Uni

tOne

1.
1.TheNat
ureandUsesofHi
stor
y

A.Nat
ureofHi
stor
y

 Whati
sHi
stor
y?

 Thet
erm hi
stor
yder
ivedf
rom t
heGr dI
eekwor st
ori
a,meani
ng“
inqui
ry”or“
an

accountofone’
sinqui
ri
es.
”

 Thef
ir
stuseoft
het
ermi
sat
tri
but
ed/of
fi
ci
alt
oHer
odot
us(
c.484–425B.
C.E)
.

 Hewasoneoft
heanci
entGr
eekhi
stor
iansandt
he“
fat
herofhi
stor
y.”

Hi
stor
yhast
womaj
ormeani
ngs

1.al
lthi
ngsorev
ent
sthathav
ehappenedi
nthepast

2.t
heor
gani
zedandsy
stemat
icst
udyoft
hatpastev
ent
s

 Thest
udyi
nvol
vest
hedi
scov
ery
,col
l
ect
ion,
organi
zat
ion,
andpr
esent
ati
onof

i
nfor
mat
ionaboutpastev
ent
s.

So===hi
stor
yist
hest
udyoft
hepastor

===hi
stor
yisabr
anchofsoci
alsci
encet
hatst
udyaboutal
lhumanpastact
ivi
ti
es

WhyHi
stor
ydi
ff
erf
rom manyot
hersoci
alsci
encedi
sci
pli
nes/
subj
ect
s?

 b/
citst
udi
esaboutt
hei
nter
act
ionofmanandhi
snat
ural
env
ironmentt
hrough

t
hepassageoft
imeor

 t
hemaj
orconcer
nofhi
stor
yist
hest
udyofhumansoci
etyandi
tsi
nter
act
ion

wi
tht
henat
ural
env
ironmentt
hrought
hepassageoft
ime

 But
,manyot
hersoci
alsci
encedi
sci
pli
nes/
subj
ect
sst
udyt
hei
nter
act
ion

bet
weenhumansandt
hei
renv
ironmenti
nthecur
rentorpr
esentst
ate

 So,
timei
sthecent
ral
impor
tanceofhi
stor
y

1
  Hi
stor
iansor
gani
zeanddi
vi
det
hehumanpasti
ntodi
scr
eteorsepar
ateper
iods

af
teri
dent
if
yingsi
gni
fi
cantdev
elopment
sinpol
i
tics,soci
ety
,economy
,cul
tur
e,

env
ironmentet
c.t
hrought
her
igor
ousst
udyofdocument
sandar
ti
fact
s

 Accor
dingl
y,hi
stor
yit
sel
fisdi
vi
dedi
nto3per
iods.

1.anci
ent(
1000BC-
1270)
,

2.medi
eval
(1270-
1855)and

3.moder
n(1855-
present
).

 Thi
siswhatwecal
lper
iodi
zat
ioni
nhi
stor
y

 per
iodi
zat
ioni
soneoft
hekeychar
act
eri
sti
csoft
hedi
sci
pli
ne

 Ev
ent
sandpr
ocessest
hatt
ookpl
acei
nanci
entandmedi
evalt
imesi
thav
ethei
r

ownef
fect
sinmoder
nti
mes,
inonewayoranot
herway
.

 So,
itshowst
hathi
stor
yisacont
inuouspr
ocess

B.UsesofHi
stor
y

 Whatar
etheusesofhi
stor
y?

Ther
ear
e6usesofhi
stor
y

1.Hi
stor
yHel
psBet
terUnder
standt
hePr
esent

2.Hi
stor
yPr
ovi
desaSenseofI
dent
it
y

3.Hi
stor
yPr
ovi
dest
heBasi
cBackgr
oundf
orOt
herDi
sci
pli
nes

4.Hi
stor
yTeachesCr
it
ical
Ski
l
ls

5.Hi
stor
yHel
psDev
elopTol
eranceandOpen-
Mindednessand

6.Hi
stor
ySuppl
i
esEndl
essSour
ceofFasci
nat
ion

1.Hi
stor
yHel
psBet
terUnder
standt
hePr
esent

 Hi
stor
yist
heonl
ysi
gni
fi
cantst
orehouseofi
nfor
mat
ionav
ail
abl
e

2
  Hi
stor
yhel
pst
obal
anceandi
n-dept
hunder
standi
ngofmanycur
rentwor
ld

si
tuat
ions.

 b/
cthest
udyofpasti
sli
ght
stot
hepr
esentandhi
stor
yischangeand

cont
inuespr
ocess

2.Hi
stor
yPr
ovi
desaSenseofI
dent
it
y

 Knowl
edgeofhi
stor
yisi
ndi
spensabl
e/essent
ial
/cr
uci
al/
vit
alt
ounder
standi
nthe

wor
ld.

 Asoci
etywi
thouthi
stor
y===i
tismeani
ngl
ess

 b/
chi
stor
yref
erst
othesoci
etyandhi
stor
yist
hest
udyofhumansoci
ety

So,
hist
orydef
inest
hei
rident
it
y,or
ientt
hemsel
ves,
under
standandt
hei
rrel
ati
onshi
ps

wi
tht
hepastandwi
thot
hersoci
eti
es.

3.Hi
stor
yPr
ovi
dest
heBasi
cBackgr
oundf
orOt
herDi
sci
pli
nes

 Hi
stor
ical
knowl
edgei
sext
remel
yval
uabl
eint
hepur
sui
tofot
herdi
sci
pli
nessuch

asl
i
ter
atur
e,ar
t,phi
l
osophy
,rel
i
gion,soci
ology
,pol
i
ticalsci
ence,ant
hropol
ogy
,

economi
cs,
etc.

4.Hi
stor
yTeachesCr
it
ical
Ski
ll
s

 St
udy
inghi
stor
yhel
psst
udent
stodev
elopkeyr
esear
chski
l
ls.

 keyr
esear
chski
l
lsi
ncl
ude:
-

1.howt
ofi
ndandev
aluat
esour
ces

2.howt
omakecoher
entar
gument
sbasedonv
ari
ouski
ndsofev
idenceand

3.pr
esentcl
ear
lyi
nwr
it
ing.

 Gai
ningski
l
lsi
sal
soessent
ial
tomakei
nfor
meddeci
sionsi
nourday
-to-
dayl
i
fe.

 Asar
esul
t,hi
stor
yimpor
tantt
odev
elopkeyr
esear
chski
l
ls

3
 5.Hi
stor
yHel
psDev
elopTol
eranceandOpen-
Mindedness

 Byst
udy
ingt
hepast
,st
udent
sofhi
stor
yacqui
rebr
oadper
spect
ivest
hatgi
ve

t
hem t
her
angeandf
lexi
bil
i
tyr
equi
red/
necessar
yinmanyl
i
fesi
tuat
ions.

6.Hi
stor
ySuppl
iesEndl
essSour
ceofFasci
nat
ion/
int
erest
/at
tract
ion

 Expl
ori
ngt
heway
speopl
eindi
stantagesconst
ruct
edt
hei
rli
vesof
fer
s/deal
sa

senseofbeaut
yandul
ti
mat
elyanot
herper
spect
iveonhumanl
i
feandsoci
ety

Ther
efor
e,hi
stor
yiswr
it
tenbackwar
dsandt
hepasti
sdescr
ibedandi
nter
pret
edt
o

j
ust
if
ythepr
esent
.

Howev
er,
hist
orycanbeabusedbydel
i
ber
atemani
pul
ati
onoft
hepastt
ofi
tcur
rent

pol
i
tical
agenda.

1.
2.Sour
cesandMet
hodsofHi
stor
icalSt
udy

Whatar
ethesour
cesofhi
stor
y?

 Hi
stor
iansar
enotcr
eat
ivewr
it
ersl
i
kenov
eli
sts

 b/
cthewor
kofhi
stor
iansmustbesuppor
tedbyev
idencear
isi
ngf
rom sour
ces.

 So,
“wher
ether
ear
enosour
ces,
ther
eisnohi
stor
y”.

Hi
stor
ical
sour
cesar
ebr
oadl
ycl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
wot
ypes=pr
imar
yandsecondar
y

sour
ces

1.Pr
imar
ySour
cesofhi
stor
y

 t
heyhav
eadi
rectphy
sical
rel
ati
onshi
ptot
heev
ent
s

 t
heyhav
eadi
rectey
ewi
tnesst
otheev
ent
s

 t
heyar
enear
eri
nti
meandpl
acet
otheev
ent
s

 t
heyar
eor
igi
nalsour
ces

4
  t
heyar
efi
rsthandr
ecor
dsoraccount
sorar
ti
fact
s

 t
heyar
erel
iabl
ethensecondar
ysour
ces

 e.
g.manuscr
ipt
s(handwr
it
tenmat
eri
als)
,di
ari
es,
let
ter
s,phot
ogr
aphs

andmaps,
coi
ns,
inscr
ipt
ions,
chr
oni
cles,
cour
trecor
dsandadmi
nist
rat
ive

f
il
esandot
her
s

2. Secondar
ySour
cesofhi
stor
y

 t
heyar
enotdi
rectpr
oduct
soft
heper
iod

 t
heyhav
enoadi
rectey
ewi
tnesst
otheev
ent
s

 t
heyar
elat
eri
nti
meandpl
acet
otheev
ent
s

 t
heyar
esecondhandsour
ces

 t
heyar
enotr
eli
abl
ecompar
etopr
imar
ysour
ces

 i
tincl
udear
ti
cles,
books,
text
books,
biogr
aphi
es,
andpubl
i
shedst
ori
esor

mov
iesabouthi
stor
ical
event
s

I
naddi
ti
ont
opr
imar
yandsecondar
ysour
ces,
oral
sour
cesar
easour
ceofhi
stor
y

Whatar
eor
alsour
ces?

Whyor
alsour
cesdi
ff
erf
rom pr
imar
yandsecondar
ysour
ces?b/
c

 Or
alsour
cesori
nfor
mat
iongat
her
edt
hroughi
nter
views

 usedt
ofi
l
lmi
ssi
nggapsandcor
robor
ate/
conf
ir
m wr
it
tenwor
ds

5
  Or
alsour
cesori
nfor
mat
ionpassedf
rom gener
ati
ont
ogener
ati
ont
hroughor
al.

 Thi
ski
ndofor
ali
nfor
mat
ioni
sknownasor
alt
radi
ti
on.

Whatar
ethesetbackorconst
rai
ntst
hatl
imi
tedt
hesour
cesandknowl
edgeoft
he

hi
stor
yofEt
hiopi
a?

Thesetbackorconst
rai
ntst
hatl
i
mit
edt
hesour
cesandknowl
edgeoft
hehi
stor
yof

Et
hiopi
aar
e:-

a.manyoft
hesour
cesar
enotexcav
ated.

b.manymonument
sandobj
ect
sar
enotcar
eful
l
ycopi
ed

c.hi
stor
ical
document
swer
eei
therl
oot
edorl
ost
.

d.t
hesecondar
ysour
cesar
ecoul
dnotber
eli
abl
e.

e.manyoft
hesour
ceswer
edest
roy
edbydest
ruct
ivewar
sand

f
. obj
ect
sfoundi
nfr
agment
arycondi
ti
ons

Ther
efor
e,Sour
cesar
ekeyt
othest
udyandwr
it
ingofhi
stor
y.

 Sour
cesar
ethebasesofhi
stor
ical
stat
ement
sandj
udgment
s

 I
fyouhav
eagoodsour
cesi
tpossi
blet
owr
it
eagoodhi
stor
y.

1.
3.Hi
stor
iogr
aphyofEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
n

Whati
shi
stor
iogr
aphy
?

Hi
stor
iogr
aphycanbedef
inedas=t
hehi
stor
yofhi
stor
ical
studi
es

=t
hehi
stor
yofhi
stor
ical
wri
ti
ngsand

=t
hepr
oductofhi
stor
ical
wri
ti
ng

 Theor
gani
zedst
udyandnar
rat
ionoft
hepastwasi
ntr
oducedbyanci
entGr
eek

hi
stor
ians

6
 Amonganci
entGr
eekhi
stor
ians,
Her
odot
us(
c.484–425B.
C.E.
)andThucy
dides

(
c.455-
400B.
C.E.
)ar
ement
ioned.

n19thc,
 I academi
corpr
ofessi
onal
hist
ori
ogr
aphywasbeguni
nEur
ope.

 TheGer
man hi
stor
ian Leopol
d Von Ranke(
1795–1886)
,and hi
scol
l
eagues

est
abl
ishedhi
stor
yasani
ndependentdi
sci
pli
nei
nBer
li
nby

1.col
l
ectandev
aluat
eev
idenceofpastev
ent
sand

2.pr
esentameani
ngf
uldi
scussi
onoft
hesubj
ect
.

 Ranke’
sgr
eat
estcont
ri
but
iont
othesci
ent
if
icst
udyoft
hepast

 hei
sconsi
der
edast
he“
fat
herofmoder
nhi
stor
iogr
aphy
.”

 Ther
efer
enceoft
hehi
stor
yofEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
nar
e:

1.Perpl
usoft
heEr
it
reanSea

 i
twasoneofi
mpor
tantsecondar
ysour
ceofEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
n

 par
ti
cul
arl
y,i
texpl
ainaboutAxumi
teper
iodandcommer
cialact
ivi
ti
esi
ntheRed

Sea.

 I
twaswr
it
teni
nthef
ir
stcent
uryA.
Dbyunknown/ananony
mousaut
hor

2.TheChr
ist
ianTopogr
aphy

 I
twasanot
heri
mpor
tantsecondar
ysour
ceofEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
n

 I
twaswr
it
teni
nthesi
xthcent
uryA.
DbyGr
eeksai
l
orbyCosmosI
ndi
copl
etus,

 Thi
sdocumentdescr
ibi
ngaboutAksum’
str
adeandAksumi
teki
ng’
scampai
gns

onbot
hsi
desoft
hesea/onbot
hsi
desoft
heRedSea

3.I
nscr
ipt
ions

 I
tisoneoft
hepr
imar
ysour
cesofEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
n

7
  I
twr
it
tenbyf
ourdi
ff
erentl
anguagessuchas

 I
twr
it
tenbyAr
abi
c,Sabean,
GreekandGe’
ezl
anguages.

