SCIENCE REVIEWER

Lesson 1 - Electromagnetic Wave

EM Waves - are transverse waves consisting of a combination of oscillating electric and

magnetic fields.
- it is the transmission of energy through a vacuum or with out media at the
speed of light.
- An EM wave is a combination of electric wave and magnetic field wave.
- They do not require a medium to travel.
- it involves the interaction of electricity and magnetism (James Clerk Maxwell)

In an electromagnetic wave, the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each
other, and perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave. The oscillation of
both field is perpendicular to the direction
where the wave travels.
In the figure the electric field is vertical,
represented by the blue.

ELECTROMAGNETISM SPECTRUM
- It refers to the classification of EM waves in terms of their frequencies.
- They cover a wide range of wavelengths and photon energies.

RELATIONSHIP OF FREQUENCY AND

WAVELENGTH
- The lower the frequency of the EM Wave,
longer is its wavelength.
RELATIONSHIP AMONG ENERGY FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH
- READING FROM LEFT TO RIGHT ; FREQUENCY ( hertz ) increases as ENERGY increases
- the LONGER the wavelength the SHORTER the frequency
THE RELATIONSHIP THAT EXISTS , ALLOW DIFFERENT ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES TO
POSSESS CHARACTERISTICS FOR MANY USEFUL APPLICATIONS.

WAVELENGHT - distance between points.

FREQUENCY - number of cycles

EFFECTS OF EM WAVES:
NON-IONIZING - can’t penetrate (microwave, radio, IR, Visible light, and UV)
IONIZING - can penetrate (X-rays, Gamma Rays)

RADIO WAVES
 have the longest wavelength
 Have the following frequency band : LW, MW , SW – AM radio communication
VHF, UHF- FM stereo radio communication
and terrestrial television communication
 Main application is in communication.
 Propagates well through atmosphere.
 In case of satellites and space communication, higher frequency of radio waves are
being used. Because lower frequencies can no longer penetrate the upper atmosphere.

MICROWAVE
 very short wave length
 Is the established connection and access to other devices ( files through Bluetooth and
connect to Wi-Fi.
 Used to transmit communication signals by satellite and mobile phones
 RADAR ( Radio Detection and Ranging ) is one of the important uses of microwave.
 Used in cooking and reheating food – the microwave oven sends microwaves to the
food and penetrates into it to increase energy of its water molecules.
 it uses reflected microwaves to determine vehicle speeds, track storms or detect air
traffic.
 Have higher than radio waves.
INFRARED
 IR occupies the region between microwaves and visible light “ infra” – means beyond ;
consists of waves beyond the red end of the electromagnetic spectrum
 Almost all objects emit IR.
 Main component of heat radiation.
 As temperature increases the IR wavelength shortens.
 Commonly used in wireless remote control units for various electrical appliances. The
unit communicates with the appliance through the IR produced by light – emitting
diodes ( LEDs )inside the unit.
 Wireless data transfer between devices such as laptop computers use the principle of
emitting coded IR, which is detected by other devices.
 Are invisible but can be detected in a form of heat
 William Herschel

VISIBLE LIGHT
 Most familiar EM radiation that is visible to human eye
 Responsible for the functioning of our sense of sight
Rods and cones – specialized cells in the eye are very sensitive to EM waves. These cells
transmit electrical signal to the brain, which form the mental image
You perceive different frequencies of light as different colors.
 The various wavelength of light are generally classified by colors
 The lowest frequencies of visible light are perceived as red, and the highest frequencies
are perceived as violet
 White light is produced when equal amounts of frequencies of light are combined

ULTRAVIOLET RADIAION
 Found beyond the violet end of the visible light region of the spectrum and extends to
the X – ray band
 Also part of the heat radiation emitted by hot objects such as the sun. Earth’s main
source of UV radiation
 Radiation from the sun stimulates our body to produce vitamin D – needed for healthier
bones
 When skin is exposed to UV it does not warm the skin ( unlike IR ) but induces chemical
process that results in tanning or sunburns ( short term effects of UV exposure)
 Long term exposure will result to skin cancer
 There are substance that fluoresce when irradiated by UV light – they absorb UV
radiation and emit visible light,which makes them glow. paper bills – verify under
 special lamps, certain markings on the paper bill that will be visible only when exposed
to UV light.
 Also paints and dye works.
 Even washing powder – resulted into “ whiter than whites “ when exposed to sunlight
 John Ritter - proved UV Rays

