CHAPTER 3: CELLULAR LEVEL OF  Face fluid on

ORGANIZATION either side –

cytosol inside and
Cells – basic, living, structural and functional
ExtFluid outside
units of the body
ii. Cholesterol – 20%
Cell Biology / Cytology – Scientific study of cells steroids with OH group
 Weakly
I. PARTS OF THE CELL
Amphipathic – OH
A. Plasma Membrane
polar; Steroids NP
 flexible outer surface iii. Glycolipids – 5%
 separate internal and external carbohydrate group
environment  Carbs Head polar;
 selective barrier – regulate flow Fatty tails NP
 maintain and establish  Appears only in
appropriate environment the membrane =
 key role in communication faces ExtFluid
B. Cytoplasm
 All contents between PM and c. Occurs -> Amphipathic - polar
nucleus and non-polar parts
 2 compartments: i. Heads – Hydrophilic
1. Cytosol – Fluid portion; (water loving)
intracellular fluid ii. Tails – Hydrophobic
2. Organelles – within the (water fearing)
cytosol; characteristic
shape and functions 2. Arrangement of Membrane Proteins
C. Nucleus a. Integral Proteins – extend to lipid
 Houses cell’s DNA bilayer and firmly embedded;
 Chromosome – single molecule Amphipathic
= several proteins i. Transmembrane proteins
 Genes – hereditary units; – span entire lipid bilayer;
control cellular structure and protrude into cytosol and
function ExtFluid
PLASMA MEMBRANE ii. Glycoproteins – proteins
- Flexible yet sturdy barrier with carbohydrate group
attached at the ends.
STRUCTURE OF PLASMA MEMBRANE  Glycocalyx - extensive
sugary coat; signature
1. Lipid Bilayer for recognition of cells
a. basic structural framework b. Peripheral Proteins – not firmly
b. 2 Back-to-back layers with 3 embedded; attached to polar
liquid molecules heads at surface of membrane;
i. Phospholipids – 75% support plasma membrane and
contain phosphorus anchor integral proteins;
 Head and Tails – participate in mechanical activities
hydrophilic &
hydrophobic
FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRAIN PROTEINS
 1. Ion Channel (Integral) – pores/holes  Steroids
that specific single ions can pass Small, uncharged
through; specific channels for common Moderately Permeable polar
ions  Water
2. Carriers (Integral) – Also known as  Urea
transporters; move ion from one place Large, uncharged
to another; change shape to Impermeable polar
accommodate substances.  Glucose
3. Receptors (Integral) – cellular Note: The more hydrophobic, the greater
recognition sites; Ligand is a specific permeability to the substance
molecule that binds to a receptor. GRADIENTS ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
Undergo change to accommodate.
4. Enzymes (Integral and Peripheral) – I. Concentration Gradient – difference in
catalyze specific reactions inside or concentration of chemical in one place to
outside the surface of the cell. another.
5. Linker (Integral and Peripheral) – o Inner Surface – negatively charged
anchor proteins inside or outside the o Outer Surface – positively charged
plasma membrane; provide stability and
shape to cell; movement and linking of II. Electrical Gradient – Difference in electrical
cells together. charge between two regions
6. Cell Identity Markers (Glycoprotein) – o Membrane Potential – charge difference
recognize own cells from others unless
identical twin, recognize and respond to III. Electrochemical Gradient –Combined
dangerous and foreign cells; ABO Blood influence of Concentration and Electrical on
type marker = example. the movement of an ion.

MEMBRANE FLUIDITY Note:

o Depends on the number of double CG and EG are important = help move

bonds in fatty acid tails that make up substances across the PM.
the lipid bilayer and amount of
Substances move from greater to less to reach
cholesterol.
equilibrium.
o Excellent compromise for the cell.
o Allow interaction within the PM
o Enable movement of components
TRANSPORT ACROSS PLASMA MEMBRANE
MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY o PASSIVE TRANSPORT
 Selective Permeability  Move down of gradient across the
o Permeable – permit passage membrane using own kinetic energy
through
o Impermeable – does not permit  ACTIVE TRANSPORT
passage o Use cellular energy (ATP) to go
up the gradient
Lipid Bilayer  VESICLES (ACTIVE)
o Non-polar hydrophobic interior o using of tiny spherical
Non-polar
membrane sacs to enter and
Highly Permeable  O2
leave cells.
 CO2