 I
twr
it
tenf
rom t
hesev
ent
hcent
uryA.
D.=I
tist
heear
li
estwr
it
tenEt
hiopi
an

mat
eri
aldat
esf
rom t
hesev
ent
hcent
uryA.
D.and

 I
twasf
oundi
nAbbaGer
imamonast
eryi
nYeha

4.Manuscr
ipt

 I
twasanot
heri
mpor
tantsecondar
ysour
ceofEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
n

 I
twasdi
scov
eredi
nHai
qIst
if
anosmonast
eryofpr
esentdayWol
l
oint
he

t
hir
teent
hcent
uryA.
D.

 I
twaswr
it
tenbyhandb/
cther
ewasnoi
ntr
oduct
ionofpr
int
ingpr
essand

paper

 Thev
alueofmanuscr
ipt
sisessent
ial
ly
/basi
cal
lyr
eli
gious

 Forexampl
e,i
tcont
ainst
hel
i
stofmedi
eval
kingsandt
hei
rhi
stor
yinbr
ief

5.Hagi
ogr
aphi
es

 wasanot
heri
mpor
tantsecondar
ysour
ceofEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
n

 I
tor
igi
nat
ingf
rom Et
hiopi
anOr
thodoxChur
ch.

 I
twaswr
it
teni
nGe’
ez

 I
tenhanci
ng/
impr
ovi
ngt
hepr
est
igeofsai
ntsand

8
  di
scussedi
ndet
ailsuchasaboutt
hedev
elopmentoft
hechur
chandt
he

st
atei
ncl
udi
ngt
err
it
ori
alconquest
sbyr
eigni
ngmonar
chs

 l
i
keEt
hiopi
anOr
thodoxChur
ch,hagi
ogr
aphi
calt
radi
ti
onexi
stedamong

Musl
i
m communi
ti
esoft
hecount
ry.

 di
scussedabout

=t
hel
i
feofaMusl
i
m sai
nt

=t
hedev
elopmentofi
ndi
genousI
slam and

=cont
act
sbet
weent
her
egi
on’
sMusl
i
m communi
tyandt
heout
sidewor
ld

6.chr
oni
cles

 i
tisoneoft
hepr
imar
ysour
cesofEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
n

 Ther
ecor
dsofchr
oni
clesst
art
edf
rom 14thcent
uryAD

 par
ti
cul
arl
yfr
om Ki
ngAmdaTsi
on(
1314-1344)
.

 I
tisi
mpor
tantt
owr
it
ethewhol
eact
ivi
ti
esofki
ngi
nthepal
aces.

 I
twaswr
it
teni
nGe’
ezandsomet
imesi
nAmhar
icf
rom f
our
teent
hcent
ury

t
otheear
lyt
went
iet
hcent
ury

 I
twaswr
it
teni
nGe’
ezl
anguagef
ir
stappear
edi
nthef
our
teent
hcent
ury

 But
,somet
imeschr
oni
cleswr
it
teni
nAmhar
icl
anguagef
rom f
if
teent
hto

t
heear
lyt
went
iet
hcent
ury

 Ge’
ezt
onguef
ir
stappear
edi
nthef
our
teent
hcent
uryandcont
inue(
somet
imesi
n

Amhar
ic)i
ntot
heear
lyt
went
iet
hcent
ury
.

heGl
 t ori
ousVi
ctor
iesofAmde-
Tsi
onandt
heChr
oni
cleofAbet
oIy
asuand

9
 Empr
ess Zewdi
tu ar
ethe ear
li
estand t
he l
astchr
oni
cle document
s,

r
espect
ivel
y

 Theear
li
estandt
hel
astofsuchsur
viv
ingdocument
sar
etheGl
ori
ousVi
ctor
ies

ofAmde-
Tsi
on and t
he Chr
oni
cle ofAbet
oIy
asu and Empr
ess Zewdi
tu

r
espect
ivel
y.

 Chr
oni
cles i
ncor
por
ate bot
hlegends and f
act
s-pastand cont
empor
ary

aboutt
hemonar
ch’
sgeneal
ogy
/fami
l
y,upbr
ingi
ng,mi
l
itar
yexpl
oit
s,pi
ety

andst
atesmanshi
p.

 So,
chr
oni
clescanpr
ovi
degl
i
mpse/
hintabout

 t
hechar
act
erandl
i
vesofki
ngs,

 t
hei
rpr
eoccupat
ionsandr
elat
ionswi
thsubor
dinat
eof
fi
cial
sand

 t
heev
olut
ionoft
heEt
hiopi
anst
ateandsoci
ety
.

 I
naddi
ti
ont
othese,t
hewor
kofAr
abwr
it
ers,AbbaBahr
ey’
sGeezscr
iptont
he

Or
omo,Eur
opean mi
ssi
onar
ysour
ces and t
rav
eldocument
s had t
hei
rown

si
gni
fi
cantt
othedev
elopmentofEt
hiopi
anhi
stor
iogr
aphy
.

1.Thewor
kofAr
abwr
it
ers/
theaccountofAr
abv
isi
tor
s===t
heydescr
ibedabout

 t
hecul
tur
e,l
anguageandi
mpor
t-
expor
ttr
adei
nthemai
ncent
ralr
egi
onoft
he

eastAf
ri
cancoasti
nthet
ent
handi
nthef
our
teent
hcent
uri
es,

 t
heconf
li
ctbet
weent
heChr
ist
ianki
ngdom andt
heMusl
i
m pr
inci
pal
i
tiesi
nthe

si
xteent
hcent
ury
.

 t
heconquestofnor
ther
nandcent
ralEt
hiopi
abyI
mam Ahmedi
bnI
brahi
m al
-

Ghazi
and

10
 maj
ort
ownsandt
hei
rinhabi
tant
sint
hesout
heast
ernpar
tofEt
hiopi
a

2.AbbaBahr
ey’
sGeezscr
iptont
heOr
omo

 I
twaswr
it
teni
n1593orappear
edi
nthesi
xteent
hcent
ury

 I
tisf
ir
st-
hand i
nfor
mat
ion aboutt
he Or
omo popul
ati
on mov
ement

i
ncl
udi
ngt
heGadaaSy
stem

 But
,ithadt
hei
rownl
i
mit
ati
ons.

3.Eur
opeanmi
ssi
onar
ysour
cesand

 Fr
om t
heear
lysi
xteent
hunt
ilt
hel
ateni
net
eent
hcent
uri
es,mi
ssi
onar
ies

(
Cat
hol
i
csandPr
otest
ant
s)camet
othecount
ry

 Someoft
hemaj
ort
opi
cscov
eredbyt
hesesour
cesi
ncl
ude:

=r
eli
giousandpol
i
tical
dev
elopment
swi
thi
nEt
hiopi
a,and

=t
her
elat
ionofEt
hiopi
awi
thout
sidewor
ld-
--
ort
hecount
ry’
sfor
eign

r
elat
ions.

 Forexampl
e,ThePr
est
erJohnoft
heI
ndi
es

 I
tcomposedbyaPor
tuguesepr
iest
,Fr
anci
scoAl
var
ez

 Al
var
ezaccompani
ed t
hePor
tuguesemi
ssi
on t
othecour
tofLebne-

Dengel
in1520.

4.Tr
aveldocument
s

 Tr
aveldocument
s had i
mpor
tantcont
ri
but
ion t
othe dev
elopmentof

Et
hiopi
anhi
stor
iogr
aphy
.

 Forexampl
e,Tr
avel
stoDi
scov
ert
heSour
ceoft
heNi
l
e.

 I
tcomposedbyJamesBr
uce’
s

 Gener
all
y,Ludol
fwas t
he f
ounderofEt
hiopi
an st
udi
es i
n Eur
ope i
nthe

11
 sev
ent
eent
hcent
ury
.

 Hewr
oteHi
stor
iaAet
hiopi
ca(
ANewHi
stor
yofEt
hiopi
a).

 Ludol
fnev
erv
isi
tedEt
hiopi
a,

 But
,hewr
otet
hecount
ry’
shi
stor
ylar
gel
ybasedoni
nfor
mat
ion

 Hecol
l
ect
edf
rom anEt
hiopi
anpr
iestnamedAbbaGor
gor
ios(
AbbaGr
egor
y)

 Att
hatt
ime,
hewasl
iv
edi
nEur
ope.

 I
ntheear
lyt
went
iet
hcent
ury
,thet
radi
ti
onalEt
hiopi
anwr
it
erswer
eemer
gence

i
ncl
udes:
-

 Al
eqaTay
eGebr
eMar
iam,

 Al
eqaAsmeGi
orgi
s

 Debt
eraFi
sseha-
Gior
gisAby
ezgi

 Negadr
asesAf
ewor
kGebr
e-I
yesusand

 Gebr
e-Hi
wotBay
kedagnar
ement
ioned

 Lat
er,Negadr
asesAf
ewor
kGebr
e-I
yesusand Gebr
e-Hi
wotBay
kedagn j
oined

t
hem.

 Unl
i
kechr
oni
cler
s,t
hesewr
it
ersdeal
t/spl
itwi
thar
angeoft
opi
csf
rom soci
al

j
ust
ice,
admi
nist
rat
iver
efor
m andeconomi
canal
ysi
stohi
stor
y.

 Themostpr
oli
fi
cwr
it
erofEt
hiopi
aint
heear
lyt
went
iet
hcent
urywasBl
att
en

Get
aHi
ruyWol
de-
Sel
assi
e.

 Hi
ruypubl
ishedf
ourmaj
orwor
ksnamel
y

12
 1.Et
hiopi
anaMet
ema(
Ethi
opi
aandMet
ema)
,

2.Wazema(
Eve)
,

3.Yehi
wotTar
ik(
ABi
ogr
aphi
cal
Dict
ionar
y)and

4.Yei
tyopi
aTar
ik(
AHi
stor
yofEt
hiopi
a).

 Unf
ort
unat
ely
,theI
tal
i
anoccupat
ionofEt
hiopi
aint
err
upt
edt
hemoder
nhi
stor
y

wr
it
ingandpubl
i
cat
ions.

 But
,af
terl
i
ber
ati
on,
wri
ter
sofEt
hiopi
acont
inuedt
hemoder
nhi
stor
ywr
it
ingand

publ
i
cat
ions.

 E.
g.Tekl
e-Tsadi
kMekur
ia,
Yil
maDer
essa,
Blat
tenGet
aMaht
eme-
Sel
assi
eWol
de-

Meske,
Gebr
e-Wol
dEngi
dawor
kandDej
azmachKebedeTesem ar
ement
ioned

 Hi
stor
yemer
gedasanacademi
cdi
sci
pli
nei
n1960s

 Speci
fi
cal
l
y,t
he Depar
tmentofHi
stor
yopened i
n 1963 atHai
l
e Sel
assi
eI

Uni
ver
sit
y(HSI
U).

 Si
ncet
hen,r
esear
chespr
oducedonv
ari
oust
opi
csbyf
acul
ty(
bot
hEt
hiopi
ans

andexpat
ri
ates)andst
udent
s

 Li
ket
heDepar
tmentofHi
stor
y,t
heI
nst
it
uteofEt
hiopi
anSt
udi
es(
IES)was

f
oundedi
n1963.

 The I
ES has been publ
ishi he Jour
ng t nalof Et
hiopi
an St
udi
es f
or t
he

di
ssemi
nat
ion/
dist
ri
but
ionofhi
stor
ical
resear
ch.

13
Thev
iewsofEur
opeanorEur
o-cent
ri
cfocusedon

 di
scour
agi
ngAf
ri
cans

 t
oremov
eAf
ri
cansf
rom hi
stor
y

 di
dnotgav
eat
tent
ionf
orAf
ri
cansand

 encour
agi
ngEur
opeans

 I
n 1948,t
he SchoolofOr
ient
aland Af
ri
can St
udi
es(
SOAS)est
abl
ished at

uni
ver
sit
yofLondon f
ort
he pur
pose oft
o gr
owi
ng demand t
eachi
ng and

r
esear
chonAf
ri
canhi
stor
y

 Ther
efor
e,Post
-col
oni
alAf
ri
canhi
stor
iogr
aphyf
ocusesonr
est
oreAf
ri
cat
o

hi
stor
yandhi
stor
ytoAf
ri
ca.

1.
4.TheGeogr
aphi
calCont
ext

 Thet
erm"
Ethi
opi
aandt
heHor
n"r
efer
stot
hepar
tofNor
theastAf
ri
ca

 t
het
err
it
ori
esofpr
esent
-dayDj
i
bout
i,Er
it
rea,
Ethi
opi
aandSomal
i
aref
erst
o

Et
hiopi
aandt
heHor
n

 t
heyhav
egeogr
aphi
cal
,l
ingui
sti
c,economi
candcul
tur
aldi
ver
sit
y

 Howev
er,
peopl
esoft
her
egi
onwer
enev
eri
sol
atedb/
c

 t
heyi
nter
act
ed/
net
wor
kedt
hroughouthi
stor
yfr
om v
ari
ousl
ocat
ionsand

 peopl
esofEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
nshar
ecommonpast
.

14
 t
he phy
sicalf
eat
ures oft
he r
egi
on di
vi
ded by t
he Gr
eatRi
ftVal
l
ey and

sur
roundedbyl
owl
ands,
semi
-deser
t,deser
tsandt
ropi
cal
for
est
s

 i
tledt
oregi
onalv
ari
ati
onsi
nther
egi
oni
ncl
i
mat
e,nat
uralv
eget
ati
on,soi
l

composi
ti
on,
andset
tl
ementpat
ter
ns.

 Thi
smeans,
Ethi
opi
aandt
heHor
nhast
hei
rowncl
i
mat
e,nat
uralv
eget
ati
on,
soi
l

composi
ti
on,
andset
tl
ementpat
ter
ns.

 l
ocat
ion,l
andf
orms,r
esour
ceendowment
,cl
i
mat
eanddr
ainagesy
stemsar
e

geogr
aphi
calf
act
orsoft
her
egi
onont
heev
olut
ionofhumanhi
stor
yorhi
stor
y

unf
olds

 E.
g.,t
hemov
ementofpeopl
e==peopl
emov
efr
om onear
eat
oot
herbasedon

l
ocat
ion,
landf
orms,
resour
ceendowment
,cl
i
mat
eanddr
ainagesy
stems

 amongt
hef
ivegeogr
aphi
calf
act
orsoft
her
egi
oni
nthi
scour
sedi
scussabout

l
ocat
ion,
cli
mat
eanddr
ainagesy
stems

1.Locat
ion

 I
tisoneofgeogr
aphi
calf
act
orsoft
her
egi
onont
heev
olut
ionof

humanhi
stor
yorhi
stor
yunf
old

 Et
hiopi
aandt
heHor
nli
esbet
weent
heRedSea,Gul
fofAdenandI
ndi
anOcean

ont
heonehand,
and

 Asar
esul
t,t
heRedSeaandt
heGul
fofAdenl
inkedNor
theastAf
ri
cat
othe

East
ernMedi
ter
ranean,
theNearandMi
ddl
eEast
,Indi
a,andt
heFarEast
.

