Topic 1b. IGCSE Biology (0610) Classification (part of topic 1) By Mr. Joshwa O. O.

: Name: ________________
Classification:

Is Systematically grouping organisms according to features that they share;

The current Two main classification systems:

1. Carl Linnaeus proposed the Taxonomic Hierarchy System (Linnaean System) – based only on morphology & anatomy
2. Phylogenetic classification/Cladistics: = Classification based on evolutionary relationships;-uses mainly molecular evidence;

NB:

Homologous structures:
structures that originate from same type of embryo cells but look different;
because the organisms have evolved in different environment;
Example:
 horse foot, human arm & bat wings have same number & arrangement of bones;
 study of embryology reveals that homologous structures develop from same type of embryo stem cells;
 This suggests the homologous structures evolved from same structure in a common ancestor (similar ancestral origin);;
 So the organisms with homologous structures are more closely related; & are put in similar group;
like horse & bat are mammals
Analogous structures;
Structures that look & have similar functions but have different embryonic & so different ancestral origins;
So organisms with analogous structures are not closely related (they just had convergent evolution);
so the organisms are not put in same group;
Example:
A flies & a bat’s wing look similar & do same job but develop from different types of embryo cells;
this indicate insects & bats have different ancestral origins; so they are in different groups, Bats are mammals & flies are insects

Two Broad Methods used in classification approaches:

Artificial system
Carl Linnaeus proposed this
-based on only one or a few non-evolutionary characters.
The characters are:
1. Reproductive traits
2. Morphological
(external features like color, size, shape, structures)
NB: Morphological features (external appearance);
-doesn’t give any idea about phylogenetic (evolutionary)
relationships.
-It accepts analogous features for grouping.
(features with dissimilar origins but look similar)
But doesn’t study homologous structures
Natural system
Bentham & Hooker proposed this
-based on large number of evolutionary characters from study of:
1. Morphology, (eternal features);
2. Anatomy (internal large structures);
3. Cytology (study of cells)
4. Embryology (study of embryos),
5. Molecular biology (like study of genes & proteins).
-explains some phylogenetic (evolutionary) relationships.
- uses homologous structures for groupings
(features that look different but have similar origins)
It avoids analogous characters for grouping

-characters used are liable to change with change in the -The characters are more stable.
environment.

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History of classification systems:
Aristotle (a Greek Philosopher) classified animals according to their artificial features like ability to locomote & habitats;
Later Carl Linnaeus “the father of taxonomy” gave us “ the Carl Linnaeus Taxonomic Hierarchy System (Linnaean System);
The current Two main classification systems are:
3. Carl Linnaeus Taxonomic Hierarchy System (Linnaean System) – based only on morphology & anatomy;
(Taxis = Greek for “arrangement or division”) & Nomos = “method”;
4. Phylogenetic classification/Cladistics: = classification based on evolutionary relationships; - mainly uses molecular evidence
Carl Linnaeus Taxonomic Hierarchy System (Linnaean System);
 Taxonomic hierarchy = process of arranging various organisms into successive ranks/levels;
 Either in decreasing or increasing order from Domain to species or vice versa;
 Each taxonomic rank = is taxon (plural = taxa)
 Linnaeus proposed 7 main ranks – from the broadest to smallest - Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, Genus & species;
 Today an eighth rank/taxon called Domain has been added above kingdom;
 Larger ranks group organisms using broader features so larger ranks are more inclusive – have more diverse organisms)
 Smaller ranks group organisms using more specific features so more closely relates therefore have lesser diverse organisms;
The 8 main taxa used in current taxonomic system are: Domain, Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, Genus & species
Taxa Definitions of Taxa Example of how the system can be used to classify humans
Domain Domain= related kingdoms Domain Eukarya All Eukaryotes

Kingdom = Related phyla Kingdom Animalia All animals , same as rats, snails etc
Phylum Chordata All animals with
Phylum/Division = Related (vertebrata Notocord/backbones
classes in IGCSE)