X-RAYS
Are high frequency electromagnetic waves that are produced when high energy electrons
lose energy after striking a metal target
The range of wavelength in X –rays is the same as the size of spacing between atoms of solid

Used in numbers of medical applications:

1. Roentgenogram, was discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm C. Roentgent
Is an image of shadows cast on film by various structure of the body. Use to examine the
condition of a person’s bone, teeth and other internal parts of the body.

High penetrating x – rays can also damage living tissues and other organs. Unnecessary
exposure or overexposure to this form of radiation should be avoided.

GAMMA RAYS
 Highest frequency EM waves released during nuclear reactions
 The most energetic form of electromagnetic radiation with very short wavelength
 Are emitted in various nuclear processes such as nuclear fission, fusion and radioactive
decay
 Can cause serious damage when absorbed because they penetrate deep into the living
tissues.
 They are carefully used under controlled conditions in treating cancers ( oncology ) and
in sterilizing hospital equipment.

ACUTE EXPOSURE - when you get “high amounts” of radiation exposure over a short period
of time.
CHRONIC EXPOSURE - exposed to a small amount of radiation over a long period of time.

Lesson 2 - Reflections and Mirrors

REFLECTION - property of light that occurs when light bounces back as it hits a surface.
- main reason that we are able to see the objects around us.
- As the light hits a particular object, the reflected light entering our eyes allows
us to see the objects.
- the light need not be the same source of the light itself.

The light emitted from the source is radiated in all directions. Light rays travel in straight
lines, so when the light from a source hits a barrier or a reflective surface, the light ray is
reflected depending on the angle at which it hits the surface.

LAW OF REFLECTION
- when the light from a source hits a surface, some of the light is reflected back, and are
absorbed. The direction of the reflected light depends on where the incoming light hits the
surface of a reflecting light.
- the law of reflection states the angle of reflection is the same as the angle of incidence.
TYPES OF REFLECTION:

REGULAR REFLECTION - light hits a smooth surface.

- the incident rays strike the surface in a parallel orientation and are
reflected in the same orientation.
DIFFUSED REFLECTION - incident light rays strike a rough surface.
- light is reflected in many directions while still following the law of
reflection.

IMAGE FORMATION FOR REFLECTING SURFACE

MIRRORS - reflective surface made up of glass.
- can be either plane mirrors or curved mirrors
PLANE MIRROR 0 flat surface that reflect light and form an image of an object brought in
front of it

IMAGE FORMATION IN PLANE MIRRORS

VIRTUAL IMAGE - formed behind the mirror.
- the distance of the image to the mirror is the
same as the distance of the object to mirror.
LATERALLY INVERTED - this refers to the left-to-right reversal in
plane mirrors.

RAY DIAGRAMMING TECHINIQUE - uses atleast two rays to

locate and describe the image.

1. Locate the image at the back of the mirror. Note that the
object distance and the image distance are the same.
2. Get at least two points from the image and draw a straight line toward the observer’s eye.
Following the line-of-sight rule. The solid lines are the reflected rays, meanwhile the broken
lines are the virtual rays.

3. The rays should also correspond to the location as it is in the image.

Orientation:
1. Upright
2. Inverted

Type:
1. Real - infront of the mirror
2. Virtual - behind the mirror

IMAGES FORMED BY CURVED MIRRORS

CONVEX MIRRORS - reflective surface bent outward
- produces upright, virtual images that are smaller that the actual object.
The image is located behind the mirror.

CONCAVE MIRRORS - reflective surface bent inward.

- not entirely spherical, they’re spherical caps.
- produce images of different sizes and locations.
PRINCIPAL AXIS - the line cutting through the center.
CENTER OF CURVATURE (c) -center of the sphere from which the mirror is taken.
- also known as the geometrical center of the mirror.
VERTEX (v) - actual physical center of the mirror.
RADIUS OF CURVATURE - the distance from the center of curvature to the vertex of the
mirror.
FOCUS (f) - the midpoint of the radius of curvature.
FOCAL LENGTH - distance from vertex.

