School of Medicine
Physiology Lecture-Chapter II- The Cell and Its Functions
Margot D. Papas-Alcontin, M.D.
Friday|8:00-12:00
1) ORGANIZATION OF THE CELL
- Two major parts:
• Nucleus
o Nuclear membrane- separates
nucleus from cytoplasm
• Cytoplasm
o Plasma membrane/cell
membrane-separates cytoplasm
from surrounding fluids
- Different substances that make up the
cell are called-Protoplasm
- Five different substances that made up
the protoplasm:
• Water
o 70-85% water concentration
• Ions
o Important ions: K-potassium,
Mg-magnesium, Phosphate,
Sulfate, Bicarbonate
o Smaller quantities. of: Na-
sodium, Chloride, Ca-Calcium
o Provides inorganic chemical for
cellular reaction
o Necessary for the operation of
some cellular control
mechanisms
• Proteins
o Most abundant substance in
cell
o 10-20% of cell mass
o Two types: Structural protein
and functional protein
o Structural protein
- Present in the cell mainly in the
form of long filaments that are
polymers of many individual
protein molecules
- MICROTUBULE: provides the
cytoskeleton of cellular
organelles such as cilia, nerve
axons, mitotic spindles of cells
undergoing mitosis, and thin
filamentous tubules
Transcribers: Alfraskhan A. Mahajud, Hasanor M. Salia, Karl
Patrick D. Taguberi, & Richell May S. Villares, RMT| MD-1B
- Fibrillar proteins: found
outside the cell (collagen and
elastin fibers of connective
tissue, blood vessel walls,
tendons, ligaments)
o Functional proteins
- Composed of combinations of
few molecules in tubular-
globular form
- Enzymes of the cells
- In contrast to fibrillar proteins,
they are often mobile in cell
fluid.
- E.g. In chemical reactions that
split glucose into its
component parts and then
combine with O2 forming CO2
+H2O and simultaneously
provides energy for cellular
function.
• Lipids
o Substances that are soluble in fat
solvents
Phospholipid and Cholesterol
o
- 2% of the cellular mass
- Mainly insoluble in water
- Used to form the cell
membrane and intracellular
membrane barriers
o Triglycerides (neutral fats)
-fat cells (adipocyte):95% of
cell mass; body’s main
storehouse of energy-giving
nutrients
• Carbohydrates
o 1% of total cell mass (3% in
muscle cells, 6% in liver cells)
o Plays a major role in cell nutrition
o Glycogen: (stored form)- an
insoluble polymer of glucose that
can be depolymerized and used
rapidly to supple cell’s energy
need.
 School of Medicine
Physiology Lecture-Chapter II- The Cell and Its Functions
Margot D. Papas-Alcontin, M.D.
Friday|8:00-12:00
substances (ions, glucose,
I. PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE urea)
CELL - Lipid soluble substances
- Composed of intracellular can penetrate the
organelles penetrate the membrane
- Important as the cell’s (O2, CO2, alcohol)
chemical constituents for cell o Sphingolipids
function. - Derived from amino
alcohol Sphingosine
A. MEMBRANOUS STRUCTURE OF - Present in small amounts
THE CELL in cell membrane
- primarily composed of lipids especially in nerve cells
and protein - Functions:
- Lipids: barrier that impedes § Protection from
movement of water and water- harmful
soluble substances that from environment
one cell compartment to factors
another § Signal
- Protein: penetrate all the way transmission
through the membrane thus § Adhesion sites for
providing specialized extracellular
pathways (pores) for passage protein
and of specific substances o Cholesterol
through the membranes; - Steroid nuclei
others are enzymes - Highly fat soluble
1. CELL MEMBRANE (Plasma - Dissolved in the bilayer of the
membrane) membrane
- Envelopes the cell - Hels determine the degree of
- Thin, pliable, elastic structure permeability (or
only 7.5 to 10 nm thick impermeability) of the bilayer
- Composed of proteins and to water-soluble constituents
lipids of body fluids.
o 55% proteins - Controls much of the fluidity of
o 25% phospholipids the membrane
o 13% cholesterol
o 4% other lipids 2. INTEGRAL PROTEINS
o 3% CHO - Protrude all the way through
- Lipid bilayer the membrane
o Phospholipid - Most are glycoproteins
- Most abundant cell - Provides structural channels
membrane lipid (pores)
- Hydrophilic (phosphate) o Protein channels also have
end selective properties
- Hydrophobic (fatty acid) o Water and water-soluble
end substances, especially ions,
- Lipid layer is impermeable can diffuse between
to water-soluble