Class = Related orders Class Mammalia Animals with backbones & hair/fur
Order = related families Order Primate Mammals with hands & feet
Apes,
Family = related genera Family Hominidae primitive humans & modern humans
only
Genus = related species Genus Homo Primitive humans & modern humans
Species; species is a species sapiens Only
NB: group of organisms with Modern humans
organisms get fewer down the similar features that can
groups as features used become reproduce to produce
more specific & fewer fertile offspring
NB: Grouping organisms using natural features they share ended up reflecting some kind of
NB: in plant biology “Division” is evolutionary relationships;
used instead of “phylum” DON’T CRAM all taxa in classification of humans,
only know Domain kingdom, Genus & species
Carl Linnaeus (Father of taxonomy):
 Carl Linnaeus did not only give us the above taxonomic rank system,
 But he also suggested the use of Genus & species taxa to name individual species in Latin,
 the method is known as binomial nomenclature;
Bi = 2, nomenclature = name
Binomial Nomenclature:
a) Giving each species a two-part name which are;
b) Genus followed by specific epithet;
c) Genus epithet is written/typed first followed with species epithet;
d) Genus epithet start with uppercase letter while all letters in species are all lower cases letters;
e) If handwritten, separately underline Genus & specific epithet;
f) If typed, don’t underline but all letters must be in italics fonts;
Example:
Scientific name of the human species = Homo sapiens (if asked to give a species name , always give the Tow-Part name)
Refer to the fourth column of the table above

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 Uses/importance of hierarchical classification to scientists: Features of organisms:
Sort out organisms in order: All organisms are made of cells;
1. To help scientists identify organisms Things that are universally shared among all biological cells in
2. Help understand diversity of organisms organism are:
3. Understand complexity or organisms 1. Cytoplasm
4. Easy Identification & communication about organisms 2. Cell membrane
5. Establish evolutionary relationships 3. Ribosomes
6. Help separate large group of closely related organisms 4. Enzymes
into smaller subgroups;- which easier to study 5. DNAs & RNAs
6. Evolution
7. Homeostasis

NB:
Earlier taxonomists like Carl Linneaus used physical appearance only i.e
a) Morphology - external features
b) Anatomy – internal large structures like tissues & organs;

Weakness:

Classification based on morphology/anatomy alone sometimes put organisms that don’t share a common recent ancestor together;
Because of in some cases analogous characters were used;
Remember Analogous features are those that have different evolutionary origins
Bu due to convergence evolution, they have same appearance & functions

The most accurate & most comprehensive classification system used by Modern Taxonomists is:
phylogenetic system of classification/ Cladistics:

Phylogenetic system of classification/Cladistics:

 Is classification according to evolutionary relationship;

 Mostly use evidence from molecular biology;
 to establish evolutionary hierarchy;
 It’s more accurate & more comprehensive;

Some of the additional techniques (to morphology & anatomy) used in phylogenetic system are:

1. Fossil records
2. Cytology,
3. Embryology,
4. Molecular biology (the most accurate)

a) Genetics (DNA/RNA) analysis

 the higher the percentage of similarities in base sequences in genes,
 the more related the organisms are; - so they are put in same group;

b) Proteins analysis– how similar proteins are in terms of sequence of amino acids in them;

NB:
1. Genes are in DNA, many similar base sequences in many genes lead to many similar messenger RNAs;
Thus many proteins made of similar amino acid sequences;
2. When there are many similarities, the organisms are believed to be more likely related
& so are descendants of a common ancestor;
Then they are put in same group

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Phylogenetic classification/ cladistics,
assume that:
All life forms can be traced to a single ancestor (Linnaeus did not believe this) which had heritable genetic material,
 Over time, successful species evolve through gradual gene mutations & natural selections
 Leading to increased species diversity;
 So we end up with a branching diagram showing sets of evolutionary relationships/lineages;
 This is “tree of life” called phylogenetic tree/Cladogram;

In a cladogram/ phylogenetic tree of life:

 Is a branching diagram which has:

 Branching points/nodes which represent:
- a common ancestor;
- the time when the two groups/taxa split/from the common ancestor
i.e time when divergent evolution occurred;
- so a node represents point of speciation (formation of new species);

 Each group that branch from same node in a cladogram = a clade;

 A clade = group that share similar features probably derived from a common ancestor;
 Characters shared by a clade can be traced back to a most common recent ancestral group (at the most recent node);

In some cases cladistics/phylogenetic classification has differed with where Linnaeus Taxonomic system put some organisms;
Example birds are grouped with dinosaurs in cladistics which are reptiles
Clados/Klados = branching

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Back to Carl Linnaeus Taxonomic system:

According to the Two domain & 5 domain classification:

Here are the two domains:

