1.

What is the force representing the combined effect of two or more forces
acting at a point?
resultant force
What is the term used to describe a ship that is inclined due to external forces i.e.
by wind or sea?
heel
2. What is the force exerted on the body by the earth’s gravitational force and
is measured in the terms of Newton (N) and kilo-Newton (kN)?
weight
3. What is the vertical distance from the center of gravity (G) to the transverse
metacenter (M)?
metacentric height
4. What is the vertical height of G above the keel for transverse stability
calculations it is assumed that G will be on the centerline when used?
KG
5. Which statement means the maximum moment that could be applied to the
vessel without causing it to capsize? Maximum righting moment
6. What is the reason, the centroid of an object with translational symmetry is
undefined?
Translation has no fixed point
7. A vessel displacing 30,500 tons has a kg of 60 ft. A weight of 500 long tons is
discharged from a VCG of 150 feet. What is the change of Kg?
1.5 ft downward
8. A plank weighs 62 kgs. What will be the shift of its center of gravity if a weight of 38kg
is place on it at a distance of 400 cm from its original center of gravity?
152cms
9. What will happen to a substance with a relative density greater than 1?
will sink
10. What is the average specific gravity of water in all oceans?
1.025
11. What is the instrument used to determine the density of liquid?
hydrometer
12. What is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a given difference
material?
Relative density
13. It is the change in displacement tonnage required to change the mean draught of
the ship by 1cm?
Reserve Buoyancy
14. What is a state of equilibrium of a body such that when the body is slightly displaced
it tends to return to its original position?
stable
15. What is a state of equilibrium of a body that remains in its new position and does not
return to its previous position?
neutral
16. What is a state of equilibrium when ship isheeled, even very slightly would develop a
lever which is acting to further heel the ship or we can say that the ship would
have developed a Capsizing lever?
negative
17. What is refers to stability at small angles of inclination up to 15 degrees?
initial stability
18. What is the point of intersection of the vertical through the center of buoyancy of a
ship in the position of equilibrium with the vertical through the new center of
buoyancy when the ship is slightly heeled?
Transverse metacentre
19. What Consist of Displacement, Deadweight, Tonnes per Centimeter, Height of COB
above Keel, Distance of COB from after Perpendicular Or from Midship, Heght of
Transverse Metacentre above Keel and etc. used for ship stability calculation?
hydrostatic table
20. The deepest water line to which a merchant ship is legally allowed to load for a
voyage within a specified geographical zone in winter periods.
Winter load line
21. What is the width of the deck line mark?
25 mm
22. What is the length of the summer load line mark?
230
23. The distance measured at the ships side amidships vertically downward, from the
upper edge of the deck line to the water line?
freeboard
24. What is the line defining the maximum legal draft to which the vessel may be
submerged?
Load line
25. It is the number of millimeters by which the mean draft changes when a ship passes
from salt water to fresh water, or vice versa, whilst floating at the loaded draft?
fresh Water Allowance
26. What is the weight of a ship with all its permanent equipment, excluding the weight
of cargo persons, ballast, dunnage, and fuel, but usually including the weight of
permanent ballast and water used to operate steam machinery?
light displacement
27. What displacement of the weight, in long tons, of a cargo vessel loaded so that the
summer load line touches the surface of the water?
load
28. What is measured indirectly using Archimedes' principle by first calculating the
volume of water displaced by the ship then converting that value into weight
displaced?
displacement
29. What method provides for estimating the additional draft or for determining the
extra load that could be taken onboard when a vessel is being loaded in water
of density less than that of salt water?
Deadweight scale
30. What characteristic parameters calculated for a floating ship, which can either
directly be used to comment on the nature of stability of the ship or be used to
evaluate other stability parameters?
ship hydrostatics
31. What is the weight of the ship including cargo, passengers, fuel, water, stores,
 dunnage and such other items necessary for use on a voyage?
loaded displacement
32. What is the weight (in tons) of all cargo, fuel, dry provision, supplies, etc. carried on
board of the ship?
deadweight tonnage
33. What is the displacement of the vessel at any stage of loading, without having
completely loaded its maximum cargo?
Displacement with cargo
34. What is the moment required to change the total trim of the vessel by
one centimeter?
MCT
35. What is the vertical distance of the ship between its center of buoyancy and
metacenter?
metacentric radius
36. What is the ability of a vessel to resist and recover from heeling over?
Transverse stability
37. What is a series of graphs drawn to a vertical scale of draught and a base of length,
which gives values such as the centre of buoyancy, displacement, moment
causing unit trim, and centre of flotation?
hydrostatic curve
38. What is the maximum length from the forward most point of the ship’s hull to the
aft-most point?
length of overall
39. What is the ratio of vessel’s underwater volume (Displacement) to the volume of a
box that this could fit in?
Block coefficient
40. What is the volume of the enclosed spaces above the waterline?
Reserve Buoyancy
41. What is the longitudinal position of the CG with respect to any reference point on
the ship?
longitudinal centre of gravity