Transcribers: Alfraskhan A. Mahajud, Hasanor M. Salia, Karl

Patrick D. Taguberi, & Richell May S. Villares, RMT| MD-1B
 School of Medicine
Physiology Lecture-Chapter II- The Cell and Its Functions
Margot D. Papas-Alcontin, M.D.
Friday|8:00-12:00
extracellular and o Transport substances in the
intracellular fluids direction opposite to their
- Act as carrier proteins electrochemical gradients
o Transporting substances for diffusion (active
that otherwise could not transport)
penetrate the lipid bilayer
- Acts as receptors o Dispersed in the cytoplasm
o For water-soluble chemicals are neutral fat globules,
such as peptide hormones glycogen granules,
ribosomes, secretory
3. PERIPHERAL PROTEINS vesicles
- Attached to the integral o Organelles: endoplasmic
proteins reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
- Functions almost entirely as mitochondria, lysosomes
enzymes and perixosomes.
- Controllers of transport of
substances through the cell ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
membrane pores - Network of tubular structures called
cisternae.
4. Glycocalyx
- flat vesicular structures in the cytoplasm
- Loose carbohydrate coat
- Combination with proteins - tubules and vesicles interconnect.
(glycoproteins) or lipids - space inside the tubules and vesicles is
(glycolipids) filled with endoplasmic matrix – a
- Most of integral proteins are watery medium different form cytosol
glycoproteins; one-tenth are - space inside is connected with the
glycolipids space between the two membrane
- The ‘glyco-‘ portions protrude surfaces of nuclear membrane.
to the outside of the cell - processes molecules and transports
- Proteoglycans - as much 30-40% of total surface area in
o CHO bound to small liver.
proteins cores
o Loosely attached to the Rough Smooth
outer surface of the cells Endoplasmic Endoplasmic
- Functions:
Reticulum Reticulum
o Gives negative surface
charge • Granular • Agranular
o Attachment to other cells • Ribosomes • No attached
o Receptor substances for attached Ribosomes
binding hormones
• Composed of • Synthesis of lipid
o Immune reactions
mixture of RNA substances
B. CYTOPLASM AND ITS
ORGANELLES and proteins. • Other processes
- CYTOSOL • Synthesize new of cells
o Jelly-like fluid portion of the protein promoted by
cytoplasm molecules in cell intrareticular
o Contains mainly dissolved enzymes.
proteins, electrolytes, and
glucose

