PHYSIOLOGY

CHAPTER 2: THE CELL AND ITS FUNCTION

1ST SEMESTER (2022-2023)

OUTLINE 13% cholesterol, 4% other lipids, and 3%

Organization of the Cell carbohydrates)
Cell Structure
Membranous Structures of the Cell o Lipid bilayer, a thin, double-layered film of
Cytoplasm and Its Organelles lipids that is continuous over the entire cell
Functional System of the Cell surface. Composed of three main types:
Endocytosis  Phospholipid – most abundant,
Digestion of Foreign Substances
Synthesis of Cellular Structures
has a hydrophilic head (phosphate
Extraction of Energy from Nutrients end) and a hydrophobic tail (fatty
Locomotion of Cells acid portion
Ameboid Movement  Sphingolipid – derived from
Cilia and Ciliary Movements
sphingosine, present in small
amounts in the cell membranes
Organization of the Cell especially nerve cells
- Two major parts are the: nucleus and the  Cholesterol – mainly help
cytoplasm determine the degree of
- The different substances that make up the cell permeability (or impermeability),
are collectively called protoplasm controls the fluidity of the
- Protoplasm is composed of five basic membrane
substances: water, electrolytes, proteins, lipids o Membrane Proteins
and carbohydrates  Integral Proteins – protrudes all
 Water the way through the membrane
o Cells are comprised of 70% to 85% water  Peripheral Proteins – attached
except for fat cells only to one surface of the
o Many cellular chemicals are dissolved in the membrane and do not penetrate all
water other are suspended as solid particulates the way through
 Ions o Membrane Carbohydrates
o Important ions include: potassium,  Occur in combination with
magnesium, phosphate, sulfate, bicarbonate proteins or lipids in the form of
and smaller quantities of sodium, chloride and glycoproteins or glycolipids
calcium  Glycocalyx – loose carbohydrate
o Provide inorganic chemicals for cellular coat
reactions and are necessary for the operation
of some cellular control mechanisms Cytoplasm and Its Organelles
 Proteins  Cytosol
o Constitute 10% to 20% cell mass o The jelly-like fluid portion of the
o Can be divided into two types: cytoplasm in which particles are
 Structural proteins dispersed
 Functional proteins
Figure 1. Cell and its Organelles
 Lipids
o Soluble in fat solvents
o Mainly insoluble in water
o Used to form cell membrane and intracellular
membrane barriers
 Carbohydrates
o Play a major role in cell nutrition and
structural functions as part of glycoprotein
molecules

Cell Structure

Membranous Structures of the Cell

 Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)
o Envelops the cell
o Thin, pliable and elastic structure
o Composed almost entirely of proteins and
lipids (55% proteins, 25% phospholipids,

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PHYSIOLOGY 1ST SEMESTER (AY 2022-2023)

components
of cilia and
 Endoplasmic Reticulum flagella
o Helps process molecules made by the  Nucleus
cell and transports them to their o Centrally located within the cell and is
specific destination inside or outside surrounded by a two-layer nuclear
the cell envelope, which separates the cytoplasm
o Rough ER – attached with ribosomes, from the nucleoplasm
responsible for synthesis of proteins, o Contains almost all the DNA of the cell,
both secreted and intracellular complexed with protein (histones) in a
o Smooth ER – has no attached form called chromatin
ribosomes, functions in the o Functions: messenger RNA synthesis
detoxification of drugs and in the (transcription) and regulation of cell
synthesis of lipids and carbohydrates division
 Golgi Apparatus o Contains nucleolus, a prominent, RNA-
o Appears as flattened membranous containing dense body that synthesizes
disks and is located between the ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
nucleus and the cell membrane
o Functions as: post-translational Functional Systems of the Cell
modification of proteins, packaging of
substances, maintenance of the plasma Endocytosis
membrane - Ingestion by the cell
 Lysosomes  Pinocytosis
o Provide an intracellular digestive o Ingestion of minute particles that form
system that allows the cell to digest: vesicles of extracellular fluid and
damaged cellular structures, food particulate constituents inside the cell
particles that have been ingested by cytoplasm
the cell and unwanted matter such as  Phagocytosis
bacteria o Ingestion of large particles, such as
 Peroxisomes bacteria, whole cells or portions of
o Physically similar to lysosomes but degenerating tissue
differs in two ways: formed by self-
replication rather than from Golgi Digestion of Foreign Substances
apparatus, contain oxidases rather than  Regression and Autolysis
hydrolases o Regression – occurs when tissues of the
 Mitochondria body become smaller in size
o Composed of outer and inner o Autolysis – if damage to cell is severe, the
membranes, intramembranous space, entire cell is digested
and inner matrix; contain their own  Autophagy
genetic material o Literally means “to eat oneself”
o Responsible for energy production o A housekeeping process whereby obsolete
through aerobic metabolism and organelles and large protein aggregates are
ketogenesis degraded and recycled
o Mitochondria and their DNA are o A key mechanism for tissue development,
inherited maternally cell survival when nutrients are scarce and
 Cytoskeleton maintenance of homeostasis
o Provides mechanical support, cell
flexibility and cell motility and aids in Synthesis of Cellular Structures
cell division  Endoplasmic Reticulum Functions
Components Protein Size Cell Function
Location
o Protein synthesis by Rough ER
Microfilaments G actin Small Just under Mechanical o Lipid synthesis by Smooth ER
(5-9 nm), the plasma support of
thin and membrane the cell o Provides the enzymes that control
flexible membrane,
cell
glycogen breakdown when glycogen is to
flexibility, be used for energy
cell motility,
polarity o Provides enzyme that are capable of
Intermediate Heterogenous Intermediate Widely Mechanical detoxifying substances
filaments group of (~10 nm) distributed stability to
proteins cells  Golgi Apparatus Functions
Microtubules Tubulin Large One end Cell
(~25 nm), attached to division,
wide and a intracellular
stiff centrosome movement,

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PHYSIOLOGY 1ST SEMESTER (AY 2022-2023)

o Can synthesize certain carbohydrates that o Nonmotile Primary Cilia – serve as cell
cannot be formed in the ER such as sensory “antennae” and generally occur
hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulfate only as a single cilium on each cell

Extraction of Energy from Nutrients

 Principal substances from which cells extract
energy are foods that react chemically with oxygen
– carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
 Functional Characteristics of ATP
o ATP is a nucleotide composed of:
nitrogenous base adenine, pentose sugar
ribose and three phosphate radicals
o ATP has been called energy currency of
the cell because it can be spent and
reformed continually
o Used to promote three major categories of
cellular functions: transport of substances
through multiple cell membranes,
synthesis of chemical compounds
throughout the cell and mechanical work

Locomotion of Cells

Ameboid Movement
 A crawling-like movement of an entire cell in
relation to its surroundings
 Most common cell to exhibit ameboid locomotion
in the human body are the white blood cells
 Chemotaxis – an important initiator of ameboid
locomotion
o Positive Chemotaxis – movement towards
the source of chemotactic substance
o Negative Chemotaxis – movement away Figure 3. Structure of a Cilium
from the source

Figure 2. Ameboid motion by a cell

Cilia and Ciliary Movements

 There are two types of cilia: motile and nonmotile,
or primary cilia
o Motile Cilia – can undergo a whiplike
movement on the surfaces of cells, occurs
mainly in two places: on the surfaces of
the respiratory airways and on the inside
surfaces of the uterine tubes (fallopian
tubes) of the reproductive tract
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