rafts, kinks in unsaturated hydrocarbon chains bundle, which are stabilized by cross linking proteins
and lower cholesterol concentration result in increased
fluidity.

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 → Microtubules Table 1.​ Characteristics of the four tissue types
▪ Composed of the protein tubulin Tissue Cells Extracellular Main Functions
▪ Movement chromosomes during cell division Matrix
▪ Larger diameter than microfilaments
▪ Microtubules originate from the centrosome Epithelial Aggregated Small Lining of
− Centrosome: a discrete fibrous structure containing polyhedral surface or
two orthogonal centrioles located near the cell body cavities;
nucleus. glandular
→ Intermediate filaments secretion
▪ Larger than microfilaments but smaller than
microtubules Connective Several types Abundant Support and
▪ Composition and arrangement depend of the cell type in of fixed and protection of
which they are found wandering tissues/organ
▪ Resist cell stretching and help to hold adjacent cells
together
● Includes a network of microtubules, created by lateral Muscle Elongated Moderate Strong
association of protofilaments and formed by the contractile contraction;
polymerization of tubulin dimers. body
● Provides tracks which membrane-bound vesicles travel to and movements
from and the plasma membrane.
● The directional movement of the cargo vesicles is due to a Nervous Elongated cells Very small Transmission
family of motor proteins linking vesicles and microtubules. with extremely of nerve
fine processes impulses
Endoplasmic Reticulum
● Network of membranous channels extending through
cytoplasm
→ Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
▪ Membranes studded with ribosomes
▪ Functions in protein synthesis
→ Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
▪ No ribosomes
▪ Functions in lipid synthesis
● Protein glycosylation initiated in the endoplasmic reticulum is
completed inside the lumen of the Golgi apparatus.
Golgi Apparatus
● Stacks of flattened membranes Figure 3. ​Photomicrograph of the small intestine lining​[Dr. Calilao’s Lecture]
● Functions in modification, packaging, and storage of ER B. FUNCTIONS OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES
products
● Barrier (i.e. epidermis)
● Fully glycosylated proteins are transported from the Golgi
● Protection (i.e. skin, oral mucosa)
apparatus to the plasma membrane.
● Absorption (e.g. intestinal lining; for nutrients & water)
Mitochondria ● Secretion (e.g. parenchymal cells of glands)
● Double membrane organelle → intestinal epithelium that secretes digestive enzymes
● Inner membrane folded into plate-like or fingerlike → respiratory epithelium secretes mucus that traps invading
projections called cristae organisms & particles
● Site of of ATP synthesis ● Lubrication (i.e. abdominal cavity)
● Self-replicating → outermost covering of abdominal organs is called
● Have tiny, circular genome containing DNA that specifies mesothelium - it secretes as small amount of tissue fluid
some proteins of a mitochondrion that prevents friction between the abdominal organs
● Mitochondria change shape continuously and their ● Reproduction
orientation is partly dictated by their interaction with → male and female reproductive tracts are lined by
microtubules epithelium
● Transport (i.e. cells with cilia or ducts)
Ribosomes → epithelial tissue allows small molecules and ions to pass
● Protein synthesis the epithelium on either direction
→

● Some attached to the ER while others are free in the

cytoplasm C. CHARACTERISTICS OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES
Avascular
II. INTRODUCTION ● No blood vessels in the epithelium
● Nutrients and oxygen are provided via diffusion in the
A. OVERVIEW OF TISSUES
extracellular matrix from neighboring blood vessels
● Tissues: a group of cells with similar structures that performs
Exhibits Polarity
a specific function
● Two major components of tissues: ● Polar​: cells have opposite poles/ends
→ Cells ● Epithelial tissues line the internal and external surfaces of
the body
→ Extracellular matrix (ECM)