Transcribers: Alfraskhan A. Mahajud, Hasanor M. Salia, Karl

Patrick D. Taguberi, & Richell May S. Villares, RMT| MD-1B
 School of Medicine
Physiology Lecture-Chapter II- The Cell and Its Functions
Margot D. Papas-Alcontin, M.D.
Friday|8:00-12:00
GOLGI APPARATUS
- Composed of four or more stacked
layers of thin, flat, enclosed vesicles
lying near one side of the nucleus.
- Prominent in secretory cells extruded on
side of cell.
- Fuses with endoplasmic reticulum
vesicles – small transport vesicles.
- Processes transported substances from
er to form lysosomes, secretory
vesicles, and other cytoplasmic
components.
LYSOSOMES
- Vesicular organelles formed by breaking
off from Golgi apparatus.
- Disperse throughout cytoplasm
- Provide an intracellular digestive system
that allows the cell to digest damaged
cellular structures, food particles that
have been ingested by the cell, and
unwanted matter (e.g. Bacteria)
- Surrounded by a typical lipid bilayer
membrane filled with large numbers of
small granules (protein aggregates of as
many as 40 different hydrolase
enzymes)
- Hydrolytic Enzyme – highly
concentrated and capable of splitting
an organic compound into two/more
parts by combining hydrogen from
water molecule with one part of
compound and combining the hydroxyl
portion of water molecule with other
part of compound.
PEROXISOME
- physically similar to lysosomes but
different in two ways:
- they are formed by self-replication (or
perhaps by budding off from smooth ER)
rather than from Golgi apparatus.
- Contain oxidases rather than
hydrolases.
Transcribers: Alfraskhan A. Mahajud, Hasanor M. Salia, Karl
Patrick D. Taguberi, & Richell May S. Villares, RMT| MD-1B
- Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) – a highly
oxidizing substance formed by
combining oxygen with hydrogen ions
through oxidases from different
intracellular chemicals; used in
association with catalase.
- Catalase – oxidase enzyme presents in
large quantities, to oxidize many
substance otherwise poisonous to cell.
- Major Function: Catabolize long-chain
fatty acids.
*about half of alcohol people consume is
detoxified to acetaldehyde by
peroxisomes in liver cells.
SECRETORY VESICLES
- secretory granules
- formed by ER-Golgi apparatus system
then released to cytoplasm.
- can be found in Pancreatic Acinar
Cells
o these vesicles store protein
proenzymes (enzymes that are
not yet activated)
o secreted through outer cell
membrane then to duodenum,
where they become activated
and perform digestive functions
on food in intestinal tract.
MITOCHONDRIA
- powerhouses of the cell
- concentrated on portions responsible for
major share of its energy metabolism.
- variable in size and shape
- others are branching and filamentous
- self-replicative (one mitochondrion can
form second, third and so on whenever
increased amount of ATP is needed)
- similar to nucleus, it contains DNA
(which controls replication of
mitochondrion)
*increased density of mitochondria is
required to supply increased energy
demands of skeletal muscles
subjected to chronic exercise
training
 School of Medicine
Physiology Lecture-Chapter II- The Cell and Its Functions
Margot D. Papas-Alcontin, M.D.
Friday|8:00-12:00
Intermediate Filaments
STRUCTURE: - generally strong ropelike working
- composed of two lipid bilayer protein together with microtubules for strength
membrane, outer and inner membrane. and support to fragile structures.
- average diameter is in between
INNER MEMBRANE narrower actin microfilaments and wider
- infoldings form shelves or tubules called myosin filaments of muscle cells.
cristae. - Functions mainly mechanical
Cristae - less dynamic than actin
o where oxidative enzymes microfilament and microtubules
attached - found in all cells
o provide large surface area for - protein structures vary on cell
chemical reactions types.
- filled with matrix - Muscle cells: Desmin Filaments
Matrix - Neurons: Neurofilaments
o contains large quantities of - Epithelial Cells: Keratins
dissolved enzymes for extracting
energy from nutrients. Microtubules
o operate in association with - strong tubular structures constructed
oxidative enzymes on cristae for from polymerized tubulin molecules of
oxidation of nutrients. special type of stiff filament.
o forms CO2 and water - act as a cytoskeleton providing rigid
o releases energy for synthesis of physical structures of certain parts of
high energy substance called cells.
Adenosine Triphosphate - conveyor belts for intracellular transport
(ATP) of vesicles, granules, and organelles
(mitochondria)
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) - composition of centrioles and mitotic
o transported out of the spindle of cells undergoing mitosis.
mitochondria and diffuses - tubular skeletal structure in the center of
throughout cell to release its each cilium.
own energy needed for
performing cellular functions.
NUCLEUS
CELL CYTOSKELETON - control center of the cell.
- network of fibrillary proteins organized - sends messages to the cell to grow and
into filaments or tubules. mature, replicate, or die.
- originate as precursor proteins - contains large quantities of DNA
synthesized by ribosomes in cytoplasm. comprising the genes.