15
 Li
kewi
se,t
heI
ndi
anOceanl
inkedEastAf
ri
cat
otheNearandMi
ddl
eEast
,Indi
a

andt
heFarEast
.

 Ont
heot
herhand,i
nthepr
esent
-day
,Et
hiopi
aandt
heHor
nli
esbet
weent
he

east
ernf
ront
ier
sofSudanandKeny
a.

2.dr
ainagesy
stems

 i
tisoneofgeogr
aphi
calf
act
orsoft
her
egi
onont
heev
olut
ionofhumanhi
stor
y

orhi
stor
yunf
olds

 Et
hiopi
aandt
heHor
nhasf
ivepr
inci
pal
drai
nagesy
stems.

 Thesear
etheNi
l
eRi
ver
,Gi
be/
Omo–Goj
eb,Genal
e/Jubba-
Shebel
e,t
heAwash

Ri
ver
,andt
heEt
hiopi
anRi
ftVal
l
eyLakesy
stems

a.Ni
leRi
ver

 Fl
owi
ngf
rom Ugandai
nthesout
htot
heSudani
nthenor
th,

 t
heWhi
teNi
l
emeet
stheBl
ueNi
l
einKhar
toum andev
ent
ual
ly
,dr
ainsi
nto

t
heMedi
ter
raneanSeat
hroughEgy
pt.

b.TheAwashRi
verSy
stem

 i
sent
ir
ely
/compl
etel
yconf
inedt
oEt
hiopi
a/notf
lowout
sideEt
hiopi
aand

 l
inkst
hecoolr
ichhi
ghl
andsofCent
ralEt
hiopi
awi
tht
hehot
,dr
ylowl
ands

oft
heDanaki
lDepr
essi
on.

c.TheEt
hiopi
anRi
ftVal
leyLakesSy
stem

16
  i
sasel
f-
cont
aineddr
ainagebasi
n,and

 st
ret
chi
ngf
rom LakeZi
wayi
nthenor
tht
oLakeTur
kana(
for
mer
lyknown

asRudol
f)ont
heEt
hio-
Keny
anbor
der
.

d.TheGi
be/
Omo–Goj
ebRi
verSy
stem

 l
inkssout
her
nEt
hiopi
atot
hesemi
-deser
tlowl
andsofnor
ther
nKeny
a.

e.TheShebel
eandGenal
eri
ver
s

 or
igi
nat
eint
heEast
ernhi
ghl
andsandf
lowsout
heastt
owar
dSomal
i
aand

t
heI
ndi
anOcean.

 Howev
er,onl
ytheGenal
e(knownast
heJubbai
nSomal
i
a)f
low t
othe

I
ndi
anOcean

 But
,theShebel
edi
sappear
sinsandj
usti
nsi
det
hecoast
li
ne/
notf
low t
o

out
sideSomal
i
a

 So,
thedr
ainagesy
stemsf
aci
li
tat
edt
hemov
ementofpeopl
esandgoodsacr
oss

di
ver
seenv
ironment
s

 Exchangeofi
deas,t
echnol
ogy
,knowl
edge,cul
tur
alexpr
essi
ons,andbel
i
efsar
e

t
her
esul
toft
hemov
ementofpeopl
esandgoods.Or

 t
her
esul
toft
hemov
ementofpeopl
esandgoodsar
eimpor
tantf
orexchangeof

i
deas,
technol
ogy
,knowl
edge,
cul
tur
alexpr
essi
ons,
andbel
i
efs

 Thus,st
udy
ingt
hedr
ainagesy
stemsofEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
niscr
uci
alf
or

pr
operunder
standi
ngoft
her
elat
ionshi
psoft
hepeopl
esl
iv
ingwi
thi
nther
iver

17
 basi
ns

3.Cl
imat
e

 I
tisoneofgeogr
aphi
calf
act
orsoft
her
egi
onont
heev
olut
ionof

humanhi
stor
yorhi
stor
yunf
olds

 Et
hiopi
aandt
heHor
ncanbedi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreemaj
ordi
sti
nctenv
ironment
al

zones.

 Thesear
e:-
--HotLowLandRegi
on,

-
--Hi
ghl
andMassi
fand

-
--Anot
herHotl
andal
ongWest
ernFoothi
l
lsoft
heHi
ghl
and

 Ther
efor
e,eachenv
ironment
alzoneconsi
stsd/
tpar
tsofEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
n

 Eachenv
ironment
alzoneext
endsi
ntod/
tpar
tsofEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
nand

 Eachenv
ironment
alzonehadt
hei
ronchar
act
eri
sti
cs’
orf
eat
ures

UNI
TTWO

PEOPLESANDCULTURESI
NETHI
OPI
AANDTHEHORN

2.
1.HumanEv
olut
ion

 Accor
dingt
oar
cheol
ogi
calev
idences,EastAf
ri
canRi
ftVal
l
eyi
sthecr
adl
eof

humani
ty.

 TheEv
idencesofhumanev
olut
iondi
vi
dedi
ntobi
ologi
cal
andcul
tur
alev
olut
ions

 Bi
ologi
caland cul
tur
alev
olut
ionsdi
scov
ered i
ntheLowerOmo and Mi
ddl
e

AwashRi
verv
all
eysbyEt
hiopi
anandf
orei
gnschol
ars.

A.Bi
ologi
calev
olut
ion

 I
tisoneofev
idencesofhumanev
olut
ion

18
  I
trel
atedt
ogr
adual
nat
ural
process

 Var
iousf
ossi
lnameddi
scov
eredi
nvar
iousar
cheol
ogi
calsi
tesori
ndi
ff
erent

par
tsofEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
nind/
tper
iodoft
imes

 Forexampl
e,

===Sel
am wasdi
scov
eredatDi
ki
ka,
Mil
l
einAf
ari
n2000

====Lucy
/Di
nki
neshwasdi
scov
eredatHadari
nAf
ari
n1974A.D.

 Thedev
elopmentoft
hehumanbr
ainwast
hemai
nfeat
ureoft
henextst
ageof

humanev
olut
ion

 Asa r
esul
t,t
hegenushomo appear
ed and r
ecov
ered i
n di
ff
erentpar
tsof

Et
hiopi
aandt
heHor
n.

 Thegenushomodi
vi
dedi
nto3

1.Homohabi
li
s

 der
ivedf
rom Lat
int
erms"
Homo"(
humanbei
ng)and"
Habi
l
is"(
ski
l
lful

useofhands)
,

 f
oundi
ntheLowerOmo

 dat
ed1.
9mi
l
li
ony
ear
sB.P.

2.Homoer
ect
us(
wal
kingupr
ight
)

 di
scov
eredatMel
kaKunt
ure,
KonsoGar
dul
aandGadeb

19
  or
igi
nat
edi
nAf
ri
caandt
henspr
eadoutt
other
estoft
hewor
ld.

 Mi
grat
edf
rom Af
ri
cat
onor
ther
nAsi
aandEur
ope

 dat
ed1.6mi
l
li
ony
ear
sB.P

3.HomoSapi
ens

 Homosapi
ensar
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntwosub-
groups

1.Ar
chai
cHomosapi
ens(
knowl
edgeabl
ehumanbei
ng)

 Di
scov
eredatBodoi
ntheMi
ddl
eAwash

 Ar
chai
cHomosapi
ensev
olv
edf
rom Homoer
ect
us

 Ar
chai
cHomosapi
ensconsi
der
edasani
nter
medi
ateb/
nHomoer
ect
usand

moder
nhumanbei
ngs

 Ar
chai
cHomosapi
ensoccupi
edmuchofAf
ri
ca,Asi
aandEur
opef
orsev
eral

hundr
edt
housandy
ear
s

 dat
ed400,
000y
ear
sB.
P.

2.Moder
nHomosapi
ens

 Themoder
n Homo sapi
enswasv
erysi
mil
art
otoday
’shuman bei
ng/
li
vi
ng

humanbei
ng

 Moder
nHomosapi
ensor
igi
nat
edi
nAf
ri
casome100,
000y
ear
sago.

 TheModer
nHomosapi
enssi
tesf
ound

 i
nAf
ri
ca

20
  i
ntheNearandEastMi
ddl
eEastand

 i
nEur
ope

 I
nEt
hiopi
a,Moder
nHomosapi
enssi
tesar
efoundi
ntheLowerOmobasi
nand

nearDi
reDawa

 I
tscompl
etef
ossi
ldi
scov
eredatKi
bishar
eai
ntheLowerOmobasi
ndat
ed

100,
000y
ear
sol
d,but

 I
tsl
owerj
awdi
scov
eredatPor
cEpi
cnearDi
reDawadat
ed100,
000y
ear
sol
d

B.Cul
tur
alev
olut
ion

 I
ti he2ndev
st idenceoft
hehumanev
olut
ion

 Cul
tur
alev
olut
ion i
srel
ated t
otechnol
ogi
calchanges t
hatbr
oughtsoci
o-

economi
ctr
ansf
ormat
iononhumanl
i
fe.

 Cul
tur
alev
olut
iondi
vi
dedi
ntoSt
oneAge,Br
onzeAgeandI
ronAgebasedon

t
echnol
ogi
cal
changes.

 St
onet
ool
shadbeent
hef
ir
stt
echnol
ogi
est
obedev
elopedbyhumanbei
ngs.

 st
onet
ool
scanbegr
oupedi
nto3basedont
hei
rfeat
ures,way
sandt
heper
iod

ofpr
oduct
ion

1.ModeI(
Olduwan)

 Ol
duwant
ool
smadeandusedbyHomohabi
l
isbasedonAr
ti
factf
indi
ngs

 namedbasedont
hef
ir
str
epor
tmadeatOl
duv
aiGor
ge,
Tanzani
a

21
  mai
nlychar
act
eri
zedbycr
udeandmono-
faci
alst
yles,
and

 pr
oducedbyt
hedi
rectper
cussi
on

2.ModeI
I(Acheul
ean,
)and

 namedaf
tert
hef
ir
str
epor
tatSt
.Acheul
,Fr
ance

 mai
nlychar
act
eri
zedbybi
faci
al,
poi
ntedandconv
exf
eat
ures

 pr
oducedbyi
ndi
rectper
cussi
on,
byusi
nghand-
axorhammer

 Acheul
eant
ool
spr
oducedbyHomoer
ect
us

 Hei
nvent
edf
ir
eandst
art
edbur
ial
pract
ice

3.ModeI
II(
Sangoon)

 Cchar
act
eri
zedbyf
lexi
bleandf
inef
orm ofpr
oduct
ionbyt
heuseofobsi
dian.

 Sangoont
ool
spr
oducedbyHomosapi
ens

 t
heabov
ety
pesofst
onet
ool
shav
ebeenf
oundi
nEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
n

 St
onet
ool
sdi
vi
dedi
nto3per
iodsbasedont
heper
iodofusage/
exer
cises.

A.Pal
eol
it
hic/
OldSt
oneAge

 Cov
erf
rom 3.
4mi
l
li
ont
o11,
000y
ear
sB.P.
)

 Dur
ingt
hist
ime,
humanbei
ngshel
ter
edi
ncav
es,
dev
elopedl
anguage,
andused

st
one,
bone,
wood,
ski
nmat
eri
alst
opr
epar
efoodandcl
othi
ngand

 Dur
ingt
hist
ime,
sex-
agel
abordi
vi
sionwasbegan

 Mal
es consi
der
ed as hunt
ers off
auna/
ani
mal
,butchi
l
dren and f
emal
es

22
 consi
der
edasgat
her
ersoff
lor
a/pl
ant
.

B.Mesol
it
hic(
Middl
eSt
oneAge)

 Cov
erf
rom 11,
000-
10,
000B.P.

 I
twast
ransi
ti
onbet
weenPal
eol
i
thi
c/ol
dandNeol
i
thi
c(NewSt
oneage)

C.Neol
it
hic/
NewSt
oneAge

 cov
erf
rom 10,
000-
6,000B.
P

 Thewayofl
i
feofhunt
ingandgat
her
ingwasr
epl
acedbydomest
icat
ionofpl
ant
s

andani
mal
sb/
c

 mobi
l
ewayofl
i
fewasr
epl
acedbysedent
arywayofl
i
fe

 Dur
ing mobi
lewayofl
if
e,hunt
ingandgat
her
ingwast
hedomi
nanthuman

bei
ngsact
ivi
ti
es

 Dur
ingsedent
arywayofl
i
fe,domest
icat
ionofpl
ant
sandani
mal
swast
he

domi
nanthumanbei
ngsact
ivi
ti
es

 So,sedent
arywayofl
i
fewasi
mpor
tantt
ori
set
hedomest
icat
ionofpl
ant
sand

ani
mal
sor

 Thebegi
nni
ngoft
hedomest
icat
ionofpl
ant
sandani
mal
swasmai
ncausef
or

mobi
l
ewayofl
i
fewasr
epl
acedsedent
arywayofl
i
fe

 Thepr
ocessofdomest
icat
ionwasbegani
nvar
iouspar
tsoft
hewor
lde.
g.

domest
icat
ionofpl
ant
sisor
igi
nat
edi
n

 t
hef
oot
hil
l
soft
heAnat
oli
anpl
ateau

 t
heTi
gri
s-Euphr
ates(
Mesopot
ami
a)v
all
ey

23
  t
heNi
lev
all
ey

 Chi
na

 I
ndi
a

 t
heHor
nofAf
ri
caaswel
las

 t
heNor
thandSout
hAmer
ica

 ar
oundb/
n4000-
6000y
ear
sago,
thedomest
icat
ionofpl
ant
sandani
mal
sbegan

i
nNor
theastAf
ri
caonal
argescal
ebutnotasmal
lscal
e

 Nor
theastAf
ri
car
efer
stoEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
n

 Forexampl
e,t
hedomest
icat
ionofpl ssuchast
ant ef,dagusa,nugandensat

or
igi
nat
edi
nNor
theastAf
ri
ca

 t
ef,
dagusa,
nugandensatar
eindi
genousspeci
es

 Amongt
hesepl
ant
s,t
efwi
del
ycul
ti
vat
edi
ntheCent
ralandNor
ther
nEt
hiopi
a.