PASSIVE PROCESSES
1. THE PRINCIPLE OF DIFFUSION
Diffusion – random mixing of particles in a
solution due to kinetic energy.
- Solute – dissolved (Ex. Salt)
- Solvent – does the dissolving
(Ex. Water)
Factors influencing diffusion rate
1. Steepness of concentration –
greater difference = higher the rate
2. Temperature – higher temp = faster
the rate
3. Mass of diffusing substance – larger
mass = slower rate
4. Surface area – larger area = faster
rate
5. Diffusion distance – greater
distance – slower rate
Simple Diffusion - substances move freely
through the bilayer without help
Facilitated Diffusion - solutes that are too polar
or charged pass through with assistance.
 Channel-mediated Facilitated Diffusion
– move down with a bridge or gate or
channel.
 Carrier-mediated Facilitated Diffusion –
move down. Changes shape to
accommodate substance
Note: Selective permeability of PM is regulated
to achieve homeostasis.
2. OSMOSIS – Net movement of solvent
through selective permeable membrane;
occurs when permeable to water
Tonicity – measure of the solutions ability to
change the volume of cells by altering water
content
 Isotonic Solution - equal concentration
 Hypotonic Solution - High Solvent; Low
Solute => Swelling = burst => Lysis
 Hypertonic Solution – Low Solvent; High
Solute => Shrinking => Crenation
ACTIVE PROCESSES
1. PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- ATP changes the shape of the carrier
proteins (pumps) which moves the
substance across and against the gradient.
2. SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- Energy in Na+ or H+ is used to drive
substances across and against the gradient;
indirectly uses ATP
1. SYMPORTERS – same direction
2. ANTIPORTERS – opposite direction
3. TRANSPORT IN VESICLES
- Import materials from and release materials
into ExtFluid.
1. Endocytosis – move into the cell
- Receptor-mediated – highly
selective; take specific ligands.
- Phagocytosis – “cell-eating”; engulf
large solid particles.
- Pinocytosis – “Cell drinking”;
droplets of ExtFluid are taking up.
2. Exocytosis – move out the cell
- Secretory Cells – enzymes,
hormones, mucus, etc.
- Nerve Cells – neurotransmitters.
3. Transcytosis – Mix of Exo and Endo;
means to move between blood plasma
and interstitial fluid
Note: The Balance between Exocytosis and
Endocytosis keeps the surface of the plasma
membrane constant.
CYTOPLASYM
- Cytosol and Organelles
CYTOSOL
- Intracellular Fluid; fluid portion of the
cytoplasm that surrounds the organelles.
- 75-90% water; site of chemical reactions