Filaments Genes
- polymerized precursor proteins. - determines characteristics of cell’s
proteins (i.e. structural proteins) and
Actin Microfilaments intracellular enzymes
- form an elastic support for the cell - control and promote cell reproduction
membrane - undergoes special process called
mitosis

Transcribers: Alfraskhan A. Mahajud, Hasanor M. Salia, Karl

Patrick D. Taguberi, & Richell May S. Villares, RMT| MD-1B
 School of Medicine
Physiology Lecture-Chapter II- The Cell and Its Functions
Margot D. Papas-Alcontin, M.D.
Friday|8:00-12:00
NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
- nuclear envelope
- two separate bilayers membranes, one
inside the other.
- penetrated by thousand nuclear pores
as passage of molecules.
NUCLEOLI
- highly staining structures in nuclei.
- does not have limiting membrane.
- an accumulation of large amounts of
RNA and protein-types found in
ribosomes.
- enlargers considerably during synthesis
of proteins in cell.
- DNA genes in chromosomes cause
RNA synthesis stored in nucleoli.
- other RNA synthesis are transported
into cytoplasm to assemble with
“mature” ribosomes forming cytoplasmic
proteins.
ANIMA CELL VS. PRECELLULAR
FORMS OF LIFE
NUCLEIC ACID
- embedded in a coat of protein, is the
essential life-giving constituent of small
virus.
- composed of same basic constituents
(DNA or RNA) found in mammalian
cells.
- capable of reproducing itself under
appropriate condition.
FUNCTIONAL SYSTEMS OF CELL
ENDOCYTOSIS
- ingestion by the cell
- specialized function of cell membrane
allowing entry of large particles.
Transcribers: Alfraskhan A. Mahajud, Hasanor M. Salia, Karl
Patrick D. Taguberi, & Richell May S. Villares, RMT| MD-1B
Two Principal Forms of Endocytosis:
1. PINOCYTOSIS
- occurs continually in cell
membranes of most cells, but
especially rapid in some.
- small, only seen through
electron microscope.
- only means where large
macromolecules (proteins) can
enter cells.
- involves receptors concentrated
in small pits on the outer surface
of cell membrane, called Coated
Pits.
- receptors bind to clathrin, a
latticework of fibrillary protein.
- entire pit invaginates inward
closing over attached proteins
as well over a small amount of
extracellular fluid.
- invaginated portions breaks
away forming pinocytotic vesicle
inside cytoplasm.
- this process requires ATP and
Calcium ions (react with
contractile protein filaments
beneath coated pits)
2. PHAGOCYTOSIS
- involves large particles rather
than molecules
- tissue macrophages and some
white blood cells
- initiated when particle
(bacterium, dead cell, tissue
debris) binds with receptors on
surface of the phagocyte.
- Opsonization – antibodies
intermediation where antibodies
attach to phagocyte receptor
dragging bacterium along with
it.
 School of Medicine
Physiology Lecture-Chapter II- The Cell and Its Functions
Margot D. Papas-Alcontin, M.D.
Friday|8:00-12:00
membrane.
STEPS OF PHAGOCYTOSIS
1. Cell membrane receptors attach to
surface ligands of particle.
2. Point of attachment edges evaginate in
zipper-like manner to form a closed
phagocytic vesicle.
3. Vesicle is pushed to the interior by actin
and other contractile fibrils
4. Contractile proteins pinch stem of
vesicle for separation from cell
membrane.

LYSOSOMES DIGEST PINOCYTOTIC

AND PHAGOCYTIC FOREIGN
SUBSTANCES INSIDE CELL
- Lysosomes attach to
phagocytotic/pinocytotic vesicle and
empty their acid hydrolases.
- digestive vesicle is formed inside
cytoplasm in which proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids and other
substances are hydrolyzed.
- products of digestion (amino acids,
glucose, phosphates) are small
molecules that can diffuse through the
membrane of vesicle into the
cytoplasm.
- Phagocytotic and Pinocytotic
Vesicles containing lysosomes can be
called Digestive Organs of the cells.
Residual Body
- indigestible substances left of
digestive vesicle.
Exocytosis
- the opposite of endocytosis; process of
excreting residual body through the cell
• LYSOSOMES AND REGRESSION OF
TISSUES AND AUTOLYSIS OF
DAMAGED CELLS
- Lysosomes is responsible for tissue
regression to smaller size (e.g.
regression of uterus after pregnancy)
- Lysosomes is the removal of damaged
cells/portions of cells from tissue (i.e.
damaged from heat, cold, trauma or
chemicals)
- Autolysis – removal of entire cell with
severe damage.
- Lysosomes contain bactericidal
agents killing phagocytized bacteria
before they can damage cell. These
agents include:
1. Lysosome, which dissolves the bacterial
the cell wall
2. Lysoferrin, which binds iron and other
substances before promoting bacterial
growth.
3. Acid at a pH of about 5.0 to activate
hydrolases and inactivates bacterial
metabolic systems.