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 → Apical pole
Differentiating the basement membrane and basal lamina
▪ Opposite end tends to face a space
● Basement membrane ​is visible via ​light microscopy
▪ Usually directed towards the exterior/lumen
● Basal and reticular lamina ​are visible via ​electron
− Most cellular products (i.e. electrolytes and enzymes)
microscopy;​ component of the basement membrane
are concentrated in this area for easy secretion
→ Basal pole
▪ Area of the cell that contains connective tissues and the
ECM
▪ Attached to the basement membrane and basal lamina
− Junctional complexes:​ Attachment to the basement
membrane
− Receptors:​ Receives signals from underlying tissues
▪ A site for proliferation and differentiation
→ Lateral surface
▪ Composed of regions of cuboidal or columnar cells that
connect neighboring cells
▪ Mainly allows communication between epithelial cells
▪ Due to the membrane’s numerous folds, surface area
and functional capacity is increased
Junctional Complexes (more of this at page 4)
● Cell-to-cell junctions
● Cell-to-extracellular matrix junctions

Presence of Basement Membrane and Basal Lamina

● All epithelial cells are attached to a ​basement membrane
→ Basement membrane: A thin extracellular macromolecule
sheet with a felt-like consistency Figure 5.​ Basement membrane found in the epithelia of the kidney​[Junquiera 14th ed]
▪ It is semipermeable filter for substances below the
epithelial cells
▪ Provide structural support for epithelial cells
▪ Epithelia is attached to the connective tissue
underneath
− Cuboidal or pyramidal cells of epithelia:spherical
nuclei
− Squamous epithelial cells: flattened nuclei
→ Major factor in maintaining cellular functions
▪ Examples: endocytosis, cell-to-cell interactions, polarity
maintenance, signal transduction, etc.
→ Connective tissue is the source of nutrition
→ Presence of ​stem cells​ makes it a player in ​epithelial
repair and regeneration
● Parts of a basement membrane (through TEM diagram)
→ Basal Lamina Figure 6. ​Components of the basement membrane​[Junquiera 14th ed]
▪ Sheet-like, electron dense, composed of fine fibrils
Keratin
▪ Composed of ​Type IV collagen
→ Reticular Lamina ● Main intermediate filament of epithelial cells
▪ Thick, fibrous ● Keratin is characteristic of epithelial tissues
▪ Composed of ​Type III collagen III. JUNCTIONAL COMPLEXES
▪ Bound to basal lamina via Type VII collagen anchoring
fibrils
→ Hemidesmosome
▪ anchors cell to the basal lamina

Figure 4. ​Diagram of the structure of the epithelium. Note that the basement
membrane is indicated as the red layer between the epithelium and ECM
Figure 7.​ Junctional Complexes of Epithelial Cell s​[Dr. Calilao’s Lecture]
[Junquiera 14th ed]

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 A. CELL-TO-CELL ADHESIONS because only those who are less than 1.5nm
can pass through
1. Tight/ Occluding Junctions or Zonula Occludens
➔ each has a central hydrophilic core about 1.5 nm in
● Located at the apical portion of the cell
diameter
● “Zonula” means that the junction encircles the entire cell by
● Allows cells to function as a unit and to function together
forming a band​ between adjacent cells
and not individually
● Ensures that the molecules crossing an epithelium are via
● Mediate intercellular communication between adjacent
transcellular pathway​ (going ​through​ the cell) and not via
epithelial cells thru connexons (12 subunits, 6 per each
the paracellular pathway (between cells)
cell)
● Transmembrane proteins​: ​Claudin​ and O ​ ccludin
● Some molecules mediating signal transduction (cyclic
● Restrict movements of membrane lipids and proteins at the
nucleotides and ions) move rapidly through gap junctions,
apical cell surface into the lateral and basal surfaces, and
allowing cells in many tissues to act in coordinated manner
vice versa.
➔ Heart and visceral muscles gap junctions help
● Maintain ​Apical and Basolateral​ membrane domains which
produce rhythmic contractions.
have different receptors and other proteins that will
● Certain type of deafness and Peripheral Neuropathy have
function differently.
been linked from the mutations in various connexin genes
📖
Medical Application: ​ ​ ​[Mescher, 2016]
● The enterotoxin secreted by the ​Clostridium
perfringens​, a bacteria that causes food poisoning,
binds to ​Claudin molecules​ of intestinal cells, preventing
the insertion of these proteins during the maintenance of
tight junctions, and causes loss of tissue fluid into the
intestinal lumen via the paracellular pathway (​between
the cells) causing diarrhea.
● Helicobacter pylori,​ a bacteria that causes gastric
ulcers, binds the ​extracellular domains of tight-junction
proteins​ in cells of the stomach and inserts a protein into
these cells, disrupting the signaling from the junction.