 Amongt
hesepl
ant
s,ensatwi
del
ycul
ti
vat
edi
nthesout
her
npar
tsofEt
hiopi
a

 Var
iousani
mal
andpl
antr
emai
nsexcav
atedanddi
scov
eredi
nd/
tpar
tsof

Et
hiopi
aandt
heHor
n

 E.
g.Adi
grat
,Aksum,Bar
ent
u,Mat
ahar
aandot
herar
ement
ioned

 St
onet
ool
susedf
orcut
ti
nggr
assl
i
kepl
ant
saswel
lasr
ockpai
nti
ngs.

 Ther
efor
e,t
he domest
icat
ion ofpl
ant
s and ani
mal
s was begun dur
ing t
he

Neol
i
thi
cper
iod

 Dur
ingt
heNeol
i
thi
cper
iod,f
oodpr
oduci
ngbegant
hrought
hedomest
icat
ionof
24
 pl
ant
sandani
mal
s

 Dur
ingt
heNeol
i
thi
cper
iod,humanbei
ngt
ransf
err
edf
rom mobi
l
etosedent
ary

wayofl
i
fe.

2.
3.ThePeopl
ingoft
heRegi
on

2.
3.1.LanguagesandLi
ngui
sti
cPr
ocesses

 Among t
he 4 superl
anguagef
ami
l
ies,Af
ro-
Asi
ati
c and Ni
lo-
Sahar
an super

l
anguagef
ami
l
iesr
epr
esent
edi
nEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
n

 Gener
all
y,Et
hiopi
aandt
heHor
nmar
kedbyet
hni
candl
i
ngui
sti
cdi
ver
sit
y

A.Af
ro-
Asi
ati
c

 I
tconsi
stsCusht
ic,
Omot
icandSemi
ti
clanguagef
ami
l
iesi
nEt
hiopi
aandt
he

Hor
n

 Cusht
ic,
Omot
icandSemi
ti
clanguagef
ami
l
iesspokeni
nEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
n

I
. Cushi
ti
c:

 i
tist
hel
argestl
ingui
sti
cgr
oupi
nEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
n

 i
tcov
ersmaj
ori
tyoft
heEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
nregi
ons

 E.
g.Somal
i
,Or
omo,
SidamoandBej
a(Bedawi
).

 Cushi
ti
clanguagef
ami
l
iesdi
vi
dei
nto4orNor
ther
nCushi
ti
c,Cent
ralCushi
ti
c,

East
ernCushi
ti
candSout
her
nCushi
ti
c

I
I.Semi
ti he2ndAf
c=t ro-
Asi
ati
csuperl
anguagef
ami
l
y

 i
tist
hesecondmaj
orf
ami
l
yoft
her
egi
onnextt
oCushi
ti
cfami
l
y.

25
  I
tisdi
vi
dedi
ntoNor
thEt
hio-
Semi
ti
candSout
hEt
hio-
Semi
ti
c

 Sout
hEt
hio-
Semi
ti
cdi
vi
dedi
nto2

1.Out
erSout
hEt
hio-
Semi
ti
c

 i
ncl
udesGaf
at,
andGur
agegna

2.Tr
ansv
ersalSout
hEt
hio-
Semi
ti
c

 r
epr
esent
edbyAmhar
ic,
Argobi
gna,
Sil
ti
e,ZayandHar
ari
.

I
II
.Omot
i he3rdAf
c=t ro-
Asi
ati
csuperl
anguagef
ami
l
y

 i
tref
erst
oonl
yspokeni
ntheOmoVal
ley
.

 e.
g.Wal
ayt
a,Gamu,
Gof
a,Kaf
a,Kul
l
o,Kont
a,Gi
mir
a

B.Ni
lo-
Sahar
an=r
epr
esent
edEt
hiopi
aanft
heHor
n

 bel
ongi
ngt
osuperl
anguagef
ami
l
iesf
ami
l
y

he3rdsuperl
 t anguagef
ami
l
iesf
ami
l
y

 i
ncl
udesAnuak,
Gumuz,
Kunama,
Bar
ta,
Nuer
,Maj
angi
r,et
c.

 Ther
efor
e,now aday
,somel
anguageshav
ecommonspeaker
ssuchasAf
ar,

Somal
i
gna,
Tigr
egnaandSaho

 Af
arl
anguagespokeni
nEt
hiopi
a,Er
it
reaandDj
i
bout
i

 Somal
ignal
anguagespokeni
nEt
hiopi
a,Somal
i
aandDj
i
bout
i

 Ti
gregnal
anguagespokeni
nEt
hiopi
aandEr
it
reaand

 Sahol
anguagespokeni
nEt
hiopi
aandEr
it
rea

26
 Languagecl
assi
fi
cat
iondi
dnotr
emai
nst
ati
c/f
ixed.

 Languagescanbeaf
fect
edbysuchf
act
orsl
i
kepopul
ati
onmov
ement
s,war
far
e,

t
rade,
rel
i
giousandt
err
it
ori
alexpansi
on,
urbani
zat
ionet
c.

 I
nthi
spr
ocess,somel
anguagesdi
edoutorhav
ebeeni
ndangerofext
inct
ion

whi
leot
her
sthr
ived/f
lour
ished/
incr
easedov
ert
ime.

2.
3.2.Set
tl
ementPat
ter
n

 Themaj
orpoi
ntsi
nthi
stopi
c

 A set
tl
ementpat
ter
n,t
hedi
str
ibut
ionofpeopl
esacr
osst
hel
andscape,i
sthe

r
esul
tsofl
onghi
stor
ical
processesi
nnor
theastAf
ri
ca.

 Env
ironment
al,
soci
o-economi
c,andpol
i
ticalpr
ocessessi
gni
fi
cant
lyshapedand

r
eshapedt
hespat
ial
dist
ri
but
ionofpeopl
esi
nther
egi
on.

 E.
g.===i
nsomear
eas,
set
tl
ementwasdenseandi
not
herar
easspar
se.

===Somepeopl
einhabi
tedext
ensi
vehi
ghl
andsandot
her
sthel
owl
ands.

 Basedonenv
ironment
al,
soci
o-economi
c,andpol
i
tical
processes,
theNi
l
oti
c,

Cushi
ti
candSemi
ti
cpeopl
esset
tl
edori
nhabi
tedi
nd/
tpar
tsofEt
hiopi
aandt
he

Hor
n.

 Whi
l
e,Omot
icpeopl
esi
nhabi
tedonl
yinEt
hiopi
aregi
on

2.
3.3.Economi
cFor
mat
ions

 t
hedomest
icat
ionofpl
ant
sandani
mal
sisi
mpor
tantf
ort
hei
ntr
oduct
ionof

agr
icul
tur
eandpast
oral
i
sm i
nEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
n

 agr
icul
tur
eandpast
oral
i
sm ar
eco-
exi
stedandqui
tei
nter
act
edi
nEt
hiopi
aand

27
 t
heHor
n

 Topogr
aphi
cfeat
ures and cl
i
mat
ic condi
ti
ons l
argel
yinf
luenced economi
c

act
ivi
ti
esi
nEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
n.

 Maj
ori
tyoft
hepopul
ati
onsofEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
nwer
eengagedi
nmi
xed

f
armi
ng.

 sedent
aryagr
icul
tur
ehadbeenst
art
edandadv
ancedbyt
heCushi
tes,Semi
tes

andOmot
icgr
oups

 Ther
efor
e,t
hepeopl
esofEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
nwer
eengagedweav
ing,cr
aft
s,

past
oral
i
sm,
shi
ft
ingagr
icul
tur
e,f
ishi
ng,
api
cul
tur
eandhunt
ing.

2.
4.Rel
igi
onandRel
igi
ousPr
ocesses

2.
4.1.I
ndi
genousRel
igi
on

Whati
sindi
genous/t
radi
ti
onalr
eli
gion?

 I
ndi
genous/
Tradi
ti
onalr
eli
gion i
sar
eli
gion and peopl
esbel
iefi
n di
ff
erent

nat
uralphenomenasuchast
hesun,t
hemoon,t
hesky
,mount
ains,r
iver
s,l
akes,

t
rees,
andani
mal
s.

 I
ndi
genous/
Tradi
ti
onalr
eli
gionf
oll
owedbyt
hel
ocal
peopl
esi
nceanci
entt
imes

 Peopl
esbef
oreconv
ersi
ont
oChr
ist
iani
tyandI
slam,t
heybel
iev
ed t
hei
rown

I
ndi
genous/
tradi
ti
onal
rel
i
gion

 I
nOr
omo

 t
heOr
omo’
ssuper
nat
ural
poweri
scal
l
edWaqa,
Waqqay
oorWaq.

28
  ThepowerofWaqa,
Waqqay
oorWaqi
smani
fest
edt
hroughspi
ri
tscal
l
ed

Ay
yana.

 Ay
yanaact
ing/
ser
vesashumani
nter
medi
ari
esb/
n WaqaandOr
omo

peopl
e

 Themaj
orspi
ri
tsi
ncl
ude:

 Abdar
/Dache(
soi
lfer
ti
li
tyspi
ri
t)
,

 At
ete(
womenorhumanandani
mal
fer
ti
li
tyspi
ri
t)
,

 Bal
as(
vict
oryspi
ri
t)
,

 Chat
o/Dor
a(wi
l
dani
mal
sdef
ender
),

 Gi
j
are/Nabi
(fat
herandmot
her
’sspr
it
),

 Jar
icha(
peacespi
ri
t)
,

 Qasa(
ant
i-
diseasespi
ri
t)et
c.

 Men(
qal
lu)&women(
qal
li
tt
i)possessedAy
yanaar
ehi
ghl
yrespect
ed.

 Theyhav
emai
ntai
nedl
inkbet
weent
heAy
yanaandt
hebel
i
ever
s.

 Theannualf
est
ivalofOr edI
omocal
l rr
echa

 I
nHadi
ya

 t
hesuper
nat
ural
power
/Supr
emeBei
ngofHadi
yai
scal
l
edWaa

 Spi
ri
tsl
i
keJar
a(mal
e’
spr
otect
or)
,

 I
dot
a(f
emal
e’
sguar
d)et
c.

29
  I
nKambat
a

 r
eli
giousof
fi
cial
sknownasMagnancho.

 t
hesuper
nat
ural
power
/Supr
emeBei
ngofKambat
aNegi
taorAr
icho

Magano/
Sky

 I
nGedeo

 t
hesuper
nat
ural
power
/Supr
emeBei
ngofGedeocal
ledMageno

 TheGedeocer
emonycal
ledDer
aro.

 I
nKonso

 t
hesuper
nat
ural
power
/Supr
emeBei
ngofKonsocal
ledWaaq/
Wakh.

 I
nGoj
j
am Agaw

 t
hesuper
nat
ural
power
/Supr
emeBei
ngofGoj
j
am Agaw Di
ban(
SkyGod)
.

 Ani
nter
est
ingf
eat
ureofi
ndi
genousr
eli
gioni
sthewayi
tspr
act
icesandbel
i
efs

ar
efused/
mer
gewi
thChr
ist
iani
tyandI
slam.

 Thi
sphenomenonofmi
xingofr
eli
gionsi
sknownassy
ncr
eti
sm.

2.
4.2.Judai
sm

 Judai
sm f
oll
owedbyt
hepeopl
esofEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
nbef
oreChr
ist
iani
ty

r
eachedt
her
egi
on

 Var
iousofaccount
sthatat
tr
ibut
ethear
ri
veandt
hepr
esenceoft
heBet
e-I
sreal

i
nEt
hiopi
a

1.Somepor
ti
onoft
heTr
ibeofDancamet
oEt
hiopi
a,i
nthet
imeoft
heExodus

30
 (
1400-
1200B.
C.)
.

2.Meni
l
ekIr
etur
ntoEt
hiopi
a,whoi
sbel
i
evedt
obet
hesonofKi
ngSol
omon(
r.

974-
932B.
C.)ofanci
entI
srael
andMakeda,
anci
entQueenofSaba(
Sheba)
,and

 consi
der
edt
obet
hef
ir
stSol
omoni
cEmper
orofEt
hiopi
a.

3.Theyar
ri
vedi
nEt
hiopi
aledbyAzonosandPhi
nhasi
n6t
hcent
uryA.
D.

 Ont
heot
herhand,
schol
arssuchasTadeseTami
ratandKayShel
mayar
guet
hat

t
heBet
e-I
srael
arer
emnant
sofol
dtest
amentf
oll
ower
s

2.
4.3.Chr
ist
iani
ty

 Bef
oret
hei
ntr
oduct
ionofChr
ist
iani
tyi
nEt
hiopi
a,sev
eral
godsbel
iev
edby

peopl
es

 Forexampl
e,

 Ki
ngEzanabel
iev
edbygodsbef
oreconv
ert
edt
oChr
ist
iani
tyorbef
ore

bapt
ism

 Hewasbel
i
evedby
:

 Mahr
am god(
thegodofwar
)and

 Medergod(
thegodoft
heEar
th)

 Hewaspay
ingt
ri
but
etoMahr
am (
thegodofwar
)andMeder(
thegodof

t
heEar
th)

 Chr
ist
iani
tyi
ntr
oducedi
nEt
hiopi
adur
ingr
eignki n4thCAD
ngEzanai

 Howev
er,
Chr
ist
iani
tydi
dnotbecomet
hest
ater
eli
gionunt
ilr
eignEzana’
sint
he

31
 ear
ly4thCAD.

 Af
terEzana’
sconv
ert
edt
oChr
ist
iani
ty,
Chr
ist
iani
tybecamet
heof
fi
cialr
eli
gionof

t
heAksumi
teKi
ngdom

WhenendedChr
ist
iani
tyast
hest
ater
eli
gioni
nEt
hiopi
a?

 Chr
ist
iani
tycol
lapsed/
endedast
hest
ater
eli
gionwhent
hesoci
ali
stDar
gcame

t
opoweri
n1974duet
oDar
gest
abl
i
shedsepar
ati
onofchur
chandst
ate

 Dur
ingAksumi
teper
iod,"
theNi
neSai
nts"camet
oEt
hiopi
afr
om t
heEast
ern

Medi
ter
ranean

 "
theNi
neSai
nts"t
ransl
atedt
heBi
bleandot
herr
eli
giousbooksf
rom

Gr
eeki
ntoGe’
ez

 Bef
oret
hear
ri
valof"
theNi
neSai
nts"
,Gr
eekwast
hel
anguageoft
he

chur
chi
nAksum

 "
theNi
neSai
nts"bui
l
tchur
chesandmonast
eri
essuchasDabr
aDamo,

Debr
eGer
ima,
Debr
eGubba,
Debr
eQonasel
andson

 manypeopl
econv
ert
edt
oChr
ist
iani
tyby"
theNi
neSai
nts"

om 4thCA.
 Fr Dto20thC(
330-
1959)
,Et
hiopi
arecei
vedAbuns(
bishops)f
rom t
he

Egy
pti
anOr
thodoxChur
chofAl
exandr
ia.