In concave or converging mirrors, incident light rays are converged or brought to a certain
point or focus, whereas in convex or diverging mirrors, light rays are spread out and
dispersed by the mirror.

Curved mirrors produce images of different sizes and locations.

OBJECT DISTANCE - measured from vertex to the mirror to the location of the object.
RAY1 - is a ray parallel to the principal axis hitting the mirror passing through the focus as it
is reflected back.
RAY 2 - passing through the center of curvature.
LOCATE THE IMAGE - the image is at the point where two rays meet.
IMAGE DISTANCE - measured from image to the vertex of the mirror.
DESCRIBING THE IMAGE - it is described according to its orientation, its distance from the
mirror, its type, its size, and its magnification.

REAL IMAGE - formed in front of the mirror.

VIRTUAL IMAGE - formed behind the mirror.

CONCAVE MIRRORS

For convex or diverging mirrors, there is not real focus. CONVEX MIRRORS always produce
upright, virtual images that are smaller that the actual object. The image is located behind
the mirror.
Lesson 3 - Refraction and Lenses

REFRACTIONS OF LIGHT
Light is an EM wave because it can travel without medium. Howeever, light is also a particle.
So, light cal also a travel in a medium, such as water, air, and gas.

When light travels through different media, it changes its velocity and produces different
images through refraction.

REFRACTION - is the bending of light waves as they enter or cross the boundary between
two media with different densities.
- it also changes the direction and velocity of the light

As light travels, it is also refracted as it is reflected. When light hits a glass surface, light is
partially reflected. However, light is also refracted as it passes through the light. The blue ray
is the incident ray traveling toward the glass surface. The red ray is the reflected ray, which
indicates that some of the light ma be reflected by glass. The black ray is the refracted ray.

When light is refracted, the light changes the direction of its motion and its velocity at the
same time.

ANGLE OF REFRACTION - The angle at which the ray is bent from the normal line.

Describe the image using: LOTS (location, orientation, type, size)

The speed of the light in the material is inversely proportional to its index of refraction.

SNELL’S LAW
Light is only refracted when it crosses a boundary between two different media having
different properties.

OPTICAL DENSITY - it allow light to pass through bend the light more than others.
LAW OF REFRACTION - first discovered by Willebrord Snellius (Snell).
- a dutch physicist
- he described the relationship of the angle of incidence to the angle
of refraction.

n = c/v n = the index of refraction, c = the speed of light in a vacuum,

v = speed of light in the material.

LENSES
LENSES - are transparent material made of either glass or plastic.
- It refract incoming rays.
- It can be either converging or diverging lenses.
- refract light by bending it toward the thickest part of the lenses.
CONVERGING or CONVEX LENSES - are thick in the middle and thin at the edges.
DIVERGING or CONCAVE LENSES - are thin in the middle and thick at the edges.
PARTS OF LENSES
PRINCIPAL AXIS - a horizontal line that crosses the center of the lens.
VERTEX - the intersection point of the vertical and the principal axis.
FOCUS - is the point where the refracted light converges.
FOCAL LENGTH - the distance between the focus and the vertex.
RADIUS OF CURVATURE
VERTICAL AXIS

RAY DIAGRAMMING THE IMAGE THROUGH THE LENS

Like mirrors, the images formed by lenses vary in size, shape, orientation, location, and type.
Graphically, we can locate and describe these images by ray diagramming. We use at least
two rays to draw the path of the light as it enters the lens and finally locate the image.
Convex lens bends the ray toward the center, whereas concave lens bends the rays outward.

The image formed by a lens depends on the type of the lens used, the size of the object, and
its distance from the lens itself.
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

CAMERA - works like a human eye

- it produces image that can be printed.

PARTS OF THE CAMERA

LENS - it can be adjusted to get a clearer focus of the object
- it refracts the light to form the image on the retina or the screen
APERTURE - the light entering the camera
- the opening in the camera
- it acts like the pupil of the eye
FILM - the light enters the aperture
- it produce images
DIAPHRAGM - it control the amount of light that gets the camera
- Acts like the iris

Digital cameras have image sensors that covert images into electrical signals and store them
in memory cards. Common images sensors are CMOS and
charge-coupled devices (CCDs), which detects the amount of light entering the camera.