Transcribers: Alfraskhan A. Mahajud, Hasanor M. Salia, Karl

Patrick D. Taguberi, & Richell May S. Villares, RMT| MD-1B
 School of Medicine
Physiology Lecture-Chapter II- The Cell and Its Functions
Margot D. Papas-Alcontin, M.D.
Friday|8:00-12:00

• AUTOPHAGY AND RECYCLING OF • LIPID SYNTHESIS BY THE SMOOTH

CELL ORGANELLES
- Autophagy
o “to eat oneself”
o a housekeeping process
whereby obsolete organelles
and large protein aggregates are
degraded and recycled.
o contributes to routine turnover of
cytoplasmic components.
o a key mechanism for tissue
development, cell survival when
nutrients are scarce, and •
maintenance of homeostasis.
- Autophagosomes
o Double-membrane structure
formed in the cytosol.
o Transfers worn-out
organelles to lysosomes.
*average mitochondrion normally has
life span of 10days in Liver Cells
before it is destroyed.
SYNTHESIS OF CELLULAR
STRUCTURES BY ER AND GOLGI
APPARATUS
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
FUNCTIONS
- formed primarily of lipid bilayer
membranes and their walls are loaded
with protein enzymes that catalyzes
synthesis of many substances.
- where most synthesis begins
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
- synthesizes lipids especially
phospholipids and cholesterol.
- incorporated lipids into lipid bilayer
causes extensive growth of
endoplasmic reticulum.
- ER vesicles or transport vesicles
continually break away to control growth
of endoplasmic reticulum beyond cell
needs
OTHER FUNCITIONS OF ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM
1. Provides enzymes that control glycogen
breakdown when glycogen is to be used
for energy.
2. Provides a vast number of enzymes that
cell are capable of detoxifying substances
(e.g. drugs, that might damage the cell)
• achieves detoxification by
processes i.e. coagulation,
oxidation, hydrolysis, and
conjugation with glycuronic acid
GOLGI APPARATS FUNCTIONS
• SYNTHETIC FUNCTIONS OF GOLGI
APPARATUS
- synthesize certain carbohydrates that
cannot be formed in the endoplasmic
reticulum like formation of large
saccharide polymers bound with small
amounts of protein (e.g. hyaluronic acid
and chondroitin sulfate)

• PROTEIN SYNTHESIS BY THE ROUGH Functions of Hyaluronic Acid and

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM Chondroitin Sulfate
- characterized by large numbers of 1. Major components of proteoglycans
ribosomes attached to outer surface. secreted in mucus and other glandular
- ribosomes extrude some synthesized secretions.
protein molecules direct to cytosol 2. Major components of ground substance,
- others are extruded though endoplasmic or nonfibrous components of
reticulum wall to interior of endoplasmic extracellular matrix, in interstitial spaces,
vesicle and tubules into endoplasmic acting as fillers between collagen fibers
matrix. and cells.