2. Anchoring Junctions
A. Zonula Adherens or Adherens Junction
● Encircle the epithelial cells immediately below the tight
junction
● Anchors cell to its neighbors Figure 8.​ Diagram of a Gap Function
● Transmembrane proteins​: ​Cadherin​ and ​Catenin B. CELL-TO-EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX JUNCTIONS
➔ Cells bind each other in the presence of calcium 1. Hemidesmosome
➔ Cadherin: mediates cell adhesion; calcium-requiring ● “Hemi”-​ half (half of desmosome)
➔ Catenin: links to actin filaments with actin-binding ● Attaches the cells to the basal lamina
proteins, which forms part of the “terminal web”, a ● Transmembrane protein​: ​Integrin
cytoskeletal feature of the apical pole ➔ Binds primarily to laminin molecules in the basal
B. Desmosome or Macula Adherens lamina
● “desmos”​- binding;​ “soma”-​ body (Greek) ➔ Indirectly link to cytokeratin intermediate filaments

📣
● “macula”-​ spot (Latin)
● Does not form a belt around the cell but rather it appears Medical Application: ​
like a “spot-weld” Blistering condition: ​Epidermolysis bullosa​, causes severe
● Disk-shaped structures at the surface of one cell that are pain due to the exposed raw areas of the skin, prone to
matched with identical structures at an adjacent cell infections.
surface

stress ​📣
● Provides stability to cells that are subjective to shearing

● Transmembrane Proteins​: ​Cadherin family

2. Focal Adhesion/ Focal Contact
● Found in cells that are moving during epithelial repair or
reorganization
➔ Desmogleins​ and ​Desmocollins ● Smaller and more numerous than hemidesmosomes

📖
Medical Application:​ ​ [Mescher,
​ 2016]

● Blistering (bullous) diseases, such as​ pemphigus

vulgaris​, are due to abnormal desmosome function
caused by autoimmune reactions against specific
desmogleins that reduce cell-to-cell adhesion.
1. Cilia
3. Gap Junctions/ Nexus/ Communication
● Transmembrane protein: ​Connexins
➔ Form hexameric complexes called ​connexons
- Connexons: aggregated transmembrane protein
complexes that form circular patches in the
plasma membrane; allow small molecules and
nutrients to pass selectively through them,
● Important in migrating fibroblasts (non epithelial cells)
● Transmembrane protein​: ​Integrin
➔ Indirectly linked to bundled actin filaments
➔ Linked via paxillin to focal adhesion kinase
IV. SPECIALIZATIONS OF THE APICAL CELL SURFACE
● Long motile structures made up of a uniform core of
microtubules, attached to basal bodies at the apical
portions of the cell
● Highly motile apical structures containing internal arrays of
microtubules
● Longer than microvilli
● Abundant on cuboidal or columnar cells of many epithelia

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 ● Primary cilium is a short projection that is not motile but is
enriched with receptors and signal transduction complexes
for light detection, odors, motion and flow of liquid past the
cells
● Axoneme​ is the core protein structure
➔ 9 + 2 assembly of microtubules (2 central microtubules
surrounded by 9 peripheral microtubular doublets
associated with other proteins)
➔ each doublet consists of of microtubules A and B
● Microtubule A​: consists of 13 protofilaments
(complete)
● Microtubule B​: shares some of A’s protofilament
heterodimers (incomplete)
➔ continuous with a basal body located in the apical
cytoplasm
● Basal body​: consists of 9 short microtubular
triplets linked together in a pinwheel-like
Figure 10.​Epithelial cells lining the respiratory tract under (a) Light microscope
arrangement with no central microtubules (b)SEM and (c) TEM
● Ciliary motion occurs through successive changes in the 2. Microvilli
shape of axoneme ● Microscopic fingerlike projections
➔complexes with ​Axonemal dynein ● Non-motile
● bound to microtubule A, with each pair extended ● Usually of uniform length; shorter and smaller than cilia
toward microtubule B of the next doublet ● Functions of Microvilli:
● In using ATP as its energy source, it allows the ➔Intestinal lining​: Increases surface area of the cell for
beating or swaying motion of cilia absorption​; visible as a brush or striated border because
● Functions of Cilia: it is densely packed
➔Respiratory tract​: - Brush border​: layer of microvilli with irregular height
◆Sweep or move fluids, cells, or particulate matter and width
across cell surfaces - Striated border​: layer of microvilli with the same
◆ Rid the air passages of particulate matter or mucus height and width; light pink stain
➔Oviduct​: Moves eggs and sperms along the passageway ➔Proximal Convoluted Tubule​: reabsorption of
➔Testes​: Move mature sperm into the epididymis for substances such as glucose and amino acids
storage ● Core Protein: ​Actin Filaments

