MITOCHONDRION

Dr. S B Phiri
MITOCHONDRION
• It is made up of an outer
 is a sausage-shaped structure
membrane and an inner
considered as the powermembrane.
house of the cell
Concentrates in the area• Theofinner
high membrane is folded to
energy utilization
form shelves (cristae).
• The space between the two
membranes is called the
intracristal space, and the space
inside the inner membrane is
called the matrix space
Dr. S B Phiri
• The mitochondria are the power-generating units of the cell and are most plentiful and best
developed in parts of cells where energy-requiring processes take place.
• The outer membrane of each mitochondrion is studded with the enzymes concerned with
biologic oxidations, providing raw materials for the reactions occurring inside the
mitochondrion.
• In the interior, the enzymes that convert the products of carbohydrate, protein, and fat
metabolism to CO2 and water are located in the internal mitochondrial membrane. Four
complex enzymes are involved , reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH)
dehydrogenase, succinic dehydrogenase, cytochrome bc1, and cytochrome oxidase.
• During these reactions, protons (H+) are pumped from the matrix to the intracristal space,
establishing a proton gradient. Protons diffusing back along this gradient drive the synthesis of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the enzyme ATP synthase. ATP is the energy-rich
triphosphate which provides the energy for many key metabolic processes, not only in animals
but in bacteria and plants as well, which synthesize it in different ways.
• The coupling of oxidation with formation of ATP in the mitochondria of animals is called
oxidative phosphorylation. Dr. S B Phiri
 CYTOSKELETON

• All cells have a cytoskeleton, a system of fibers that not only maintains the
structure of the cell but also permits it to change shape and move.
• The cytoskeleton is made up primarily of;
1) microtubules
2) intermediate filaments,
3) microfilaments
o along with proteins that anchor them and tie them together.

Dr. S B Phiri
• Microtubules are long, hollow structures with 5-nm walls surrounding a cavity 15 nm in
diameter.
• They are made up of two globular protein 1. Microtules
subunits, alpha- and beta -tubulin.
• A third subunit, γ-tubulin, is associated with the production of microtubules by the
centrosomes .
• The
Thealpha
assembly of microtubules
and beta is facilitated, which
subunits form heterodimers by warmth and
aggregate tovarious
form longother
tubesfactors,
made up
of
andstacked rings, with
disassembly iseach ring usually
facilitated containing
by cold 13 subunits.
and other The tubules also contain other
factors.
proteins that facilitate their formation.
• The end where assembly predominates is called the +end & the end where
disassembly predominates is the -end.
• Because of their constant assembly and disassembly, microtubules are a dynamic
portion of the cell skeleton.
• They provide the tracks for transport of vesicles, organelles such as secretory
granules, and mitochondria from one part of the cell to another.
• They also form the spindle, which moves the chromosomes in mitosis
• Microtubules can transport in both directions Dr. S B Phiri
 2. Intermediate Filaments
• 8-14 nm in diameter and are made up of various subunits.
• Some of these filaments connect the nuclear membrane to the
cell membrane.
• They form a flexible scaffolding for the cell and help it resist
external pressure.
• In their absence, cells rupture more easily and when they are
abnormal in humans, blistering of the skin is common.
Dr. S B Phiri
 3. microfilament
• These are long solid fibers 4-6 nm in diameter.
• They are made up of actin.
• The actin molecules (G-actin) polymerize in vivo to form F-actin, the long
filamentous chains that are the microfilaments.
• They also depolymerize in vivo, with polymerization often occurring at one end of
a microfilament (the + end, as in microtubules) and depolymerization at the
other (the - end).
• They attach to various parts of the cytoskeleton.
• They reach to the tips of the microvilli on the epithelial cells of the intestinal
mucosa.
• The actin filaments interact with integrin receptors and form focal adhesion
complexes which serve as points of atraction with the surface over which the cell pulls itself.
 MOLECULAR MOTORS

Kinesin
•1.The 2. Dynein
molecular motors that move proteins, organelles, and other cell
parts
kinesin(theiris cargo) along microtubules and microfilaments to all parts
a double-  Dyneins have two heads, with
of the cell are
headed 100-500 kDa
molecule thatATPases that attach to the cargo.
their neck pieces embedded in
• Their
moves heads
itsform cross-bridges
cargo toward theto the fiber, and they
a complex convert ATP into
of proteins
energy that produces bending of the cross-bridges, causing the ATPase
+ ends of microtubules.  Cytoplasmic dynein has a
molecules to move.
 One head binds to the function like that of
–Microtubule-based
microtubule and then bends ubiquitous kinesin, except that
• 1.Kinesins
it moves particles and
its• 2.Dyneins
neck while the other head
membranes to the - end of the
–Actin-based
binds, producing almost
• 1.Myosins
microtubules
continuous movement. Dr. S B Phiri
INTERCELLULAR CONNECTIONS
(CELL ADHESION MOLECULES)
Cells are attached to the basal lamina and to each other by
Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) that are prominent parts of the
intercellular connections
•Many CAMs pass through the cell membrane and are anchored
to the cytoskeleton inside the cell.
•Some bind to like molecules on other cells (homophilic binding)
•others bind to nonself molecules (heterophilic binding).
•Many bind to laminins, a family of large cross shaped
molecules with multiple receptor domains in extracellular
matrix.
Dr. S B Phiri
 4 BROAD FAMILIES OF CAMs
(1) Integrins, heterodimers that bind to various
receptors
(2) adhesion molecules of the IgG superfamily of
immunoglobulins
(3) Cadherins,Ca2+-dependent molecules that mediate
cell-to-cell adhesion by homophilic reactions
(4) Selectins, which have lectin-like domains that bind
carbohydrates

Dr. S B Phiri
Integrins

Dr. S B Phiri
Dr. S B Phiri
Dr. S B Phiri
 Cadherins mediate Ca2+ -dependent homophilic
cell-cell adhesion

 Ca binds in the hinge

regions between
cadherin domains,
and prevent the
flexing.

 Without Ca the
molecule is floppy and
Dr. S B Phiri
adhesion fails
Extracellular domains of a classicalMolecular
cadherin (C-cadherin)
Biology of the Cell (2008, Garland Publishing)
Selectins

Dr. S B Phiri
Immunoglobulin Superfamily

Dr. S B Phiri
 Cadherins Don’t bind
each other

Ca2+
independent

Dr. S B Phiri
INTEGRATION OF CELL FUNCTION

Dr. S B Phiri