 Fr
ument
ius was appoi
nted as t
he f
ir
st bi
shop of Et
hiopi
a by Pat
ri
arch

At
hanasi
usofAl
exandr
ia(
inEgy
pt)
.

 Theexpansi
onofChr
ist
iani
tycont
inuedaf
tert
hef
all
ofAksum

 Manymonast
eri
esandchur
cheswer
eest
abl
ishedi
nvar
iouspar
tsofEt
hiopi
a.

32
  Amongt
hesemonast
eri
esandchur
chesar
e:

 Rock-
hewnchur
chesofLal
i
bel
a,

 Debr
a-Bi
zanofHamaseni
nEr
it
rea;

 Debr
a-Hay
iqi
nWol
l
o,

 Debr
e-Di
maandDebr
e-Wer
qinGoj
j
am;

 Debr
a-Li
banosi
nShewa,

 Bi
rbi
rMar
iam i
nGamoand

 Debr
e-Asabotont
hewayt
oHar
ar.

 Thesechur
chesandmonast
eri
esar
enotonl
yrel
i
giouscent
ersbutal
soser
ved

ast
hepr
oduct
sofChr
ist
iancul
tur
e,manuscr
ipt
sandar
t.

he16thC,
 Byt Chr
ist
iani
tyexpandedi
ntosout
her
nEt
hiopi
anr
egi
onssuchasKaf
a,

Ennar
ya,
Gamo,
Wal
ayt
a,Kambat
taandGur
age.

 Ther
efor
e,Aksum wast
hecr
adl
eofEt
hiopi
anChr
ist
iani
ty.

5.
3.I
slam

 Li
keChr
ist
iani
ty,
Aksum wast
hecr
adl
eofEt
hiopi
anI
slam.

 I
n615,Pr
ophetMuhammad(
thef
ounderoft
henewr
eli
gion)sentasmal
lgr
oup

ofhi
sfol
l
ower
s,i
ncl
udi
nghi
sdaught
erandherhusbandUt
hmant
oAksum when

t
her
uler
sofMeccaat
tempt
edt
oki
llPr
ophetMuhammadandhi
sfol
l
ower
s.

 Theywer
erecei
vedandgi
venpr
otect
ionbyt
heAksumi
teki
ng,knownasAr
mah

El
la/Ahmadal
-Naj
ashi

33
 Ther
ear
etwogat
ewayf
ort
hei
ntr
oduct
ionofI
slam i
ntot
heEt
hiopi
ani
nter
ioron

al
argescal
e

1.Dahl
akI
slandsont
heRedSea

 Byt
hebegi
nni he8thC,
ngoft Isl
am est
abl
i
shedi
ntheDahl
akI
slands.

 Dahl
akI
slandspl
ayedami
norr
olei
nthei
ntr
oduct
ionofI
slam i
ntot
he

Et
hiopi
ani
nter
iorbecause

 Chr
ist
iani
ty was hi
ghl
y expanded i
n nor
ther
n Et
hiopi
a and

pr
ohi
bit
edt
hepr
opagat
ionorspr
eadofI
slam.

2.Zei
laont
hewest
erncoastoft
heGul
fofAden

 I
tser
vedast
hesecondandmaj
orgat
ewayf
ort
hei
ntr
oduct
ion

ofI
slam mai
nlyi
ntot
hepr
esentdayShewa,
Wol
l
oandHar
arghe.

 Fol
l
owi
ngt
hei
ntr
oduct
ionofI
slam i
ntoi
nter
ior
,sev
eralMusl
i
m sul
tanat
esand

Musl
i
m st
ateswer
eemer
ged.Suchas:

 Byt
hebegi
nni he10th C,t
ngoft heMusl
i
m sul
tanat
eofDahl
akwas

est
abl
i
shed

 t
heMusl
i
m Sul
tanat
eofShawa

 t
heMusl
i
m sul
tanat
eofI
fatand

 t
he Musl
i
m st
ates of Dawar
o,Fat
agar
,Bal
i,and Hadi
ya wer
e

34
 ment
ioned

 Subsequent
ly,I
slam spr
eadt
otheHor
nofAf
ri
cal
argel
ythr
oughpeacef
ulway
s

i
ncl
udi
ngt
rade.

 Shei
khHussei
nofBal
e,aMusl
i
m sai
nt(
Wal
i
y)ofmedi
evalper
iod,pl
ayedv
ery

i
mpor
tantr
olei
ntheexpansi
onofI
slam i
ntoBal
e,Ar
siandot
hersout
heast
ern

par
tsofEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
n.

 Anot
herI
slami
ccent
eri
nthi
sregi
oni
sSofUmarcav
e.

 Li
ket
heChr
ist
ianchur
chesandmonast
eri
es,t
hemosquesandI
slami
ccent
ers

ser
vedast
hedeposi
tor
iesofMusl
i
m cul
tur
es,
tradi
ti
onsandl
i
ter
atur
es

UNI
TTHREE

POLI
TICS,
ECONOMYANDSOCI
ETYI
NETHI
OPI
AANDTHEHORNTOTHEENDOFTHE

THI
RTEENTHCENTURY

3.
1.Emer
genceofSt
ates

Whati
sSt
ate?

 St
ater
efer
stoanaut
onomouspol
i
tical
uni
t

 St
atei
sthehi
ghestandmostpower
fulpol
i
ticalor
ganofsoci
etyandcont
rol
led

35
 bygov
ernment
.

 St
atewast
heout
comeofr
egul
arcul
tur
alpr
ocess.

Whatwer
etheel
ement
sofst
atef
ormat
ion?

 Thef
ormat
ionofst
ateshas4basi
cel
ement
s.Suchas:

-
Peopl
e -def
inedTer
ri
tor
y -
Gov
ernmentand -
Sov
erei
gnt
y

 Ther
ear
etwof
act
orsf
ort
heemer
genceofst
ates

Onei
mpor
tantf
act
orf
ort
heemer
genceofst
ateswast
hebegi
nni
ngofsedent
ary

agr
icul
tur
e

 sedent
arywayofl
i
fewasbegandur
ingNeol
it
hic/
NewSt
oneAge

 cov
erf
rom 10,
000-
6,000B.
P

 dur
ingNeol
it
hic,
mobi
l
ewayofl
i
fewasr
epl
acedbysedent
arywayofl
i
fe

Anot
heri
mpor
tantf
act
orf
ort
heemer
genceofst
ateswast
hegr
owt
hoft
rade

 I
ntheear
lyt
imes,
tradedi
vi
dedi
ntoi
nter
nalandext
ernal
.

1.I
nter
nalorl
ocalt
rade

 I
twasconduct
edb/
nthesamepeopl
esandr
egi
ons

 Exchangeofgoodbygoodi
scal
ledbar
ter
ingsy
stem

2.Ext
ernalt
rade

 I
twasconduct
edb/
ndi
ff
erentpeopl
esandr
egi
ons

 I
tknownasi
nter
nat
ional
/for
eignt
rade.

 I
tist
hebuy
ingandsel
li
ngofgoodsandser
vicesacr
osst
henat
ional

36
 bor
der
s

 So,t
he gr
owt
h oft
rade and t
he begi
nni
ng ofsedent
ary agr
icul
tur
e wer
e

i
mpor
tantf
act
orf
ort
heemer
genceofst
ates

 I
nthepast
,manycl
asseswer
eemer
gedsuchasf
armer
,cr
aft
smen,
trader
,pr
iest
,

chi
eforheadman,
slav
eandot
her
s

 Di
vi
sionofl
aborwascr
eat
edbyt
heneedi
ngofpr
oducesur
pluspr
oduct
s

 E.
g.Far
mer
swer
eneededbat
teragr
icul
tur
alt
ool
stopr
oducesur
pluspr
oduct
s

andcr
aft
smenwer
eabl
etospeci
ali
zei
nthepr
oduct
ionofagr
icul
tur
alt
ool
s.

 cr
aft
smenandf
armer
swer
emeti
nor
dert
oexchanget
hei
rpr
oduct
s

 Asar
esul
t,acl
assofcr
aft
smenandf
armer
swoul
demer
ge

 Somepeopl
esi
nter
veneasi
nter
medi
ari
est
obuy
ingt
hepr
oduct
sofcr
aft
smen

andf
armer
sandt
hensel
lthepr
oduct
sofcr
aft
smenf
orf
armer
sandsel
lthe

pr
oduct
soff
armer
sforcr
aft
smen

 Asar
esul
t,acl
assoft
rader
swoul
demer
ge

 Ther
efor
e,expansi
onofagr
icul
tur
ethatgav
eri
set
ocl
assdi
ff
erent
iat
ion

 St
ateswer
efor
medmai
nlyt
hrought
heexpansi
onofagr
icul
tur
easwel
last
he

gr
owt
hoft
radef
aci
li
tat
edt
hedev
elopmentofst
ates.

 Et
hiopi
aandt
heHor
nisoneoft
her
egi
onsi
nAf
ri
cat
ookpl
aceear
lyst
ate

f
ormat
ion.

 Fr
om smal
lbegi
nni
ngs,such st
ates gr
adual
ly dev
eloped i
nto power
ful

37
 ki
ngdomsandev
enempi
reswi
thawel
l
-demar
cat
edsoci
alst
ruct
ure.

Whati
sthedi
ff
erenceb/
nki
ngdom andempi
re?

 Ki
ngdom i
sacount
ryr
uledbyaKi
ngorQueen.

 Empi
resi
sagr
oupofcount
ri
esorst
atesr
uledbyasi
ngl
erul
erorast
ate

3.
2.Anci
entSt
ates

3.
2.1.Nor
thandNor
theast

A.Punt
 Puntwast
heear
li
estr
ecor
dedst
atei
nEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
n.

 Theev
idenceonPuntcomesf
rom Egy
pti
anhi
erogl
yphi
cwr
it
ings

 B/
chi
erogl
yphi
cdescr
ibesser
iesofnav
alexpedi
ti
ons

 Asar
esul
t,d/
tEgy
pti
anPhar
aohssentt
oPuntf
orexpedi
ti
onsandt
hent
hey

col
lectebony
,gol
dandsi
l
veral
l
oy,f
ranki
ncense,spi
ces,i
vor
y,l
i
vemonkey
s,

gi
raf
fesandot
her
s

 E.
g.Queen Hat
shepsut(
1490-
1468 B.
C.)was one oft
he f
amous Egy
pti
an

Queens

 Shesentf
iveshi
pst
opunt
,butwar
mlywel
comedbyt
hePunt
it
es

 Anci
entst
ateofPuntandEgy
pti
ansexchangedt
hei
rpr
oduct
sthr
oughl
andand

seat
rader
out
es

 Thepr
oduct
sofPunti
ncl
udedi
ron,
gol
d,si
l
ver
,br
onze,
medi
cine,
ornament
sand

soon

 Thepr
oduct
sofEgy
pti
ncl
udedaxes,
dagger
s,br
acel
ets,
swor
ds,kni
ves,
clot
hes

andl
i
ke

38
Schol
arshav
enotr
eachedagr
eementaboutt
heexactl
ocat
ionofPunt
.

 Ther
ear
e3ar
gument
sbr
oughtaboutt
hel
ocat
ionoft
heanci
entst
ateofPunt

1.Someschol
arsar
guedt
hatPunti
ncl
inednor
ther
nornor
theast
ernSomal
i
a

 b/
cthev
ari
eti
esofi
ncenseandmy
rrhment
ionedi
nthewr
it
ings

2.Ot
her
sschol
arsar
guedt
hatPunti
ncl
inedmor
etowar
dsNor
ther
nEt
hiopi
a

 B/
cofgol
d,ebonyandmonkey
sfoundNor
ther
nEt
hiopi
a.

3.Someot
her
sschol
arsar
guedt
hatPuntpr
obabl
yst
ret
chedf
rom Swaki
m orMassawa

t
oBabel
Mandeb(
Gat
eofTear
s)andCapeGuar
daf
ui.

B.Da’
amatandOt
herCul
tur
alCent
ersi
nNor
ther
nEt
hiopi
aandEr
it
rea

 Da’
matwasanot
heranci
entst
ateoft
heHor
nofAf
ri
ca

 Thel
ocat
ionofDamatwasal
it
tl
etot
hesout
hofAksum

 Da’
matest
abl
i
shedav
erycl
osecont
actwi
thsout
hAr
abi
an.

 Fori
nst
ance,i
tski
ngsusedt
heSout
hAr
abi
anpol
i
tico-
rel
i
gioust
it
le

cal
l
edMukar
ri
b

 I
thadast
rongcommer
ciall
inkswi
tht
heout
sidewor
ldpar
ti
cul
arl
ywi
thsout
h

Ar
abi
aandt
heMedi
ter
raneanwor
ldt
hrought
hepor
tofAdul
is

 Pr
inci
palgod,Venusgod,l
i
ghtgod,sungodandmoongodwer
ewor
shi
ppedi
n

t
heDa’
amatst
ateandot
herpr
e-Aksumi
tecul
tur
alcent
ers

C.Ot
herCul
tur
alCent
ersi
nNor
ther
nEt
hiopi
aandEr
it
rea

1.Yeha

39
  i
tisl
ocat
ed30kmst
othenor
theastofAksum

 I
twast
heol
destofcul
tur
alcent
ersi
nthePr
e-Aksumi
teper
iod

 I
tpr
obabl
yemer
gedar
ound1,
000BC,
but

 Theper
iodofi
tspr
osper
it
y(zeni
th)wasf
rom about750t
o500B.
C.

2.Hawul
tiMel
azo

 I
tisl
ocat
edt
osout
heastofAksum

 St
onet
abl
etsf
oundi
nHawul
tiMel
azo

 St
onet
abl
etsar
einscr
ibedi
nrect
angul
art
empl
eand

 Ther
emai
nsofcat
tl
eexcav
atedi
nHawul
tiMel
azo.

3.Addi
-Segl
emeni

 I
tisl
ocat
edat10kmssout
hwestofAksum

 ast
onesl
abi
sfoundAddi
-Segl
emeni
and

 t
heol
destEt
hiopi
anmonument
ali
nscr
ipt
ioni
sdi
scov
eredi
nAddi
-Segl
emeni
.