📖
Medical Application: ​ ​ ​[Mescher, 2016]
● Mutations of cilia and flagella are responsible for the
➔rest on a dense intermediate filament-rich network called
the keratin
➔extend and connect to the terminal web
immotile cilia syndrome (Kartagener Syndrome)​ and
immotile spermatozoa​, causing infertility. ​ 📖
Medical Application: ​ ​ [Mescher, 2016]

● Celiac Disease​, also called ​gluten-sensitive

enteropathy​ or s​ prue​, is a disorder of the small
intestine in which one of the first pathologic changes is
loss of the microvilli brush border of the absorptive
cells.

Figure 9.​ Ciliary Axoneme

Figure 11.​ Absorptive cells of the microvilli lining the small intestines under (a)
high magnification light microscope (b)SEM and (c)TEM

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 4. Flagella

📣
● Long, reflex structures made up of microtubules and are
related to sperm cells ​
VI. COVERING EPITHELIUM
Classifications:
● According to number of layers:
▪ Simple - single layer of cell
▪ Stratified - two or more layers of cell
● According to morphology / cell shape:
→ Shape of cells in the most superficial layer
▪ Squamous - thin, flattened cells
▪ Cuboidal- cell width and thickness are the same
Figure 12.​ Small intestine: ileum with lymphatic nodules (cube/round)
▪ Columnar - cell height is greater than their width
▪ Transitional
▪

A. SIMPLE EPITHELIA

Figure 15​. Types of Simple Epithelia ​[Cui, 2011]

1. Simple Squamous Epithelium

● Single layer of flattened cells
● Nuclei are also flattened
● Looks like fish scales
● Squama​ (Latin) = scale

Figure 13.​ Kidney: cortex, medulla, pyramid, renal papilla, and minor calyx
3. Stereocilia
● Increases the cells’ surface area, facilitating absorption
● Related to microvilli, not to cilia Figure 16. ​Simple squamous epithelium [Mescher,
​ 2016 ]
● Much longer and less motile than microvilli, and may show
branching distally
● Non-motile
● Found only at the epididymis ​(absorption of fluid) and
inner ear sensory cells ​(mechanoreceptors)

📋
● Main function: Concentrate the contents of an organ or
lumen ​ ​ [2022A]
​

Figure 17. ​Simple squamous epithelium: Outer wall of the intestine

● Functions:
→ Reduces friction between visceral organs by producing
lubricating fluid (in peritoneal cavity)
→ Transports fluids (in peritoneal cavity)
→ Passive transport of fluids, nutrients, and metabolites
across the thin capillary walls (in cardiovascular system)
→ Provides efficient gas exchange or transport between the
thin walled capillaries and the alveoli (in the lungs)
● Found in:
→ Mesothelium (lining of the peritoneal cavity, pericardium,
pleura), Endothelium (lining of blood vessels and
Figure 14.​ Pseudostratified columnar epithelium with stereocilia: epididymis lymphatic vessels), lining of thin renal loops of Henle,

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 outer wall of the intestine, lining of inner surface of the → Secretion of protective mucus (for stomach lining)
cornea, lining of alveoli of the lungs ● Found in:
2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium → Digestive organs (stomach, small and large intestines,
● Single layer of round cells; the cells are tall as they are wide and gallbladder), renal collecting duct, oviducts (fallopian
● Some cuboidal cells have long and abundant Microvilli, tubes), ductuli efferentes testis
which form a ​brush border (or striated border) on their
If asked to classify:
apical surfaces ​ [Cui,
​ 2011]
Be as specific as possible at what is shown e.g. “simple
columnar epithelium with microvilli” instead of “simple
columnar epithelium” or “pseudostratified columnar ciliated
epithelium with goblet cells” instead of “pseudostratified
columnar ciliated epithelium” only.

4. Pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium

● Only appears to be multilayer but it’s just as single layer of
Figure 18. ​Simple cuboidal epithelium
non-uniform cells that vary in height and shape
● Tall, irregular cells are attached to the basement membrane
but their nuclei are at different levels and not all cells are
extended to the surface

Figure 19. ​Renal Collecting Tubule

● Functions:
→ Lining
→ Protection
→ Transport
→ Absorption of filtered substances (in the kidneys) Figure 22. ​Pseudostratified columnar epithelium [Mescher,
​ 2016 ]

→ Active secretion of substances into the filtrate

● Found in:
→ Renal connecting tubules, periphery of the thyroid follicle,
germinal epithelium (covering of the ovary)
3. Simple Columnar Epithelium
● Single layer of tall cells resting on the basement membrane;
taller than they are wide
● With apical surface modifications: ​Microvilli or ​Cilia ​(for
absorption)

Figure 23. ​Pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium: trachea

● Functions: ​ [Mescher,
​ 2016 ]

→ Protection
→ Secretion
→ Cilia-mediated transport of particles
● Found in:
→ Respiratory passages​ (trachea, upper respiratory tract)
Figure 20. ​Simple columnar epithelium [Mescher,
​ 2016 ]
Often referred as Respiratory Epithelium because it is found in

📖
the linings of the respiratory tract, including the nasal cavity,
trachea, and primary bronchi.​ ​ ​ [Cui,
​ 2011 ]

B. STRATIFIED EPITHELIA

If asked to classify:
We look at the topmost layer cells, not the basal portion.

1. Stratified squamous nonkeratinized (wet type) epithelium

● No keratin at the top most layer; contains live superficial cell
​
layer [Eroschencko, 2008 ]

Figure 21​. Simple columnar epithelium: surface of stomach [Eroschencko,

​ 2008 ] ● Surface cells are nucleated

● Functions:
→ Absorption of nutrients (small intestine)
→ Protection
→ Lubrication

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 ● Functions:
→ Prevent dehydration
→ Protection against abrasion, bacterial invasion, and
​
desiccation [Eroschencko, 2008 ]

● Found in:
→ Epidermis of the skin
When asked to identify the organ:
● Thick skin (found on palms and soles)
→ Stratum corneum is very thick
● Thin skin
→ Stratum corneum is thin
Figure 24​. Types of stratified epithelium ​[Cui, 2011]
→ Most of the time with hair follicles
3. Stratified cuboidal epithelium
● Several layers of cuboidal cells; not that common

Figure 25​. Stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium: esophagus

[Eroschencko, 2008 ]

● Functions: ​[Mescher, 2016]

→ Protection Figure 28​. Stratified cuboidal epithelium: excretory duct in salivary gland
→ Secretion [Eroschencko, 2008 ]

→ Prevents water loss ● Functions:

● Found in: → Protection
→ Moist cavities (Oral mucosa, esophagus, pharynx, → Secretion
vagina, cervix, anal canal) because they are often subject ● Found in:
to friction, thus need protection → Ducts of sweat glands, developing ovarian follicles, large
→ Found in areas where water loss is not a problem ​[Mescher, excretory ducts
2016 ]
4. Stratified columnar epithelium
2. Stratified squamous keratinized (dry type) epithelium ● Several layers of tall cells; not that common
● With keratin filaments at the top most layer; contains dead
​
superficial cell layer [Eroschencko, 2008 ]

Figure 26​. Stratified squamous keratinized epithelium: palm of hand (thick

skin) [Eroschencko,
​ 2008 ]
Figure 29​. Stratified columnar epithelium: parotid gland [Slomianka,
​ 2000 ]

