Practical Research 2

Readings 1

Research is a systematic process of collecting,

analyzing, and interpreting information in order to
increase our understanding of a phenomenon about
which we are interested or concerned (Leedy &
Ormrod, 2013).

We do research to:
1. Add to existing knowledge
2. Improve practice
3. Inform policies
4. Solve problems

Characteristics of Quantitative Research in Comparison to Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

Single reality Multiple realities
Establishing relationships and explaining cause of Understanding situations in a participant’s perspective
correlation
Pre-established design Emerging design
Detached researcher Immersed researcher
To generalize To assess applicability

Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative Research

Strengths
1. Precision of numbers
2. Level of significance (statistical) can be determined – that results are not due to chance alone
3. Sample is less prone to sampling bias
4. Error can be computed. e.g., sampling error

Weaknesses
1. Inadequacy of numbers for total picture and depth of analysis
2. Less than 100% accuracy in sampling, instrument construction, and administration
3. Assumptions in statistical method

How to address the weaknesses

1. Rigor in doing quantitative research procedures
2. Addition of qualitative analysis using quotes from subjects

Variables
▪ A variable varies and has values. The values of variables under study are the research data. Data are the information we gather
about the population or the sample.
▪ Types of data: Qualitative Variable and Quantitative Variable
o Quantitative variables are the numerical information gathered about the samples. These data can be subjected to the
arithmetic operations.
o Qualitative variable are the attributes or characteristics of the samples.
Types of Quantitative Variables
Discrete variable is a count that can't be made more precise. Typically it involves integers. For instance, the number of children (or
adults, or pets) in your family is discrete data, because you are counting whole, indivisible entities: you can't have 2.5 kids, or 1.3 pets.
(Countable, No decimals)
Continuous variable, on the other hand, could be divided and reduced to finer and finer levels. For example, you can measure the height
of your kids at progressively more precise scales—meters, centimeters, millimeters, and beyond—so height is continuous variable.
(Measurable, Can have decimals)
Levels of Measurement

1. Nominal data – categorical data; attributes are only named

Examples: Gender, Skin Complexion, Nationality
2. Ordinal data – data can be ordered but does not necessarily have equal intervals
 Examples: Class Rank, Educational Attainment
3. Interval data – these are ordinal data that have equal intervals, but have no “true zero”
Example: Temperature
4. Ratio data – these are interval data which have a “true zero”
Examples: score, age, weight, height

Quantitative Research Designs

Will there be an intervention or treatment?

No Yes
Will you examine relationships? Is the treatment/intervention tightly controlled?

No Yes No Yes
Descriptive Will the sample be Quasi- Will the sample be
or Survey studied as a single experimental randomly assigned to
Research group? design groups?

No Yes No Yes

Correlational Experimental
Design Design

Descriptive or Survey Research

Describes characteristics

Correlational Design

A nonexperimental design used to examine the relationship between two or more variables.
Quasi-experimental Designs vs True Experimental Designs

Experimental Study (a.k.a. Randomized

Quasi-Experimental Study
Controlled Trial)

Evaluate the effect of an intervention or a

Objective Evaluate the effect of an intervention or a treatment
treatment

How participants get Non-random assignment (participants get assigned

Random assignment
assigned to groups? according to their choosing or that of the researcher)

Is there a control Not always (although, if present, a control group

Yes
group? will provide better evidence for the study results)

Is there any room for Yes (however, statistical techniques can be used to
No
confounding? study causal relationships in quasi-experiments)

A randomized trial is at the highest level in A quasi-experiment is one level below the
Level of evidence
the hierarchy of evidence experimental study in the hierarchy of evidence

– Can be used in situations where an experiment is

not ethically or practically feasible
Advantages Minimizes bias and confounding
– Can work with smaller sample sizes than
randomized trials

– High cost (as it generally requires a large

sample size) Lower ranking in the hierarchy of evidence as
Limitations – Ethical limitations losing the power of randomization causes the study
– Generalizability issues to be more susceptible to bias and confounding
– Sometimes practically infeasible

Quasi-experimental Research Designs

• One-shot case study design – a single group is exposed to a treatment or event and a dependent variable is
subsequently observed
 • One-group pretest-posttest design – a single group is measure before and after being exposed to
intervention or treatment

• Static-group comparison design – two already-existing groups are observed after exposure to treatment or
intervention

• Static-group pretest-posttest design - two already-existing groups are observed before and after exposure to
treatment or intervention

True Experimental Research Designs

• Randomized post-test only control group design – two groups – control group and treatment
(experimental) group formed by random assignments are posttested on the dependent variable

• Randomized pretest-posttest control group design - two groups – control group and treatment
(experimental) group formed by random assignments are pre-tested and post-tested on the dependent
variable

• Randomized Solomon four-group design – This is an attempt to eliminate the possible effect of a pretest.
It involves random assignment of subjects to four groups, with two of the groups being pretested and two
not. One of the pretested groups and one of the unpretested groups is exposed to the experimental
treatment. All four groups are then posttested. A diagram of this design is as follows:

References:

Chua, Von Christopher G. (2020). Practical Research 2: The Nature of Inquiry and Research. PPT Slides.
Acar, Bryant (2020). Supplementary Module in Practical Research 2 (The Quantitative Research). DepEd Division of Lapu-
Lapu City.
Fraenkel, Jack R., Wallen, Norman E., Hyun, Helen H. (2012). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. Eighth
Edition. McGraw-Hill.
Choueiry, George. Experimental vs Quasi-Experimental Design: Which to Choose?. Quantifying Health.
https://quantifyinghealth.com/experimental-vs-quasi-experimental-design/#:~:text=A%20quasi-
experimental%20design%20is%20a%20non-
randomized%20study%20design,the%20intervention%20and%20who%20doesn%E2%80%99t%20is%20not%20rando
mized.
Formplus Blog. Descriptive Research Designs: Types, Examples & Methods. https://www.formpl.us/blog/descriptive-
research