1. Prokarya = Prokaryotes = no membrane bound organelles = Bacteria

2. Eukarya = eukaryotes = have membrane bound organelles = members of other 4 kingdoms (plants, fungi, protoctista & animals)

Here are the 5 kingdoms that you need to know:

Domain (2) Kingdom (5) Cell number/cell type Tissues Cell wall Nucleus Chlorophyll
Bacteria/monera Absent Present (made of Absent Present in
Prokarya (e.g Lacto bacillus) Unicellular peptidoglycan) some
Fungi Multicellular Absent Present (chitin) Present Absent
(e.g mushroom) (except yeast)
Plants Multicellular Present Present (cellulose) Present Present
Eukarya (e.g corn)
Animals Multicellular Present Absent Present Absent
(e.g rat)
Protoctist Some unicellular some Absent Present in some like Present Present in
(e.g Plasmodium simple multicellular algae some
know the features of these 5 kingdoms so that for a given example of an organism, you can determine the kingdom it belongs in.

The following table includes the Three domains & 6 kingdoms ( one is made of Eukaryotes while Two are made of prokaryotes)

DOMAINs (3) Bacteria Archaea Eukarya

KINGDOMs (6) Eubacteria Archaebacteria Protista/protoctista Fungi Plantae Animalia
CELL TYPE Prokaryote Prokaryote Eukaryote Eukaryote Eukaryote Eukaryote
CELL Cell walls with Cell walls without Cell walls of Cell walls of Cell walls of No cell walls or
STRUCTURES peptidoglycan peptidoglycan cellulose in some; chitin; no cellulose; chloroplasts
some have chloroplast chloroplasts
chloroplasts
NUMBER OF Unicellular Unicellular Most unicellular; Most Multicellular Multicellular
CELLS some colonial; some multicellular;
multicellular some
unicellular
MODE OF Autotroph or Autotroph or Autotroph or Heterotroph Autotroph Heterotroph
NUTRITION heterotroph heterotroph heterotroph
EXAMPLES Streptococcus, Methanogens, Amoeba, Mushrooms, Mosses, Sponges,
Escherichia halophiles, Paramecium, slime yeasts ferns, worms, insects,
coli Sulfur bacteria molds, giant kelp flowering fishes,
plants mammals

NB:
 heterotrophs don’t synthesis their own organic food from inorganic materials;
 they get organic materials through feeding;
 Autotrophs synthesis their own organic food from inorganic materials (CO 2, H2O, mineral ions);

 Bacteria are thought to be evolutionarily older than “Archaea” – archaea have some features which are similar to
eukaryotes like the RNA in their ribosome;
 Archaea are also found in extreme environments like hot springs, polar regions, anaerobic environments & saline
environment
 So they are known as extremophiles;
 They are no known dangerous pathogens among archaea;

In the plant kingdom, plants can be classed into either flowering plants or Non-flowering plants;
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 Plant Kingdom
NB: only know ferns & Flowering plants (monocots & dicots) for IGCSE)
Reproductive Flower Pollen Seeds Water required Vascular
organs /fruit for fertilization bundles
Non-flowering plants)
Examples:
Bryophytes (mosses liverworts, hornworts) Yes No No No Yes No
Pteridophytes (ferns) Yes No No No Yes Yes
Gymnosperms (conifers like pines) Yes No Yes Yes No Yes
Flowering plants (angiosperms) Yes Yes Yes Yes No yes

Two Groups of Flowering Plants (Angiosperms)

Angiosperms classes are two: Cotyledons Leaf shape Leaf venation Floral parts Root system Vascular
bundles
1. Monocots 1 Arrow Parallel Multiples of 3 Fibrous Loot at table
2. Dicots 2 Broad Net-worked Multiples of Taproot system below
4 or 5

Two Groups of Flowering Plants (Angiosperms) = monocots & dicots

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Life cycle of a flowering plant (Angiosperm:

Plants have alternative generation in their life cycles:

in seed – bearing plants only the multicellular diploid
sporophyte generation is large, visible and independent;
But the multicellular haploid gametophyte generation is
small and found entirely on the sporophyte plant body;
Pollen = the male gametophyte produced by meiosis then it
produces sperms by mitosis;
Ovule = female gametophyte; it produces eggs by mitosis;

Ferns (Pteridophytes) – Example of a non-flowering plant

are:
 Plants with vascular bundles;
 Mostly growth, ferns need moist, warm places (few may grow in dry and cold areas).
 The mature plant body contains true:
 stems, called rhizome – grows horizontally underground; (few have the above-ground).
 Roots - are adventitious.
 Leaves called Fronds are the fern leaves; - Young leaves appear coiled.