● Functions:
→ Protection
→ Mucus secretion
● Found in:
→ Conjunctiva lining of the eyelids, largest ducts of exocrine
glands, anorectal junction
5. Transitional epithelium / Urothelium
● Found only in mammals
● Cells change shape in response to stretching and relaxing
[Cui, 2011 ]

● Umbrella cells​ - large, dome-like cells

● When ​relaxed/unstretched​: epithelium will appear
Figure 27​. Stratified squamous keratinized epithelium (thin skin) [Eroschencko,
​
2008 ]
dome-shaped
● When ​stretched​: epithelium appears squamous

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 Figure 30.​ Transitional epithelium: unstretched/relaxed bladder [Eroschencko,
​ 2008]

Figure 31.​ Formation of glands from covering epithelia [Junqueira 14th ed]

Figure 26​.Transitional epithelium: stretched bladder [Eroschencko,

​ 2008]

● Functions: ​ ​[Mescher, 2016]

→ Protection from hypertonic and potentially cytotoxic
effects of urine
→ Distends as the urinary bladder is filled
● Found in:
→ Urinary tract (kidneys to proximal part of the urethra,
which includes, bladder, ureters, renal calyces)

● Cilia
​ 📖
According to apical / free surface modification: ​ ​ [Eroschencko, 2008]

→ motile structures
→ found on: uterine tubes, uterus, and conducting tubes of
respiratory system
● Microvilli
→ small, nonmotile projections
Figure 32.​ General Structure of an exocrine duct [Junqueira 14th ed]
→ for absorption
→ cover all absorptive cells in the small intestine and A. BASED ON PATH OF RELEASE
proximal convoluted tubules in the kidney
1. Endocrine
● Stereocilia
● Do not have ducts
→ long, nonmotile, branched microvilli
● Product of secretion is brought to the target organ via
→ for absorption
blood circulation
→ cover the cells in the epididymis and vas deferens
→ Highly vascularized
VI. GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM → Surrounded by rich capillary networks
● Formed from covering epithelia during fetal development: ● Target cell is far
→ Proliferation of epithelial tissues →Invagination into the 2. Exocrine
underlying connective tissues → Creation of the secretory ● Product of secretion is brought to the target organ via
portion and duct ducts
● Exocrine glands: ​remain connected with the surface ● Target cell is nearby
epithelium via ducts, forming tubular ducts B. BASED ON NUMBER OF CELLS
→ Secrete products into ducts
● Endocrine glands: ​lose the connection to their original 1. Unicellular
surface epithelium and lack ducts ● Rare
→ Deliver secretory products into the bloodstream ● Only one cell makes up the gland
(circulatory system) ● Example: ​Goblet​ ​Cells
● Two major parts of Exocrine Glands: → Mucus-secreting glands found in the epithelia of the
→ Duct​: conducting part small and large intestines and respiratory passages
→ Acinus​: secretory part (at the apex) 2. Multicellular
● Cells that mostly compose the gland
● Characterized by a secretory portion and a ductal portion
→ Secretory​ ​portion​: end piece where the epithelial cells
secrete a product
→ Ductal portion:​ through which the secretion is delivered
to the exterior of the gland

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 C. BASED ON THE TYPE OF SECRETION
1. Serous Glands
● Secretory portions is made up of ​serous cells
→ Pyramidal with a broad base
→ Rounded nuclei with basophilic cytoplasm due to
several rough endoplasmic reticulum
→ Usually forms spherical mass of cells with lumen in the
center (acinus or alveolus)
→ Granular because the secretory vesicles are located at
the apical portion
→ Basal portion has rough endoplasmic reticulum
→ Examples: acini of the pancreas and parotid salivary
glands
→ Acinus pertaining to shape means that it is sac-like;
acinus pertain to part of the gland: secretory portion of
the gland

Figure 35.​ Ductal System [Junqueira 14th ed]