BINOCULAR - an instrument consisting if two telescopes put together to make distant

object seem near, and larger.
- it is a tool of nature enthusiasts, hikers, and even astronomers.
- also used in the military

THREE BASIC PARTS OF BINOCULAR

OCULAR LENS - focuses and enlarge the image
- captures or collects light
PRISM - corrects the orientation of the image
- used to invert image horizontally and vertically before it reaches the observer's eye
EYEPIECE LENS - corrects aberrations in the image
 COLLECTING LENS - it allows light to get into the binoculars.

The larger the aperture, the more light is allowed in and the clearer the image will be

The number 42 is the size of the aperture opening and the number 8 is the magnification.

MAGNIFICATION - is the ratio of the focal length of the lens and the focal length of the
eyepiece lens
- it is usually 8 or 10

Chapter 4 – lesson 1 Magnets and Electromagnetism

PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS
History tells us that magnets were first discovered to have come from lodestones. The world
lodestone comes from the Anglo-Saxon word meaning “leading stone”. Chinese used
magnets as compass.
Ancient Chinese – discovered the magnetic property magnetite or lodestone
Magnetite or lodestone – naturally magnetized piece of iron
Lodestone – means “ leading stone “
- they always point to the north-south direction when suspended
- this property was used to develop the 1st magnetic compass for
navigational use.
Magnets – come in different shapes and sizes.
Magnetic materials usually made up of metals.
Types of Magnets:
Permanent Magnets
Ferromagnets
Electromagnets

PERMANENT MAGNETS – do not easily lose their magnetic properties.

- naturally occurring.
FERROMAGNETS – lose their magnetic properties after some time.
ELECTROMAGNETS – are produced by the electronic current flowing through a wire.
- they need electricity to function.
Classification of any given materials based on the observation of forces exerted by the
materials on each other.
1. MAGNET – is a material or object that produces a magnetic field
2. MAGNETIC MATERIALS – materials that can be used to make magnets.
examples: iron, nickel, cobalt and alloys based on these materials
3. NONMAGNETIC MATERIALS- materials that are not attracted by magnets
examples: wood, copper, paper, aluminum, brass and glass

MAGNETIC FIELD – the region around the magnet where magnetic effects can be detected

MAGNETIC FIELD LINES –lines used to indicate the magnetic field.

MAGNETIC FIELD LINES OF A BAR MAGNET

CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGNETIC FIELD LINES:

1. The lines always originate from the magnetic north pole.
2. The field lines do not cross with one another.
3. The closer the magnetic field lines to one another, the stronger the magnetic field.

MAGNETIC FIELD LINES BETWEEN THE OPPOSITE POLES OF BAR MAGNET

MAGNETIC FIELD LINES BETWEEN SIMILAR POLES OF BAR MAGNETS

ATTRACTION or REPULSION – when you bring two magnets together, field interactions can
be either.

When opposite poles of two magnets are brought close to each other, the direction of the
magnetic fields align, causing attraction between the two magnets. However, if same poles
of two magnets are brought close to each other, the magnets will repel and the fields will
create a neutral point where no magnetic field is felt.

BASIC MAGNETIC RULE – “like poles repel and opposite poles attract”

Like charges repel, opposite charges attracts.

MAGNETIC FIELD - NORTH
ELECTRIC FIELD - POSITIVE CHARGE

ELECTRIC FIELD:
- Are produced by positive and negative charges
- Attraction happens between opposite charges and repulsion happens in like charges
- A magnetic field points to the north pole, an electric field points to the direction of a
positive charge

There are differences however. In electricity the positive and negative charges can exist
separately, whereas in magnetism the north and south poles of a magnet always come
together. Electric field lines have definite startring and ending points.
DIFFERENCES:
Electric Field Lines: positive and negative charges can exist separately
have definite starting and end point
Magnetic Field Lines: north and south poles of a magnet always come together
are continuous loops; outside the magnet, the field is directed from north to south pole,
but inside the field runs from south pole to north pole

ELECTROMAGNETISM
- Discovered by Hans Christian Oersted accidentally
 - he believed that both electricity and magnetism were forces of radiated by all
substances and that they may interfere with eachother.
- Happens when the current – carrying wire produces a magnetic field, the wire becomes
an electromagnet

The direction of the force on this cyurrent-carrying wire can be demonstrated by using
the right-hand rule.
ELECTROMAGNET- a coil is made up of several turns of copper wire is wounded around a
metal core, usually a ferromagnet, such as iron.