Transcribers: Alfraskhan A. Mahajud, Hasanor M. Salia, Karl

Patrick D. Taguberi, & Richell May S. Villares, RMT| MD-1B
 School of Medicine
Physiology Lecture-Chapter II- The Cell and Its Functions
Margot D. Papas-Alcontin, M.D.
Friday|8:00-12:00
3. Principal components of organic matrix
in both cartilage and bone
4. Important in cell activities (e.g.
migration, proliferation)
ENDOPLASMIC SECRETIONS BY
GOLGI APPARATUS – Formation of
Vesicles
- substances (i.e. proteins) are
transported through tubules towards
smooth endoplasmic reticulum nearest
to Golgi apparatus
- transport vesicles continually break
away and diffuse to the deepest of Golgi
apparatus
- transport vesicles instantly fuse and
empty contained substances to Golgi
apparatus where carbohydrate moieties
are added.
- Golgi apparats functions to compact ER
secretions into highly concentrated
packets.
• TYPES OF VESICLES FORMED BY THE
GOLGI APPARATUS – Secretory
Vesicles and Lysosomes
SECRETORY VESICLES
- vesicles formed by Golgi apparatus;
contains proteins secreted through the
surface of the cell membrane.
• USE OF INTRACELLULAR VESICLES TO
REPLENISH CELLULAR MEMBRANES
- Golgi apparatus fuses with the cell
membrane or mitochondria and even
endoplasmic reticulum
- this fusion increases the expanse of
these membranes and replenishes them
as they are used up
- membranous system of ER and Golgi
apparatus are highly metabolic and
capable of forming new intracellular
structures.
Transcribers: Alfraskhan A. Mahajud, Hasanor M. Salia, Karl
Patrick D. Taguberi, & Richell May S. Villares, RMT| MD-1B
MITOCHONDRIA EXTRACT ENERGY
FROM NUTRIENTS
- carbohydrates are converted to glucose
by digestive tract and liver; proteins to
amino acids; fats to fatty acids
ATP (adenosine 5’-triphosphate)
- a nucleotide, high-energy compound
used to energize throughout cell.
- energy currency – can be spent and
reformed continually with only a few
minutes’ turnover time.
- Chemiostomic Mechanism of ATP
formation – overall process of ATP
formation.
Composition:
1. nitrogenous base adenine
2. pentose sugar ribose
3. three phosphate radicals
- last two connected with remainder of
molecule by high-energy phosphate
bonds (represented by the symbol ~)
- 12,000 calories of energy per mole of
ATP is contained in each high-energy
bonds.
- With release of energy from ATP:
o phosphoric acid radical split
away
o ADP (adenosine diphosphate) is
formed.
- Energy from cellular nutrients causes
ADP and phosphoric acid to recombine
forming new ATP, and the entire
process is repeated over and over.
 School of Medicine
Physiology Lecture-Chapter II- The Cell and Its Functions
Margot D. Papas-Alcontin, M.D.
Friday|8:00-12:00
b. Synthesis of chemical
• CHEMICAL PROCESSES IN THE compounds throughout cell (e.g.
FORMATION OF ATP – Role of Protein Synthesis by ribosomes)
Mitochondria c. Mechanical work (e.g. energy for
Muscle Contraction)
Glycolysis *Renal Tubule Cells use as much as
o conversion of glucose to pyruvic 80% of ATP to function as
acid by enzymes in cytoplasm. membrane transport.
o small amount of ADP changed to
ATP (5% of energy used) LOCOMOTION OF CELLS
- 95% of ATP formation occurs in - Most obvious type of movement:
Mitochondria skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle
- Acetyl-coenzyme A (CoA) – derived cells constituting almost 50% of body
from conversion of pyruvic acid mass.
(carbohydrate), fatty acids (lipids), and
amino acids (proteins) in matrix of Other Two Types:
mitochondria.
AMEBOID MOVEMENT
Krebs Cycle - crawling-like movement of entire cell in
- Citric acid cycle relation to its surrounding (i.e. White
- sequence of chemical reactions in Blood Cells through tissues;
mitochondrion matrix development of embryo and fetus after
- Acetyl-CoA splits into its component fertilization)
parts: - begins with protrusion of a
a. Hydrogen Atom pseudopodium from one end of the cell.
- highly reactive
- removal of electron and MECHANISM OF LOCOMOTION
conversion to hydrogen ion - result from continual formation of new
(initial event) cell membrane at the leading edge of the
- combine with oxygen to form pseudopodium and continual absorption
water releasing large amounts of of the membrane in the mid and rear
energy to globular proteins, portions of the cell.
called ATP Synthetase,
protruding like knobs on Two Effects essential for Cell Movement:
mitochondrial shelves (terminal - attachment of pseudopodium to
event) surrounding tissues to become fixed in
- energy released converts ADP its leading position, while remainder of
to ATP. cell body is pulled forward toward the
b. Carbon Dioxide - diffuses out of body point of attachment.
- provide the energy required to pull the
• USES OF ATP FOR CELLULAR cell body in the direction of the
FUNCTION pseudopodium

Three Major Categories:

a. Transport of substances (e.g.
Sodium) through multiple
membranes.