 Ther
ewer
eal
soot
hercul
tur
alcent
ersl
i
keAddi
Gel
emo,
Atsbi
Der
a,Feqi
ya,
Sef
ra,

Senaf
e,et
c.

 Ther
efor
e,dur
ingPr
e-Aksumi
teper
iod,Yeha,Hawul
tiMel
azo,Addi
-Segl
emeni

andot
her
sser
vedascul
tur
alcent
ersi
nNor
ther
nEt
hiopi
aandEr
it
rea

 Amongt
hesest
ates,
Yehawast
heol
destofcul
tur
alcent
ers

40
  Amongt
hesest
ates,t
heol
destEt
hiopi
anmonument
ali
nscr
ipt
ioni
sdi
scov
ered

i
nAddi
-Segl
emeni

C.TheAksumi
teSt
ate

 Thenucl
eusoft
heAksumi
test
atewasf
ormedar
ound200-
100B.
C.

 I
nit
ial
ly
,it
spowerwasl
imi
tedt
oar
elat
ivel
ysmal
lar
eacompr
isi
ngt
het
ownof

Aksum andi
tsenv
irons/
sur
roundi
ng.Or

 Atf
ir
stt
ime,
thepowerofAksumi
test
atewasl
imi
tedi
nsmal
lregi
on.

 Gr
adual
ly
,itexpandedt
oal
ldi
rect
ionsi
ncl
udel
arget
err
it
ori
es.

 Thecent
erofAksumi
test
atewasf
oundi
nthenor
ther
npar
tofTi
graynow

Aksum t
ownandi
tssur
roundi
ngs.

 Ther
ear
e2ev
idenceordocument
sshowst
hataboutt
hei
nter
naland

i
nter
nat
ional
tradeofAksumi
test
ate

A.ThePer
ipl
usoft
heEr
it
reanSea

 I
tdescr
ibesaboutt
hei
mpor
tantpor
tsoft
heRedSeaandt
heI
ndi
anOcean

 I
tdescr
ibesaboutt
henameoft
heAksumi
teki
ngand

 I
tdescr
ibesaboutt
hemai
nit
emsoft
rade

 Themaj
ori
temsofexpor
toft
heAksumi
test
ateconsi
stedmai
nlyoft
he

nat
ural
product
ssuchasi
vor
y,spi
ces,
gol
d,hi
ppopot
amushi
deset
c…

 Aksumi
test
ated/
tmanuf
act
uredgoodswer
eimpor
tedf
rom Egy
pt,I
ndi
a,

I
tal
y,Per
siaandAsi
aMi
nor(
Laodi
cea)

 t
hei
mpor
tedt
radei
temssuchasdi
ff
erentki
ndsofgar
ment
sandt
ext
il
es,

41
 j
ewel
ry,
met
all
i
csheet
s,t
ool
s,ol
i
veoi
landot
her
s

 Aksumi
tecoi
nswi
del
yusedi
nthei
nter
nal
andi
nter
nat
ional
trade

 Adul
is was t
he maj
orpor
tofAksum and ser
ved as t
he cent
erof

i
nter
nat
ional
trade

B.TheChr
ist
ianTopogr
aphy

 I
tdescr
ibesaboutt
hecommer
cial
act
ivi
ti
esoft
heRedSeaar
eas.

 I
tal
soment
ionst
hei
nter
nall
ongdi
stancet
radebet
weenAksum anda

di
stantr
egi
oncal
l
edSasu,mostpr
obabl
yinBeniShangulandbey
ondt
he

Bl
ueNi
l
e.

 Gol
dist
het
radei
temsofAksum but
,

 cat
tl
e,l
umpsofsal
t(pr
obabl
ysal
tbl
ocks)andi
ronar
ethet
radei
temsof

Sasu

 Aksumi
teki
ngshadext
ensi
vecont
act
swi
tht
heout
sidewor
ldnot
abl
ywi
tht
he

Sout
hAr
abi
anr
egi
on,
leadi
ngt
oexchangeofi
deas,
mat
eri
alandspi
ri
tual
cul
tur
e.

 Somet
imessuchcont
act
sinv
olv
edconf
li
ctsbet
weent
het
wor
egi
ons.

 Oneofsuchknownr
ecor
dedconf
li
ctbet
weenAksum andSout
hAr
abi
ant
ook

pl
acear
ound200A.
D.

 Gadar
atwasoneoft
heAksumi
teki
ngsandpl
ayedamaj
orr
olei
ntheexpansi
on

ofov
erseast
err
it
ori
es

 Gadar
atconf
ir
medbyt
heSabaeani
nscr
ipt
ionandGe’
ezi
nscr
ipt
ion

om 3rdt
 Fr o7thcent
uri
esAD,
var
iousAksumi
teki
ngsmi
ntedandi
ssueddi
ff
erent

42
 ki
ndsofcoi
nsi
ngol
d,si
l
verandbr
onze

 Aksumi
tecoi
nsusedt
ofori
nter
nalandi
nter
nat
ionalt
radeorov
erseasandl
ocal

t
ransact
ions.

om 3rd t
 Fr o7th cent
uri
esAD,Aksum wasoneoft
hef
ourgr
eatpower
soft
he

wor
ld(
i.e.RomanEmpi
re,
Per
sia,
Chi
naandAksum)

 I
twasamaj
ornav
alandt
radi
ngpowerf
rom t
hef
ir
stt
othesev
ent
hcent
uri
es.

 Aksumi
teshi
pswer
ethemai
nmeansoft
ranspor
ti
nggoods.

Ther
eignofKi
ngKal
eb(
r.500-
534A.
D)

 Theper
iodKal
ebdescr
ibedas"
thel
astbr
il
li
antpagei
nthehi
stor
yofAksum"

 Kal
ebwasal
soknownt
owor
ldhi
stor
yforhi
sexpedi
ti
ont
oAr
abi
a.

 Heext
endedandcont
rol
ledgr
eat
ert
err
it
oryi
nSout
hAr
abi
athanbef
orehi
m.

 Het
ri
edt
oChr
ist
iani
zet
heSout
hAr
abi
ansi
nor
dert
ost
rengt
henEt
hiopi
an

occupat
ioni
ntheSout
hAr
abi
anr
egi
on

 Howev
er,
Sout
hAr
abi
ansdev
elopedanant
i-
Chr
ist
ianopposi
ti
onmov
ement
.

 Att
hatt
ime,t
hel
ocalpr
inceofSout
hAr
abi
ansDhu-
Nuwaswasconv
ert
edt
o

Judai
sm

 Hemar
chedt
oZaf
arandNagr
an,andki
ll
edmanyChr
ist
iansi
nthesummerof

523AD.

 Thi
sev
entorper
secut
ionknownast
he"
Per
secut
ionofNagar
an"

 Att
hist
ime,
Kal
ebgai
nsuppor
tfr
om By
zant
ine

43
 E.
g.By
zant
inepr
ovi
desshi
pst
o Kal
eb f
ort
hepur
poseoft
ranspor
tar
mies

agai
nstDhuNuwas.

 DhuNuwaswasdef
eat
edandKal
ebappoi
ntedAbr
ahaasgov
ernorofAr
abi
a

t
hatcont
inuedunt
il570A.D.

 Af
terKi
ngKal
eb,
hissonGabr
aMasqal(
r.
535-
548)camet
opower
.

 Dur
ingt
her
eignofGabr
aMasqal
’
s,t
hemaj
orhi
stor
ical
event
swer
e:

 t
heconst
ruct
ionofchur
chofDabr
aDamoi
nTi
gray

 t
heconst
ruct
ionofchur
chofZur
-Ambai
nGay
intand

 t
hei
ntr
oduct
ionofchur
chmusi
cbySai
ntYar
ed

Whoi
sSai
ntYar
ed?

 Sai
ntYar
ed

 Hewasbor
nonApr
il25,
505A.
DinAksum

 t
heaut
horofmanyr
eli
gioussongs

 t
he cr
eat
ion ofDegwa and pr
epar
ed t
he Degwa i
nthe 3 modes of

chant
ing

1.Ge’
ez,
meanst
hepl
ainchantf
oror
dinar
yday
s

2.Ezi
l,
meansamor
emeasur
edbeatf
orf
uner
alsand

3.Ar
aray
,isal
i
ght
er,
freemoodf
orgr
eatf
est
ival
s.

 consi
der
edast
hef
atherofhy
mnsorsongs

 consi
der
edast
hef
ounderoft
radi
ti
onal
chur
cheducat
ion

44
  t
hef
ir
stt
oint
roducet
hesi
gnofDegwaand

 t
hef
ir
stt
owr
it
emusi
cal
not
es

 Ther
efor
e,St
.Yar
edhad asi
gni
fi
cantcont
ri
but
ionf
ort
heev
angel
i
zat
ionof

Chr
ist
iani
ty

 TheAksumi
test
atebegunt
odecl
i
nesi
ncet
hel
atesev
ent
hcent
urybecauseof

i
nter
nal
andext
ernal
chal
l
enges.

Whatwer
ethef
act
orsf
ort
hedecl
i
neandf
alloft
heAksumi
test
ate?

1. ext
ernalf
act
or

 t
heexpansi
onofMusl
i
m Ar
abi
atot
heRedseer
egi
on

 i
tledt
oconf
li
ctb/
ntheMusl
i
m Ar
absandAksum ov
ert
hecont
roloft
heRed

seet
rade

 asar
esul
t,=Adul
iswasdest
roy
ed

=Dahl
akI
slandswasoccupi
edbyMusl
i
m Ar
abs

=Aksumi
ter
uler
sfacedl
ossofi
ncomeobt
ainedf
rom Redseet
rade

 Consequent
ly,
theAksumi
test
atedecl
inedeconomi
cal
l
y.

 Thi
sledt
othedecl
ineofi
tspol
i
ticalandmi
l
itar
ypowernotonl
yont
heRedSea

coastbutal
soi
nit
sint
eri
orpr
ovi
nces

2. i
nter
nalf
act
or

a.Powerst
ruggl
eamongt
hesuccessor
sofKal
eb,i
.e.bet
weenGabr
a

45
 Masqal
andhi
sbr
otherI
srael

b.Ther
evol
tofsomesubj
ect
edpeopl
eli
keBej
aandAgew.

-
Itl
edt
oAksumi
ter
uler
sfai
l
edt
ocont
rolef
fect
ivel
yov
ert
heBej
aand

Agewpeopl
e.

c.Thedecl
ineofAksum’
smi
l
itar
ypower
.i.
e.,t
hepower
fulAksumi
te

gener
alsl
i
keHasaniDani
elbecamepower
ful
enoughi
nthe9thCAD

d.I
nmi
d-10thCAD,t
heempi
rewasal
soat
tackedbyal
egendar
y"pagan

Queen"
,Yodi
t(Gudi
t)
.

e.The empi
re al
so suf
fer
ed f
rom env
ironment
aldegr
adat
ion,gr
eat

pl
ague,
andcl
i
mat
echange

 Theor
igi
nofYodi
t’
sisunknown.

 Sher
uledov
erAksum/
Ethi
opi
aforf
ort
yyear
s(940-
980A.
D).

 Shedest
roy
edsomanychur
ches,monast
eri
es,monument
sandbui
l
dingsf
or

f
ort
yyear
s.

 Sheal
soki
ll
edt
hepr
incesandpr
incesseswhohadbeeni
mpr
isonedont
he

AmbaofDabr
aDamo.

 Dur
ingt
her
eignofYodi
t’
s:

 i
nter
rupt
edorbr
okenupt
heci
vi
li
zat
ionofAksum and

 Aksumi
ter
uler
swer
eunabl
etor
est
oret
hei
rlostpower
sandpr
est
ige.

 Fi
nal
ly
,Aksumi
test
ateendedi
nthemi
d-12thCAD

46
  Asar
esul
t,t
het
womaj
orhi
stor
icalev
ent
sbr
ought
:

 pol
i
tical
powert
ransf
err
edf
rom t
heAksumi
ter
uler
stot
heZagweDy
nast
y

t
hroughgr
adual
process

 t
hecent
erofAksumi
test
ateshi
ftf
rom nor
thwar
dtosout
hwar
dthat

meansf
rom Aksum t
oLast
aorLal
ibel
a

 Howev
er,Aksum hadapr
ofoundi
mpactupont
hepeopl
esoft
heHor
nof

Af
ri
ca and on i
ts successor
si.
e.t
he Zagwe,‘
Sol
omoni
c Dy
nast
y’,t
he

Gondar
ineper
iodet
c.basedont
hei
rci
vi
li
zat
ion

 Someofi
tsachi
evement
sincl
udes

 i
ndi
genousscr
iptandcal
endaraswel
las

 EOChy
mnsandchant
s,pai
nti
ngs

 ur
bani
zat
ion

 sophi
sti
cat
edbui
l
dingt
radi
ti
ons(
pal
aces,
stel
e,r
ock-
hewnchur
ches…)

et
c.

 I
tal
sodev
elopedcompl
exadmi
nist
rat
iveandgov
ernancesy
stem,
and

agr
icul
tur
alsy
stem i
ncl
udi
ngi
rr
igat
ionet
c.

D.ZagweDy
nast
y

 I
nmi
d-12thC,
ZagweDy
nast
yfoundedbyMar
aTakl
aHay
manot(
ZewgeMi
kael
e)

 Fi
rst
,themai
neconomi
c,pol
i
tical
,andcul
tur
alcent
erofZewgewasatAdaf
ain

Last
a

47
  Then,
shi
ft
edt
oLal
ibel
ainBugna

 TheAgaw pr
inceMer
raTekl
ehai
manotmar
ri
edMasobeWor
q,t
hedaught
erof

t
hel
astAksumi
teki
ngDi
lNa'
od.

 Lat
erheov
ert
hrewhi
sfat
her
-i
n-l
awandt
ookcont
rol
ofpower
.

 Mer
ra-
Tekl
ehai
manot
'ssuccessor
sincl
udeYi
mir
ahanaKi
rst
os,Har
be,Lal
i
bel
a

(
1160-
1211)
,Ne'
akut
oLa'
ab,
Yet
bar
eket
c.

 TheZagweDy
nast
yisbel
iev
edt
ohav
erul
edf
rom c.1150t
o1270.

 Economi
cal
ly
,Tr
adei
soneofeconomi
cact
ivi
ti
esofZagweDy
nast
y

 Zagwe r
uler
s r
enewed cul
tur
al and t
rade cont
act wi
th east
ern

Medi
ter
raneanr
egi
on.