A magnetic field is produced once the electric current flows through the coil
This magnetizes the core, which further strengthen the magnetic field by a thousand-
fold
When the electric current is switched off – magnetic field is lost

Strength of the magnetic field can be increased by:

1. increase the flow of current; or
2. increase the number of turns in the coil

Lesson 5 - Electromagnetic Induction

A current carrying-wire can produce a magnetic field.

The concept of electromagnetic induction operates in reverse. Magnetic field can produce
current in a wire.

Christian Orsted – discovered by accident electromagnetism

Michael Faraday – successfully observed electromagnetic induction
Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction – a magnetic field can produce electric current
as well as the area where the magnetic field is perpendicularly applied

The magnetic flux is the result of magnetic field B being perpendicular to magnetic field A.

If magnetic flux changes, then electromagnetic induction occurs,

To change the magnetic field, either we move the magnet or we move the coil in and out of
the magnet. The changing magnetic field will induce voltage, casuing the current to flow
through the wire. This voltage is known as induced electromotive force (EMF)

EMF( induced ) – is produced when there is a relative motion between the coil and the
magnet.

An increase in the magnetic field will result to an increase electric current – resulting into the
change of magnetic flux which will then produce electromagnetic induction.

Increase in the area where magnetic field acts perpendicularly – increase in magnetic flux

Adding more loops = bigger change in magnetic flux = greater current

Lenz’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction = Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz

- direction of the current is induced in a conductor by a changing magnetic field
- the magnetic field created by the induced current opposes to the initial changing magnetic
field that produced it.

APPLICATION OF MAGNETIC FIELD FORCES:

LOUDSPEAKER
Is a very common equipment that comes in different sizes, from the speakers in our phones
to home and cinema-quality speakers.

Basic Components:
1. Cone - the electromagnet,and the permanent magnet.
- the cone is connected to the electromagnet by a flexible material.

ELECTRIC MOTOR
A device that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy by applying the principle of
electromagnetic induction.

1. Armature - the rotating coil.

2. Permanent Magnet - source of magnetic field.
3. Brushes - carry the current to the commutator.
4. Commutator - reverses the current and a source of electric current.
HARD DISCS
Used to store information. The first hard drive was developed bt the International Business
Machines (IBM) Corporation in 1953. It stores information using magnetism.

1. Magnetic disc (platter) - store information

2. Spindle - to rotate the magnetic discs.
3. Read/write heads - ass data or information on the platters. Platters are made up of
magnetic materials divided into billion parts called bits.

ELECTRIC GENERATORS
Converts mechanical energy to electrical energy through electromagnetic induction.

1. Shaft - connected to the motor or the propellers responsible for the mechanical input.
2. Stator - stationary magnetic field with copper windings.
3. Armature - spins inside the stator to create electromagnetic induction.
4. Commutator - collects electricity and sends It to the brushes, which in turn send the
current outside

Direct current (DC) generator - a smaller voltage is produced by the rotation armature.
Alternating current (AC) generator - are capable of reversing the flow of the current
periodically, producing a higher amount of voltage when connected to the transformer.

POWER PLANTS
Are industrial facilities that generate electricity using electric generators.

Types of Power Plants:

1. Geothermal
2. Nuclear
3. Coal
4. Solar
5. Wind
6. Hydroelectric Power Plants

HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT (hydropower plant)

A power plant that uses the gravitational potential energy of falling water to generate
electricity.

Types of Hydroelectric Power Plant:

1. Storage Hydropower - uses a dam or reservoir to store water
2. Run-of-river hydropower - channels water from a river through a canal.
3. Pumped storage hydropower - harness water, which is cycled between the lower and
upper reservoirs through pumps.
4. Offshore hydropower

Hydro Plants can be classified into three.

1. Large hydropower plant - produce 30 MW.
2. Small hydropower plant - produce 10 MW or less.
Microhydropower plant - produce 1,00