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 Reproduction in fern Is Sexual or Asexual:
1. Sexual life cycle of fern: 2. Asexual reproduction in fern:

Undergoes alternating generations where; a) Apogamy =diploid sporophyte generation produce

The multicellular haploid (gametophyte) generation & diploid spores which germinate to new diploid
multicellular diploid (sporophyte) growth phase sporophyte plant;
are independent plants; b) frond (leaf) tips grow to new diploid sporophyte plant;
c) rhizome grow into new diploid sporophyte plant;

Haploid Gametophyte Phase Haploid gametophyte generation germinates best in moist

Step-1: environment
Diploid sporophyte discharges haploid spores in the summer;
Step-2:
- a haploid spore germinates by mitotic cell division;
- into a thin, flat, heart-shaped, green, photosynthetic,
gametophyte plant called prothallus
(like gametophytes of liverworts);
- Fern gametophyte has projecting rhizoids for support;
- Gametophyte’s lower surface holds both:
male (Antheridia) & female (Archegonia) sex organs;
- Since gametophyte is already haploid,
- Sex cells develop by mitosis (not meiosis);
Step-3:
- Mature multicilliated sperms are release out of male sex organ;
- They need film of water to swim to female sex organ;
Step-4:
- chemicals from female sex organ attract the released sperms;
Step-6:
- once in female sex organ a sperm fuses with a single egg,
resulting in a diploid zygote enclosed in female sex organ;
Diploid Sporophyte Phase
Step-1: While still in female sex organ, the diploid zygote divides
and differentiates into the embryo;
The embryo remains confined in the gametophyte.
Step-2: embryo develops into a young sporophyte plant which
remains attached to the gametophyte.,
sporophyte matures and gets bigger than the gametophyte.
Sporophyte then gets nutritionally independent
gametophyte.
Step-3: stems or rhizomes develop;
true roots arise from rhizome;
coiled immature leaves called fronds arise from rhizome;
When fronds mature they appear feather-like with smaller
side branches;
Step-4: On the lower surface, mature leaves bear spore
producing structures called sporangia;
The sporangia differentiate into clusters called sori.

Step 5: Then meiosis occurs within the sporangia

To produce haploid spores;
Step 6: sporangia in sporophyte plant release haploid spores; NB: sori on the underside of fronds/leaves
each haploid spore divides by mitosis to give rise to Are brown , orange or black
next haploid gametophyte plant called prothallus;
Prothallus is photosynthetic;

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The two groups of the animal kingdom, (vertebrates (with backbone) or invertebrates (no backbone).
Examples:

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Artificial Classification:
 Is based on one or very few & non-evolutionary features;
 So is based on presence or absence of the chosen character;
 Therefore uses pairs of options like yes/no; in/out; has/has not;
 Since the ranks into which organisms are not stepwise,
 The groups/ranks in artificial classification never shows relationships;
Example:
Look at this list – duck, seal, whale, house-fly, bat, eagle, owl , mosquito & fish
1. Those that can fly (this would include birds, mosquito & bats)
2. Those that swim (this would include duck, fish & whales)
3. Those that fly only at night
4. Etc
NB: Artificial classification systems quick & used for convenience; is the basis of identification keys called dichotomous keys;

Dichotomous keys
Is a tool user to identity of items in the natural world;
biologists use it in field studies where they don’t know real names organisms they are encountering;
It consists of a series of contrasting choices;
Each choice either leads the user to the correct name of a given item.
Or lead to the user to another pair of contrasting choice;
For example, use the key to answer the question

1 a. Wings present ……………………………..….……… Go to 2

b. Wings absent ……………………………………..….. Go to 3
3. a. One pair of wings visible ………………………………. A
b. Two pairs of wings visible …………………………….. B
3 a. Three pairs of legs ……………………………….…………. C
b. Two pairs of legs ………………………….……………………… D
Answer: Since this insect has wings, and has two pairs visible, the answer is B!
Plant Kingdom

After IGCSE, you will define A species as a group of organisms that are more (phylogenetically) similar to the holotype of this species than to
holotypes of any other described species.

End

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