 Themai
nit
emsofexpor
tincl
udedsl
aves,i
vor
y,gol
d,ani
malski
ns,r
are

spi
cesandt
hel
i
ke.

 Themai
nit
emsofi
mpor
tincl
udedt
hepr
oductoft
ext
il
es,si
l
ver
,var
ious

t
ypesofdr
agsandnewl
ymi
ntedcoi
ns,
copperet
c.

 Ther
efor
e,t
hepor
tofZei
lawast
hemai
npor
toft
heEt
hiopi
anki
ngdom dur
ing

ZagweDy
nast
y

 Fur
ther
mor
e,t
heZagweper
iodwasagol
denagei
nEt
hiopi
a'
spai
nti
ngsandt
he

t
ransl
ati
onofsomer
eli
giouswor
ks

Achi
evement
sofZagwedy
nast
y:

1.Dev
elopt
hel
i
ter
atur
eofEt
hiopi
a

 Tr
ansl
atedsomer
eli
giouswor
ksf
rom Ar
abi
cint
oGe’
ez

48
 2.Dev
elopt
hear
chi
tect
ureofEt
hiopi
a

 const
ruct
edchur
chesandmonast
eri
es

E.
g.t
hechur
chofLal
i
bel
a

 Zagwer
uler
sar
ebestknown f
ort
heconst
ruct
ion ofcav
e,semi
-hewn and

monol
i
thi
cchur
ches

 Rock-
hewnchur
chesofLal
i
bel
arecogni
zedbyUNESCO aspar
toft
heWor
ld

Cul
tur
alHer
it
age.

 Basedont
hei
rlocat
ion,
thechur
chescanbegr
oupedi
ntot
hree.

Gr
oupI Gr
oupI
I Gr
oupI
II

1.Bet
eMadahneAl
am 7.Bet
eGabr
iel
-Ruf
ael 11.Bet
eGi
yor
gis

2.Bet
eMar
yam 8.Bet
eMar
qor
yos

3.Bet
eMasqal 9.Bet
eAbbaLi
banos

4.Bet
eDanagi
l 10.Bet
eAmanuel

5.Bet
eMi
kael

6.Bet
eGol
got
a

 Gr
oup-
one

 Theyar
ebui
ltv
erycl
oset
oget
her
.

 Ther
eisachannelconnect
ingt
hem.

 Gr
oupt
wo

49
  Theyar
elocat
edaboutsomedi
stancesf
rom gr
oupone.

 Gr
oupt
hree

 I
tisol
atedf
rom ot
herchur
chesorf
rom gr
oup1and2

 I
thascr
oss-
shapedr
oof

 I
tisal
sowel
l-
desi
gnedandwel
l-
fi
nishedone

 Basedont
henat
ureandst
yleoft
hei
rconst
ruct
ion,t
hechur
chesofLal
i
bel
a

di
vi
dedi
ntot
hreegr
oups.

1.Cav
eChur
ches

 Theyar
esi
mil
art
oanat
ural
cav
e

 Theyhav
eoneent
ranceand

 Somei
nter
naldi
vi
si
onsanddecor
ati
ons

 E.
g.Bet
eMasqal
isacav
echur
ch

2.Semi
-hewnChur
ches

 Theyar
enott
otal
lysepar
atedf
rom t
hesur
roundi
ngr
ock

 Thei
rroof
sorwal
l
sar
est
il
lat
tachedt
other
ock

 E.
g.Bet
eGol
got
a,Bet
eDanagi
l
,Bet
eLi
banosandBet
eMar
qor
yosar
e

semi
-monol
i
thi
cchur
ches

3.Hewn(
Monol
it
hic)chur
ches

 Theyar
ecompl
etel
ysepar
ated(
car
vedout
)fr
om t
hesur
roundi
ngr
ock

orl
i
vingr
ock.

50
  Theyar
ehewnonal
lsi
desi
ncl
udi
ngt
her
oofandt
heout
side.

 E.
g.Bet
e Amanuel
,Bêt
e Madhane Al
am,Bet
e Mar
yam and Bet
e

Gi
yor
gisar
ehewnchur
ches.

 Al
lthese11Rock-
hewnchur
chesbui
ltatRohabyLal
ibel
aand

 Al
lthese11Rock-
hewnchur
chesshowst
hatt
hecont
inuat
ionanddev
elopment

ofAksumi
tear
tandar
chi
tect
ure.

 B/
cthe Aksumi
te bui
l
dings i
ndi
cat
ethatt
he ar
t,ar
chi
tect
uralst
yles and

st
ruct
uresoft
her
ock-
hewnchur
chesofLal
ibel
awer
einher
it
edf
rom Aksum

 Al
though,
somechangeandmodi
fi
cat
ionhadt
akenpl
ace.

 Among t
he el
even chur
ches ofLal
i
bel
a,Bet
e Medhanel
em i
sthe l
argest

chur
ches

WhyLal
ibel
aconst
ruct
edsomanychur
chesofvar
iedsi
zeandt
ypei
nonepl
ace?

 Lal
i
bel
awant
edt
oest
abl
isht
hesecondJer
usal
em.

 B/
chemi
ti
gat
eorev
enav
oiddi
ff
icul
ti
esj
our
neyf
orEt
hiopi
anChr
ist
ianst
othe

Hol
yLands.

 Ther
efor
e,t
heZagwer
uler
smor
eat
tent
iont
otheconst
ruct
ionofchur
chesand

monast
eri
est
hant
otheor
gani
zat
ionofar
my.

Whatwer
ethef
act
orsf
ort
hedecl
i
neandf
alloft
heZagweDy
nast
y?

 Ther
ear
e4maj
orf
act
orsf
ort
hedecl
i
neandf
all
oft
heZagweDy
nast
y

1.Pol
it
icalSuccessi
on

 Fori
nst
ance,
powerst
ruggl
e=b/
nHar
beandLal
ibel
a
51
 =Yi
tbar
ekandhi
snephewNe’
akut
oLe’
ab

 Asar
esul
t,t
hedy
nast
ywasweakenedbyi
nter
nal
pol
i
tical
cri
sis.

2.Ant
i-
Zagwemov
ement

 t
he Semi
ti
c speaki
ng peopl
es ofAmhar
a and Ti
gre opposed Zagwe

dy
nast
ytor
est
oret
heSol
omoni
cdy
nast
yont
hesi
deofYekunoAml
ak

 YekunoAml
akest
abl
i
shi
nghi
m ast
hedi
rectdescendantofDi
lna’
od,

 Di
lna’
odwast
hel
astl
egi
ti
mat
eAksumi
teki
ng

 YekunoAml
akdef
eat
edYet
bar
ekwi
tht
hehel
pofr
uler
sofAmhar
aand

nor
ther
nShawai
n1270AD.

 Yet
bar
ekwast
hel
astZagweki
ng

3.TheChur
ch

 Pr
iest
s,t
her
uler
sofZagwewer
econsi
der
edasi
l
legi
ti
mat
esuccessor
s

 b/
c=t
her
uler
sofZagwedi
dnothav
ethel
i
neofKi
ngSol
omonandQueen

ofShaba ort
her
eisnot
hedescendantofKi
ngSol
omonandQueenof

Shabaand

 =t
he Zagwe r
uler
s had i
ll
egal
lyt
aken power f
rom t
he l
egi
ti
mat
e

“
Sol
omoni
c”ki
ngsofAksum

 AmongPr
iest
s,Takl
aHay
manotandAbbaI
yasusMoawer
efav
oredt
he

Sol
omoni
cdy
nast
yand

 act
ivel
yengagedi
nspr
eadi
ngant
i-
Zagwepr
opagandaont
hebasi
soft
he

anci
entl
egendoft
heQueenoft
heSheba.

 So,
thet
wopr
iest
swer
ethear
chi
tect
soft
her
est
orat
ionoft
heSol
omoni
c

l
i
ne

52
 4.Zei
labecameundert
hecont
rolofMusl
ims

 I
tledt
oeconomi
cdecl
inef
ort
heZagwer
uler
s

 Theeconomi
cdecl
inebr
oughtmi
l
itar
ydecl
i
ne

 Howev
er,Zei
laser
vedasi
mpor
t-
expor
tbusi
nesscent
erf
ort
heZagwe

r
uler
sdur
ingZagwedy
nast
y

3.
2.2.East
,Cent
ral
,Sout
her
n,andWest
ernSt
ates

3.
2.2.
1.Bi
zamo,
Damot
,Enar
yaandGaf
at

A.Bi
zamo:
wasaki
ngdom l
ocat
edont
hesout
her
nbendofAbayRi
ver
.

 I
twasf
oundedi
ntheei
ght
hcent
uryandhadear
lyconnect
ionswi
thDamot
.

B.Damot
:wasast
rongki
ngdom

 expandedi
tst
err
it
ori
esi
ntosout
hofAbay
,nor
thofLakeTur
kana,westof

AwashandeastofDi
dessa.

 Mot
alami
wasapr
omi
nentki
ngofDamoti
nthet
hir
teent
hcent
ury
.

C.Enar
ya:
wasaki
ngdom i
ntheGi
ber
egi
oni
nsout
hwest
ernEt
hiopi
a.

 Ther
oyal
clanwasHi
nnar
eBushasho(
Hinnar
ioBusaso)
.

 Enar
ya'
ski
ngshi
pwasadi
vi
neone:

 Theki
ng(
Hinnar
eTat
o)wassecl
udedandconsi
der
edassacr
ed.

 Ther
eal
powerr
est
edwi
thMi
kret
cho(
counci
l
)

D.Gaf
at:I
twasi
nhabi
tedbySemi
ti
cspeaki
ngpopul
ati
onr
elat
edt
oHar
ariandt
he

Gur
age.

53
  I
tisnotcl
earav
ail
abl
erecor
dst
hatGaf
atf
ormeda“
stat
e”ornot
,but

 Gaf
atmount
ainspr
ovi
dedar
ichsour
ceofgol
d.

 Asofear
lymedi
evalper
iod,Gaf
atwaspay
ingt
ri
but
etot
heChr
ist
ianKi
ngdom

mai
nlyi
ncat
tl
e

 Thest
atewasgov
ernedbyr
uler
sbear
ingt
het
it
leofAwal
amo.

3.
2.2.
2.Musl
im Sul
tanat
es

 Af
tert
hespr
eadofI
slam si
ncet
hebegi
nni
ngoft
heei
ght
hcent
ury
,vi
abl
e

Musl
im communi
ti
esandst
ateshadbeenest
abl
ishedatmanyl
ocat
ions.

 Thesest
atesi
ncl
ude:

A.Shewa:MakhzumiKhal
i
dibnal
-Wal
i
dsetupt
heMakhzumi
teSul
tanat
ein896A.D

(
283A.
H.)onnor
theast
ernf
oot
hil
lofShewa.

B.Fat
agar
:wasf
oundedar
oundMi
njar
,Shenkor
aandAda’
aint
heel
event
hcent
ury
.

 I
tseconomi
cact
ivi
tywascul
ti
vat
edwheatandbar
ley
,fr
uit
s,andher
dsofcat
tl
e,

sheepandgoat
s.

C.Dawar
o:l
ocat
edsout
hofFat
agarbet
weenupperwat
ersofAwashandWabi
Shebel
l
e

 I
twasmuchsmal
lert
hanI
fat
,butr
esembl
ed/
simi
l
ari
tinmanyaspect
s.

 Dawar
ohadacur
r edhakunaf
encycal
l ort
ransact
ion

D.Bal
i:was an ext
ensi
ve ki
ngdom occupy
ing hi
gh pl
ateau,separ
ati
ng basi
ns of

Shebel
l
eandRi
ftv
all
eyLakes.

 I
twassepar
atedf
rom Dawar
obyt
heWabi
-Shebel
l
eRi
ver

54
  Bal
iwasoneoft
hel
argestofEt
hiopi
a’
sMusl
i
m pr
ovi
nces.

 I
t’
soneofeconomi
cact
ivi
tywast
rade

 Tr
adewasmai
nlybasedonbar
terexchangi
ngcat
tl
e,sheep,
clot
het
c.

 I
thadst
rongar
mycomposedofcav
alr
yandi
nfant
ry.

E.I
fat
:wasast
atel
ocat
edadj
acentt
oShewanSul
tanat
e.

 I
twasest
abl
ishedbyUmarWal
asma,
whocl
aimeddescentf
rom Hashami
tecl
an

andsai
dtohav
ecomef
rom Ar
abi
abet
ween1271and1285.

 I
tsi
nhabi
tant
scul
ti
vat
edwheat
,sor
ghum,
mil
l
etandt
eff
,andani
mal
husbandr
y.

 Chatwasdescr
ibedf
ort
hef
ir
stt
imeasbei
ngconsumedasast
imul
ant

3.
3.Ext
ernalCont
act
s

 Et
hiopi
aandt
heHor
nhadcont
act
swi
thEgy
ptsi
nceatl
east3,
000B.C.

 Theser
elat
ionsmaybet
her
egi
on’
sear
li
estcont
act
swi
tht
heMedi
ter
ranean

wor
ldort
heGr
eco-
RomanWor
ld.

 I
thadv
erycl
oser
elat
ionswi
thal
lcommer
cial
lyact
iveSout
hAr
abi
anKi
ngdoms

st
art
ingsomet
imesbef
ore1,
000B.
C.

 Thei
ntr
oduct
ionofChr
ist
iani
tyt
oAksum est
abl
ishedanew pat
ter
nofr
elat
ion

bet
weent
her
egi
onandEgy
pt.b/
cEgy
ptwasbegunsentbi
shopt
oEt
hiopi
a

 Unt
ilt
hei
ntr
oduct
ionofI
slam i
ntoEgy
pt,r
elat
ionsbet
weent
het
wower
efai
rl
y

smoot
handf
ri
endl
y.

 Fol
l
owi
ngt
hei
ntr
oduct
ionofChr
ist
iani
ty,Aksum est
abl
ishedcl
oser
elat
ionshi
p

55
 wi
tht
heEastRoman orBy
zant
ineEmpi
ref
orshar
ed common commer
cial

i
nter
esti
ntheRedSeaar
eaagai
nstt
hei
rri
val
Per
sians.

 Yet
,int
he sev
en cent
ury
,thi
srel
ati
on became compl
icat
ed and began t
o

det
eri
orat
e.

 B/
cther
api
dexpansi
onoft
heMusl
i
m Ar
abst
hrought
heNearandMi
ddl
eEast
,

Nor
thAf
ri
caandt
heNi
l
eval
l
ey.