📣   ​Secretions coming from serous and mucous cells are brought

to the exterior by the myoepithelial cells. These are cells made of
muscle tissue, they encircle the serous and mucous cells and
interior portions of the duct and help propel the secretions to the
exterior via the duct. The initial duct is called the intercalated
duct. On cross section,the intercalated duct is made of - simple
cuboidal epithelium. Several of these intercalated ducts would
join to form, the secretions of these intercalated ducts would be
brought to larger ducts called the striated ducts. Striated ducts
Figure 33.​ Serous Cells [Junqueira 14th ed] are named as such because on cross-section, we see presence
2. Mucous Glands of striations at the basal third of the cell. These striations are
● Secretory portions is made up of ​mucous cells brought about by infoldings of plasma membrane together with
→ Cuboidal to columnar elongated mitochondria interspersed in between the infolded
→ Oval nuclei pressed toward the bases of cells due to the membranes. Easy to recognize during histologic preparations.
mucous From the striated ducts, products of the glands are brought to
→ Elongated due to the accumulation of heavily the intralobular ducts to the interlobular ducts.
glycosylated proteins called ​mucins D. BASED ON MORPHOLOGY
→ No such thing as a purely mucous cell ​ imple
1. S
▪ There are ​mixed ​glands which contain both mucous ● Ducts that do not branch, which may be straight or coiled
and serous cells ● Simple Tubular
→ Often organized as tubules → Elongated secretory portion, duct usually short or
→ Has a ​serous​ ​demilune​ which secretes lysozyme absent
→ Examples: goblet cells → Examples: Mucous glands of the colon; Intestinal glands
(crypts of Lieberkuhn)

Figure 36.​ Unbranched simple tubular exocrine glands: intestinal glands

● Simple Branched Tubular
→ Several tubular secretory portions joining to drain into 1
duct
→ Examples: Glands in the uterus, gastric glands in the
stomach
Figure 34.​ Mucous Cells [Junqueira 14th ed]

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 Figure 37.​ Simple branched tubular exocrine gland: gastric glands
● Simple Coiled Tubular Figure 40.​ Compound acinar exocrine gland: active mammary gland
→ Secretory portion is very long and coiled ● Compound Tubuloacinar
→ Example: Sweat gland → Ducts of both tubular and acinar secretory units
converge at larger ducts
→ If it’s a mixed gland that has both mucous cells that is
seen as tubular structures and serous cells that are
usually seen as sac-like structures, it is automatically
classified as compound tubuloacinar glands.
→ Example: Salivary glands

Figure 38.​ Coiled tubular exocrine glands: sweat glands

● Simple Acinar/Alveolar
→ Rounded, saclike secretory portion
→ Examples: Small mucous glands along the urethra Figure 41.​ Compound tubuloacinar (exocrine) gland: salivary gland
● Simple Branched Acinar E. BASED ON MECHANISM OF PRODUCT
→ Multiple saclike secretory parts entering the same duct RELEASE/GLAND-CELL PRODUCTION
→ Examples: Sebaceous glands of the skin 1. ​Merocrine
2. Compound ● Product is secreted via exocytosis at the apical end of the
● Ducts from several secretory units converge into larger secretory cells
ducts ● Most exocrine glands are merocrine
● Compound Tubular ● The most common method of protein or glycoprotein
→ Several ​elongated​ coiled secretory units and their ducts ● Example: Salivary glands
converge to form larger ducts
→ Example: Submucosal glands of Brunner in the
duodenum (first part of the small intestine)
● Compound Acinar/Alveolar
→ Several ​sac-like ​secretory units with small ducts
converge into a larger duct
→ Example: Exocrine pancreas, mammary gland

Figure 42.​ Merocrine sweat gland

2. Holocrine
● Secretion is produced by the disintegration of the secretory
cells themselves as they complete their differentiation
● Examples: Sebaceous glands
3. Apocrine
Figure 39.​ Compound acinar exocrine gland: mammary gland ● Secretion involves loss of membrane-enclosed apical
cytoplasm
● Apical portion of the cell is pinched off together with the
product of the secretion and seen as lipid droplets
● Example: Mammary gland

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 → Thyroid, parathyroid, and thymus glands epithelial
components
→ Lining epithelium of the tympanic cavity and eustachian
tube
VIII. EPITHELIAL CELL RENEWAL
(Not included in exams)
● Since epithelial cells are constantly exposed to potentially
harmful conditions, cells need to self renew.
1. Small intestine= 4-6 days
2. Epidermis= 28 days
III. REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Identify the pointed structures