Transcribers: Alfraskhan A. Mahajud, Hasanor M. Salia, Karl

Patrick D. Taguberi, & Richell May S. Villares, RMT| MD-1B
 School of Medicine
Physiology Lecture-Chapter II- The Cell and Its Functions
Margot D. Papas-Alcontin, M.D.
Friday|8:00-12:00

TYPES OF CELL THAT EXHIBIT

AMEBOID LOCOMOTION
- White Blood Cells
o move out of blood into tissues to
form tissue macrophages
- Fibroblasts
o move into damaged area to help
repair
- Germinal Skin Cells
o move toward cut area to repair
the opening.
- Cancer Cells (Sarcoma)
o accounts for their rapid spread
from one part of the body to
another, known as Metastasis.

CHEMOTAXIS Two types of cilia: Motile and Non-Motile

- important initiator of amoeboid
locomotion
- result from appearance of certain
chemical substances in tissues.
- occur due to chemical substance,
Chemotactic Substance.
- Positive Chemotaxis – movement from
lower concentration to higher
concentration; moving toward source of
chemotactic substance.
- Negative Chemotaxis – cells move
away from the source.
1. CILIA
- Has an appearance of a sharp-pointed
straight or curved hair that projects 2-4
micrometers from cell surface.
- Covered by outcropping of cell
membrane and supported by 11
microtubules. (9 double tubules around
periphery, 2 single tubules down the
center)
Outgrowth of a structure that lies beneath
cell membrane, called basal body of the
cilium.
Motile
- Can undergo whiplike movement on the
surfaces of cell.
- Occurs mainly on respiratory airways
(clearing of passage from mucus) and
uterine/fallopian tubes (transports of
ovum from the ovary to the uterus)
- Project from single cell
Ciliary movement
- Rapid whiplike stroke 10-20 times per
second.
- Bending sharply where it projects from
cell surface.
- Slow dragging movement in the
backward direction (no effect on fluid
movement)
- Fluid is continually propelled in fast-
forward stroke direction
*all the cilia are oriented in the same
direction.

Transcribers: Alfraskhan A. Mahajud, Hasanor M. Salia, Karl

Patrick D. Taguberi, & Richell May S. Villares, RMT| MD-1B
 School of Medicine
Physiology Lecture-Chapter II- The Cell and Its Functions
Margot D. Papas-Alcontin, M.D.
Friday|8:00-12:00

4. Forward motion of the cilium, the double

FLAGELLUM tubules on front edge slide outward
- much longer and moves in toward the tip, whereas back edge
quasisinusoidal waves instead of remain in place.
whiplike movement. 5. Multiple protecting arms composed of
protein dynein (has ATPase enzymatic
*Flagellum of Sperm – same type of activity).
structure and contractile mechanism
with motile cilia.
NON MOTILE PRIMARY CILIA
MECHANISM OF CILIARY MOVEMENT - serve as cell sensory “Antennae”, which
coordinate cellular signaling pathways
1. ANOXEME involved in chemical and mechanical
o protein cross-linkage of the nine sensation, signal transduction, and cell
double tubules and two single growth.
tubules. - generally, occur only as a single cilium
2. Cilium can still beat under appropriate on each cell
conditions despite removal of *Primary Cilia act as Flow Sensor in most
membrane and destruction of cilium. epithelial cells of the Kidney Tubules.
*Defect in signaling these tubules may
3. Two Conditions for Anoxeme Continued result to development of large fluid-
Beating filled cysts, called Polycystic Kidney
a. Availability of ATP Disease.
b. Appropriate ionic conditions,
especially Magnesium and Calcium
concentration.

Transcribers: Alfraskhan A. Mahajud, Hasanor M. Salia, Karl

Patrick D. Taguberi, & Richell May S. Villares, RMT| MD-1B