 I
tledt
othedecl
ineofAksumi
tel
andr
out
esandshi
ppi
ngl
i
nes.

 Gener
all
y,Et
hiopi
aandt
heHor
nhadcont
act
swi
thEgy
pt,
Medi
ter
raneanwor
ldor

t
heGr
eco-
RomanWor
ldandSout
hAr
abi
anKi
ngdomsei
thert
radeorr
eli
gion

pur
pose

3.
4.Economi
cFor
mat
ions

A.Agr
icul
tur
eandLandTenur
eSy
stem

 Agr
icul
tur
ewast
hemai
neconomi
cact
ivi
tyofanci
entst
atesi
nhi
ghl
andar
eas

 Themast
eryoft
het
echnol
ogyofi
rr
igat
ional
socont
ri
but
edt
othegr
owt
hof

agr
icul
tur
alpr
oduct
ion.

 Landt
enur
emeans

 Ther
ightofhol
dingorusi
ngl
and.

 I
tist
hesy
stem ofl
andowner
shi
p.

 Ther
ulesandr
egul
ati
onsaboutt
hehol
dinganduseofl
andi
nthesoci
etyi
s

cal
ledt
heLandTenur
eSy
stem.

 Themostanci
entsy
stem ofl
andhol
dingwhi
chsur
viv
edi
nmanypar
tsof
56
 Et
hiopi
aandt
heHor
nist
hecommunal
landt
enur
esy
stem.

Whati
scommunall
andt
enur
esy
stem?

 I
tist
hemostanci
entsy
stem ofl
andhol
ding

 i
tisagr
oupr
ightf
orusi
ngl
and

 gr
oupr
efer
stot
hef
ami
l
y,t
hecl
anandot
herl
i
neagegr
oupst
owhi
cht
he

i
ndi
vi
dual
bel
onged.

 Eachoft
hesegr
oupshadcommunalr
ightt
othel
and

 Thi
sty
peofl
andt
enur
esy
stem pr
act
icedbyt
henomadsofeast
ernEt
hiopi
a

 Communall
andt
enur
esy
stem gr
adual
l
ychangedf
oll
owi
ngt
hef
ormat
ionof

st
atesi
nthenor
ther
nofpar
toft
hecount
ry

 Newf
ormsofl
andr
ightemer
gedi
nthenor
ther
nofpar
toft
hecount
rysocal
l
ed

Ri
stGul
, tandr
ist
e-gul
t

A.Ri
st:Whati
sRi
st?

 I
tist
hef
orm ofl
andt
enur
edev
elopedi
nthehi
ghl
andsofnor
ther
n

Et
hiopi
a.

 I
tisaki
ndofcommunalbi
rt
hri
ghtt
othel
and

 I
tist
her
ightofcl
aiml
andbasedonki
nshi
p

 I
tisi
nher
it
edf
rom gener
ati
ont
ogener
ati
oni
naccor
dancet
ocust
omar
y

l
aw

57
  Ther
istowner eknownasbal
swer e-r
ist

 Undert
hissy
stem,

 l
andcanbei
nher
it
edbyl
i
nageorancest
or

 t
her
eisnol
andl
ordort
enancy

B.Gul
t:Whati
sGul
t?

 I
tisnotar
ightt
ohol
dlandbut
,

 I
tist
her
ightt
ocol
l
ectt
ri
but
efr
om l
andowner
s.

 Of
fi
cial
swer
eassi
gned/
giv
engul
tri
ghtt
ocol
l
ectt
ri
but
efr
om peasant
s

 Thet
ri
but
ecol
l edbybal
ect e-gul
ts

 Theyhav
etocol
lectt
ri
but
eint
hef
orm ofgr
ain,honey
,but
ter
,cat
tl
e,

sheep,
goat
sandl
i
ke

Whatwer
ethef
ormert
ri
but
esi
tems?

C.Ri
ste-
gul
t:Whati
sRi
stGul
t?

 Ther
ight
sofgul
tbecameher
edi
tar
ywer edr
ecal
l ist
e-gul
t.

 E.
g.i
nst
it
uti
onsl
ikechur
chesand monast
eri
esal
so camet
o acqui
re

her
edi
tar
ygul
tri
ght
s

B.Handi
craf
t

 Handi
craf
twasanot
heri
mpor
tanteconomi
cact
ivi
tyofanci
entst
ates

 I
ndi
genoushandcr
aftt
echnol
ogyhadexi
stedsi
ncet
heanci
entper
iod

 Thesoci
al,economi
candpol
i
ticalcondi
ti
onsofanci
entst
ateshadal
lowedt
he

58
 emer
genceofar
ti
sansi
nvar
iousf
iel
dswi
thdi
ver
sef
ormsandappl
i
cat
ions

 Gener
all
y,ar
ti
sansdi
vi
dedi
ntosomegr
oupsl
ikeMet
alwor
ker
s,Car
pent
ers,

pot
ter
sandTanner
s

 Eachar
ti
sansengagedi
nvar
iousf
iel
dsandpr
oducedt
hei
rpr
oduct
s

 E.
g.Met
alwor
ker
s=pr
oducedmet
alt
ool
sli
keswor
ds,bows,ar
rows,kni
ves,

axes,
ornament
set
c.

 Car
pent
ers=engagedi
ncar
vingwoodi
mpl
ement
sli
kedoor
s,wi
ndows,

st
ool
s,chai
rs,
tabl
es,
bedset
c.

 Pot
ter
s=pr
oducedcer
ami
ctool
s/ut
ensi
lsl
i
keov
ens,j
ar,pot
,ket
tl
e,et
c.

and

 Tanner
s=pr
oducedl
eat
hert
ool
susedf
orbed,
bedcov
er,
honeyandbut
ter

cont
ainer
,dr
inki
ng cupandcl
othesunt
ilr
epl
aced byweav
ers’cot
ton

dr
esses

 Howev
er,
exceptt
hecar
pent
ersandmasons,
thear
ti
sanswer
emost
lydespi
sed

andmar
ginal
izedduet
othei
rwayofl
i
fe,
economi
cpr
act
icesandot
her
s.

 Ther
uli
ngcl
assesmost
lyspentt
hei
raccumul
atedweal
thoni
mpor
tedl
uxur
ious

i
temsr
athert
hant
hedomest
ict
echnol
ogy
.

 Thegener
alpubl
i
cat
ti
tudet
owar
dsar
ti
sanswasnotatal
lencour
agi
ng.

 Consequent
ly,t
hel
ocal
l
ypr
oducedagr
icul
tur
ali
mpl
ement
sandhousef
urni
tur
e

di
dnotshowanysi
gni
fi
canti
mpr
ovementandsophi
sti
cat
ion.

C.Tr
ade

 Tr
adewasanot
heri
mpor
tanteconomi
cact
ivi
tyofanci
entst
ates

 Anci
ent st
ates obt
ained consi
der
abl
e i
ncome f
rom bot
h i
nter
nal and

59
 i
nter
nat
ional
trade.

 Themaj
orsoci
o-economi
candpol
i
ticalcent
ersofear
li
estst
atesser
vedasa

maj
ort
radecent
ersf
ori
nter
nal
andi
nter
nat
ional
trade

3.
5.Soci
o-cul
tur
alAchi
evement
s

Whatwer
ethesoci
o--
cul
tur
alAchi
evement
sofanci
entst
ates?

A.Ar
chi
tect
ure

 Ast
hest
atesexpanded,
archi
tect
ureal
sobegant
ofl
our
ish

 Dur
ingAksumi
ti
eper
iod,oneoft
heuni
quear
chi
tect
uralt
echnol
ogi
eswast
he

cur
ving/
engr
avi
ngofst
ele/
obel
i
skar
oundt
het
hir
dcent
uryAD.

 Tot
all
y,58st
elesf
oundi
nandar
oundAksum andgr
oupedi
ntowel
lmadeand

decor
ated,
hal
fcompl
etedandmegal
i
ths(
nothewn)
.

 Asl
ocalt
radi
ti
onsay
s,t
hest
eleswer
eengr
avedspeci
fi
cal
l
yatGobodar
aand

t
heywer
etr
anspor
tedandpl
ant
edi
nAksum.

 Thel
ongestst
elemeasur
es33met
ershei
ght
s(t
hef
ir
sti
nthewor
ld)
.

I
trepr
esent
sa-
14st
ori
edbui
l
dingwi
thmanywi
ndowsandaf
alsedooratt
hebot
tom.

 Thesecondl
ongestobel
i
skmeasur
es24met
ershei
ght

I
trepr
esent
sat
en-
stor
iedbui
l
dingwi
thmanywi
ndowsandaf
alsedooratt
hebot
tom.

 Thet
hir
dlongestst
elemeasur
es21met
ershei
ght

I
trepr
esent
sani
ne-
stor
iedbui
l
dingwi
thmanywi
ndowsandaf
alsedooratt
hebot
tom

 Dur
ingZagweper
iod,t
heseconduni
quear
chi
tect
uralt
echnol
ogi
eswast
he

const
ruct
ionoft
her
ockhewnchur
ches

 Theywer
eregi
ster
edbyUNESCOaspar
tofwor
ldcul
tur
alher
it
agei
n1978

B.Wr
it
ingSy
stem

60
  TheSabeanl
anguagehadanal
phabetwi
thboust
rophedonwr
it
ingt
ypef
rom l
eft

t
ori
ghtandf
rom r
ightt
olef
tal
ter
nat
ivel
y.

 Theear
li
estSabeani
nscr
ipt
ionsf
oundi
nEr
it
reaandEt
hiopi
adat
etot
heni
nth

cent
uryBC.

 Oneodd/
pecul
iarf
eat
ureofSabeani
nscr
ipt
ionsi
sabsenceofv
owel
s

 Mostoft
hewor
dsofSabeani
nscr
ipt
ionsar
ewr
it
teni
nconsonant
s.

 Fori
nst
ance,
Da’
amatwasi
nscr
ibedasD’
mt

 Af
tert
hesi
xthandsev
ent
hcent
uri
esBC,v
ari
ant
s/al
ter
nat
iveofscr
iptar
ose

e.
g.theGeʽ
ezscr
ipt

 Byt
hef
ir
stcent
uryAD,
"Geʽ
ezal
phabet
"ar
osewi
thonl
y26consonantl
ett
ers

 The"
Geʽ
ezal
phabetwr
it
tenf
rom l
eft
-t
o-r
ight

 Ther
efor
e, Et
hiopi
a’
s anci
ent i
ndi
genous wr
it
ing sy
stem has i
mmense

cont
ri
but
iont
othedev
elopmentofl
i
ter
atur
e,ar
tandt
hewr
it
ingofhi
stor
y.

C.Cal
endar

 Cal
endar
swer
einv
ent
edbasedont
her
iseandf
all
ofr
ainandwat
erl
evel
.

 I
nmostcases,t
hel
engt
hoft
hemont
hwasl
imi
tedbasedont
hemov
ementof

t
hemoonorappar
entmov
ementoft
hesun.

 Ot
her
wise,t
henumberofday
sint
heweekori
nthey
earv
ari
edf
rom r
egi
ont
o

r
egi
on.

 Cal
endar
swer
edev
elopedandadopt
edamongv
ari
ouspeopl
esofEt
hiopi
aand

t
heHor
n.

 Forexampl
e,Or
omo,
Sidama,
Isl
ami
candEt
hiopi
csol
arcal
endar
s

1.Or
omocal
endar

61
  I
tbasedonast
ronomi
calobser
vat
ionsofmooni
nconj
unct
ionwi
thsev
enor

ei
ghtpar
ti
cul
arst
ars

 Gr
oupofst
arscal
ledUr
ji
iDhahaa(
gui
dingst
ars)andBakkal
cha(
mor
ningst
ar)
.

 Ther
ear
e29.
5dat
esi
namont
h

 Ther
ear
e354day
sin12mont
hsori
nay
ear

2.Si
damacal
endar

 I
trot
atesf
oll
owi
ngmov
ement
sofst
arswi
th13mont
hsay
ear

 12mont
hsar
edi
vi
dedequal
lyi
nto28day
s

 Whi
le,
thet
hir
teent
hmont
hhas29day
s.

 Ther
ear
e365day
sin13mont
hsori
nay
ear

 TheSi
damaweekhasonl
y4day
s(Di
kko,
Del
a,QawadoandQawal
anka)and

 Eachmont
hhas7weeks.

 Basedont
hese,nomi
nat
edMot
e(Ki
ng)i
spr
esent oFi
edt cheChambal
ala,New

Yearr
it
ual
,forpopul
ardemonst
rat
ion.

3.Et
hiopi
csol
arcal
endar

 I
thas12mont
hs

 Eachmont
hhas30day
spl
us5or6(
isaddedev
ery4y
ear
s)Epagomenal
day
s

 5or6Epagomenal
day
sconsi
der
edas1mont
h

 Tot
all
y,i
tcompr
isesat
hir
teent
hmont
h

 TheEt
hiopi
csol
arcal
endarbecomest
heof
fi
cialcal
endaroft
hecount
ry

4.TheMusl
im(
Isl
ami
c)cal
endar

 I
tisal
unarcal
endar

 I
tconsi
sti
ngof12mont
hsi
nay
ear

62
  12mont
hshas354or355day
s

 I
templ
oy heHi
st j
ray
earof622AD

 Mohammedandhi
sfol
l
ower
smadef
li
ghtf
rom Meccat
oMedi
nacal
ledHi
j
ra

 I
nIsl
ami
ccal
endar
,AHr
epr
esent
edAf
terHi
j
ra,butBHr
epr
esent
edBef
oret
he

Hi
j
ra.

 Ot
herpeopl
esl
i
ket
heAgaw,Hal
aba,Hadi
ya,Wol
ayt
a,Gedeo,t
heNi
l
otes,et
c

hav
ethei
rowndat
ingsy
stem.

D.Numer
als

 Numer
alsappear
edi
nEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
natt
hebegi
nni
ngoff
our
thcent
ury

AD.

 Geʽ
ez uses numer
alsy
stem compar
abl
etot
he Hebr
ew,Ar
abi
c and Gr
eek

numer
als,
buti
tlacksi
ndi
vi
dual
char
act
ersf
ormul
ti
plesof100.

 Number
sar
eov
er-andunder
li
nedi
npr
opert
ypeset
ti
ng,combi
nedt
omakea

si
ngl
ebar

 Showsepar
atebar
sabov
eandbel
oweachchar
act
er.

63