Cytoskeleton - network of protein filaments
1. Microfilaments - thinnest; Actin and
Myosin; edge of the cell; movement
and support
- Microvilli – cell extensions
2. Intermediate Filaments – thicker than
microfilaments; stabilize position of
organelles; help in attachment
3. Microtubules – largest; determine cell
shape; movement of organelles
ORGANELLES
- Specialized structures; perform specific
functions
- Cooperate to maintain Homeostasis
CENTROSOME – Microtubule organizing center;
near nucleus; replicate for the next generation
to have go at cell division.
o Centrioles – cylindrical structures
o Pericentriolar Matrix – surrounding
centrioles; ring-shaped complexes
composed of tubulin (protein) =>
centers for mitotic spindle.
CILIA AND FLAGELLA – Microtubules; motile
projections on surface.
o Cilia – short hair-like structure; move
fluid along the surface
o Flagella – longer than cilia; move the
entire cell.
RIBOSOMES – site of protein synthesis; 50
proteins; synthesize proteins for specific;
located in the mitochondria
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM – network of
membranes in the form of flattened sacs or
tubules.
o Rough ER – folded series of flattened
sacs; studded with ribosomes; proteins
=> processing and sorting; produce
secretory proteins, membrane
proteins, etc.; synthesize glycoprotein
and phospholipids
o Smooth ER – network of membrane
tubules; contain enzymes => diverse
than Rough ER; Synthesize fatty Acids
and steroids
GOLGI COMPLEX – cup-like shape; modify,
sorts, packages and transports proteins; form
secretory vesicles.
o Entry (cis) Face - convex; faces Rough
ER
o Exit (trans) Face – concave; faces
plasma membrane
o Medial Cisterns – sacs between the
faces.
LYSOSOMES – membrane-enclosed vesicles that
form from the Golgi complex; digest substances;
recycle cell structures; extracellular digestion
o Autophagy – entire worn-out
organelles are digested
o Autolysis – destroy cell; occurs in
pathological conditions; responsible for
tissue deterioration after death.
PEROXISOMES – smaller than lysosomes;
microbodies; oxidize organic substances;
abundant in liver; destroy superoxide; self-
replicate.
PROTEASOMES – protein bodies; contain
myriad proteases; cut protein to peptides.
MITOCHONDRIA – “powerhouse” of the cell;
located where oxygen enters the cell or where
ATP is used; generate ATP; role in aptosis; self-
replicate
o External Mitochondrial Membrane
o Internal Mitochondrial Membrane
o Aptosis – genetically programmed
death of a cell
o Mitochondrial genes – inherited only
from mother
NUCLEUS
- Most prominent feature of a cell
Nuclear Envelope - double membrane; separate
nucleus from cytoplasm.
Nuclear Pores – openings; circular
arrangements of proteins; control movement of
substance between nucleus and cytoplasm.
Nucleoli – producing ribosomes; site of
synthesis and assembly of rRNA.
1. Genes – cells hereditary unit; control
cellular structure; direct activities; 46
chromosomes => 23 inherited
 2. Chromatin – complex DNA, proteins
and RNA
3. Genome – total genetic information
Nucleosome – bead-on-string structure in
chromatin
Histones – double stranded DNA
Linker DNA - string between the beads; holds
adjacent nucleosomes together.
Chromatid – pair in a chromosome
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Proteome – all of an organism’s proteins
Gene Expression - DNA is used as a template for
synthesis of a specific protein.
1. Transcription - information is encode in
a specific protein of DNA is transcribed
a. Transcribe – copied to produce
specific molecule of RNA
2. Translation – RNA attaches to a
ribosome; translated to a sequence of
amino acids to form new proteins
Base Triplet – sequence of 3 nucleotides in DNA
Codon – complementary of the 3 nucleotides
Genetic Code – rules that relate to base triplet
sequence to the codon
TRANSCRIPTION – Occurs in nucleus
- DNA serves as template for copying info to
sequence
- 3 types of RNA formed:
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) – directs the
synthesis
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – joins to make
ribosomes
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) – binds to amino
acid on a ribosome until incorporated.
- Anticodon – triplet nucleotide
RNA Polymerase – catalyze transcription of DNA
Promoter – special nucleotide located near the
beginning of a gene; RNA polymerase attaches
to the DNA
Terminator – specifies the end of the gene.
TRANSCRIPTION
A – Adenine DNA -> mRNA
T – Thymine A U
G – Guanine T A
C – Cytosine G C
U - Uracil C G
Introns – do not code for proteins
Exons – do code for proteins
Small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs) –
enzymes that cut out introns and splice exons
Alternative Splicing – a process in which the
pre-mRNA transcribed from is spliced in
different ways to produce mRNAs
TRANSLATION – takes place at cytoplasm
- mRNA specifies amino acid in a protein
- Ribosomes carry out translation
- 3 binding sites of tRNA molecules:
1. P (peptide) site – binds tRNA carrying
polypeptide chain
2. A (aminoacyl) site – binds tRNA
carrying amino acids
3. E (exit) site – binds tRNA before
released from ribosome
CELL DIVISION
- Process which cells produce themselves
SOMATIC CELL DIVISION – any cell of the body
that is not a germ cell; replaces dead or injured
cells and add new ones during tissue growth;
Cell Cycle – somatic cell duplicates and divide
into two
1. Homologous chromosome (homologs)
two chromosomes that make up each
pair
- Sex chromosome –> XX = female; XY
= male
- 2 Major Periods of Cell Cycle
1. Interphase – cells is not dividing
2. Mitotic Phase – cell is dividing
INTERPHASE – Replicate DNA; produce
organelles and cytosolic components; state of
high metabolic activity; cell is growing
3. G1 – gap; metabolic active; replicate
organelles; 8-10 hrs
4. S – synthesis of DNA; replication of
DNA;
5. G2 – gap; 4-6 hrs; synthesis of proteins
and enzymes
MITOTIC PHASE – Formation of two identical 1. Remain alive and function without
cells dividing
- Nuclear Division: Mitosis – distribution of 2. Grow and divide
two chromosome to two nuclei = exact 3. Die
partitioning of genetic info - Cyclin-dependent protein kinases (Cdk’s) –
1. Prophase – chromatin to enzymes that transfer phosphate from ATP
chromosome. to activate protein
- Centromere – region where it holds - Apoptosis – orderly, genetically
chromatin together programmed death; “cell-suicide”; removes
- Kinetochore – protein complex unneeded cells during fetal development;
- Mitotic Spindle – football-shaped normal cell death
attached to kinetochore; - Necrosis – pathological type that results
responsible for the separation of from tissue injury; spill cytoplasm into
chromatid to opposite poles of the interstitial fluid
cell
2. Metaphase - microtubules align at the REPRODUCTIVE CELL DIVISION – produce
centromeres at the center of mitotic gametes; from next generation of sexually
spindle reproducing organs
- Meiosis – chromosomes in the nucleus is
Cell Type Gamete reduced in half; occurs in gonads; 23
Divisions 2 chromosomes; haploid (n)
Stages Interphase I - Synapsis – two sister chromatids of pair of
Prophase I and II homologous chromosome pair of
Metaphase I and II
- Tetrad – four chromosomes forming a
Anaphase I and II
structure
Telophase I and II
- Crossing Over – exchange of parts between
Copy DNA At Interphase 1
non-sister chromatid
No. of cells 4
No. of chromosomes One set of 23 - Genetic recombination – formation of new
combinations of genes
- Metaphase plane – plane of
alignment
CELLULAR DIVERSITY
3. Anaphase – centromeres split and
Shape – related to cells function
move to opposite poles of the cell,
- Permits organization of cells into complex
chromatid = chromosome; v-shaped
tissues and organs
4. Telophase – uncoil and revert to
chromatin form
AGING AND CELLS
Aging – progressive alteration of the body’s
- Cytoplasmic Division: Cytokinesis – division
homeostasis adaptive responses
into identical cells
Geriatrics – branch of medicine that deals with
 Cleavage Furrow – indention in plasma
medical problems and care of elderly
membrane
Gerontology – scientific study of processes and
problems associated with aging
Sequence of events
Telomeres – specific DNA sequences found at
G1 -> S phase -> G2 -> mitosis -> cytokinesis
the tips of chromosomes
Autoimmune System - changes in cell identity
CONTROL OF CELL DENSITY
markers at the surface of cells
- 3 Destinies