Figure 43.​ Holocrine sebaceous gland

2. Classify the bracketed tissue

Figure 44.​ Apocrine secretion in the mammary gland

3. a. Classify the bracketed tissue

b. Identify whole organ
Figure 45.​ Mechanisms of exocrine gland excretion

VII. HISTOGENESIS OF EPITHELIUM

(Not included in exams)
● Ectodermal Derivatives
→ Epidermis
→ Cornea, lens epithelia
→ Components of the inner ear
→ Adenohypophysis
● Mesodermal Derivatives
→ Epithelium of kidney and gonads
→ Mesothelium
→ Endothelium
→ Adrenal Cortex
→ Seminiferous and genital duct epithelium
● Endodermal Derivatives
→ Respiratory system epithelium
→ Alimentary canal epithelium
→ Extramural digestive gland epithelium

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 4. Identify the pointed structures 8. Classify according to morphology
a. Blue arrow
b. Yellow arrow

9. Which of the following cellular features is used in

5. Identify the bracketed tissue naming types of epithelia?
a) Shape of cells in the basal layer
b) Number of cell layers
c) Presence of a basal lamina
d) Size of the nuclei
e) Nature of the cell junctions that are present

10. Exocrine glands in which the acini all produce a

secretion of heavily glycosylated, hydrophilic proteins
are an example of which type of gland?
a) Serous gland
b) Mixed gland
c) Mucous gland
d) Tubuloacinar gland
6. Classify the bracketed tissue e) Simple gland

TRUE or FALSE
11. The basal lamina is a thin sheet of macromolecules that
can be appreciated using light microscopy.

12. Microvilli are long, motile, structures with a core of

uniformly arranged microtubules.

13. A tissue made up of several layers whose surface is

composed of dome-shaped cells is classified as
Transitional Epithelium.

14. The zonula adherens are disc-shaped cell junctions that

provide stability to cells subject to shearing stresses.
7. Classify the bracketed tissue
15. Cells of the secretory units of glands with pale-staining
cytoplasm, nuclei which appear to be pushed against the
basal cell membrane, and often arranged as tubules are
serous cells​.

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 Answers:
1. Simple squamous epithelium
2. Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells
3. a. Stratified squamous epithelium keratinized/ dry type
b. Thin skin
4. a. Cilia
b. Basement membrane
5. Transitional epithelium (relaxed but no need to mention if relaxed
or distended))
6. Simple cuboidal epithelium (with microvilli or brush border or
striated border)
7. Stratified squamous epithelium non-keratinized/ wet type
8. Simple coiled tubular
9. B
10. C
11. False
12. False
13. True
14. False
15. False

V. REFERENCES
● Mescher, A. L., & Junqueira, L. C. U. (2016). ​Junqueira's basic histology:
Text and atlas​. (14th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
● Eroschencko, V. P., & Fiore, M. S. H. (2008). ​Di Fiore’s atlas of histology
with functional correlations. (11th ed.). Wolsters Kluwer Health/Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins.
● Eroschencko, V. P. (2013). ​Di Fiore’s atlas of histology with functional
correlations.​ (12th ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
● Cui, D., 2011. ​Atlas of Histology. ​(1st ed.). Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins
● Slomianka, L. (2000). Blue histology - Epithelia and glands. SITES D’
HISTOLOGIE SUR LE
WEB.https;//lecannabiculteur.free.fr/SITES/UNIV%20W.AUSTRALIA/mb14
0/CorePages/Epithelia/Epithel.htm#laboeso
● Alberts, B., Johnson, A., Lewis, J., Morgan, D., Raff, M., Roberts, K., &
Walters, P. (2014). ​Molecular Biology of the Cell.​ (6th ed.). Garland
Science.
● Dr. Calilao. ​Epithelium and Glands. ​[Lecture Slides]
● 2022A Epithelium and Glands Trans
● 2023A Epithelium and Glands Trans

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 VI. APPENDIX

Figure 46. ​Epithelial Cell Junctions, their major structural features and functions, and medical significance [Mescher,
​ 2016]

FIgure 47. ​Common types of covering epithelia and their functions [Mescher,
​ 2016]

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 Figure 48. ​Classifications of glands based on morphology [Junqueira 15th ed]

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