1.MCT is the moment required to change the total trim of the vessel by one centimeter.
2.Metacentric radius is the vertical distance of the ship between its center of buoyancy
and
metacenter.
3.Traverse stability is the ability of a vessel to resist and recover from heeling over.
4.Hydrostatic curve is a series of graphs drawn to a vertical scale of draught and a base
of
length, which gives values such as the centre of buoyancy, displacement, moment
causing unit
trim, and centre of flotation.
5.The ship draft will change when a ship moves from water of one density to water of
another
density, without there being a change in her mass.
6.Keel is the lowermost point of the ship at any point of its length.
7.Length of overall is the maximum length from the forward most point of the ship’s hull
to the
aft-most point.
8.Block coefficient is the ratio of vessel’s underwater volume (Displacement) to the
volume of a
box that this could fit in.
9.Reserve buoyancy is the volume of the enclosed spaces above the waterline.
10.Longitudinal center of gravity is the longitudinal position of the CG with respect to
any
reference point on the ship.
11.The moment of force acting on an object, often called torque, is the product of the
force and
the distance to the object.
12.The moment arm or lever arm is the perpendicular distance between the line of
action of the
force and the center of moments.
13.Distance GZ is the righting arm: a notional lever through which the force of
buoyancy acts
the meta-centric height is an approximation for the vessel stability at a small angle (0-15
degrees) of heel.
14.The point of deck immersion is the angle at which the main deck will first encounter
the sea.
15.Similarly, the down flooding angle is the angle at which water will be able to flood
deeper into
the vessel.
16.Finally, the point of vanishing stability is a point of unstable equilibrium. Any heel
lesser than
this angle will allow the vessel to right itself, while any heel greater than this angle will
cause a
negative righting moment (or heeling moment) and force the vessel to continue to roll
over.
17.When a vessel reaches a heel equal to its point of vanishing stability, any external
force will
cause the vessel to capsize.
18.Beam may also be used to define the maximum width of a ship's hull, or maximum
width plus
superstructure overhangs.
19. "Designated displacement" is a measurement the weight of water a ship displaces
of when
fully loaded and submerged to her load lines.
20.Loaded displacement is the weight of the ship including cargo, passengers, fuel,
water,
stores, dunnage and such other items necessary for use on a voyage.
21.Full load is defined as the displacement of a vessel when floating at its greatest
allowable
draft as established by classification societies (and designated by its "waterline").
1.Hydrostatic Table Consist of Displacement, Deadweight, Tonnes per Centimeter,
Height of
COB above Keel, Distance of COB from after Perpendicular Or from Midship, Heght of
Transverse Metacentre above Keel and etc. used for ship stability calculation.

2.The fresh water load line is the maximum water line legally allowed for voyages in
fresh water
with in a tropical zone during summer.
3.The Winter load line is the deepest water line in which a merchant ship is legally
allowed to
load for a voyage within a specified geographical zone in winter periods.
4.Tropical fresh water load line is the maximum water line legally allowed for voyage in
fresh
water within tropical zone during summer.
5.In the Fresh water load line the letter “F” denotes the upper edge of the load line
mark.
6.25mm is the width of the deck line mark.
7.230mm is the length of the summer load line mark.
8.Deck line is the horizontal line 300 mm by 25 mm wide which is positioned amidship on
port
and starboard side.
9.Free-board is the distance measured at the ships side amidships vertically downward,
from
the upper edge of the deck line to the water line.
10.Load line is the line defining the maximum legal draft to which the vessel may be
submerged.
11.Fresh water allowance is the number of millimeters by which the mean draft changes
when a
ship passes from salt water to fresh water, or vice versa, whilst floating at the loaded
draft.
12.Light displacement is the weight of a ship with all its permanent equipment,
excluding the
weight of cargo persons, ballast, dunnage, and fuel, but usually including the weight of
permanent ballast and water used to operate steam machinery.
13.Load displacement of the weight, in long tons, of a cargo vessel loaded so that the
summer
load line touches the surface of the water.
14.Deadweight is the maximum weight a vessel can carry up to her appropriate load
marks.
15.Displacement is measured indirectly using Archimedes' principle by first calculating
the
volume of water displaced by the ship then converting that value into weight
displaced.
16.Deadweight scale method provides for estimating the additional draft or for
determining the
extra load that could be taken onboard when a vessel is being loaded in water of
density less
than that of salt water.
17.Ships hydrostatics characteristic parameters calculated for a floating ship, which can
either
directly be used to comment on the nature of stability of the ship or be used to
evaluate other
stability parameters.
18.Loaded displacement is the weight of the ship including cargo, passengers, fuel,
water,
stores, dunnage and such other items necessary for use on a voyage.
19.Deadweight tonnage is the weight (in tons) of all cargo, fuel, dry provision, supplies,
etc.
carried on board of the ship.
20.Net tonnage is the total cubic carrying capacity of the ship’s hull less certain
deduction such
as passenger spaces, machinery spaces and etc..
21.Displacement with the cargo is the displacement of the vessel at any stage of
loading,
without having completely loaded its maximum cargo
1.Resultant is the force representing the combined effect of two or more forces acting
at a point.
2.Force is traditionally defined as any push or pull on a body.
3.Resultant moment is an imaginary moment representing the combined effect of two
or more
force acting about a point.

4.Heel is the term used to describe a ship that is inclined due to external forces i.e. by
wind or
sea.
5.Weight is the force exerted on the body by the earth’s gravitational force and is
measured in
the terms of Newton (N) and kilo-Newton (kN).
6.Center of gravity is that point at which all the vertically downward forces of weight
are
considered to act; or it as the center of the mass of the vessel.
7.Metacentric height is the vertical distance from the center of gravity (G) to the
transverse
metacenter (M).
8.KG is the vertical height of G above the keel for transverse stability calculations it is
assumed
that G will be on the center line when used.
9.Center of buoyancy is the point in which all the vertically upward forces of buoyancy
can be
considered to act; or it is the center of the volume of the immersed portion of the
vessel.
10.Righting arm is the perpendicular distance from center of gravity (G) to the line of
force of the
center of buoyancy.
11.Maximum righting moment is the maximum moment that could be applied to the
vessel
without causing it to capsize.
12.Translation has no fixed point is the reason, the centroid of an object with
translational
symmetry is undefined.
13.A vessel displacing 30,500 tons has a kg of 60 ft. A weight of 500 long tons is
discharged
from a VCG of 150 feet. 1.5 ft is the change of Kg downward
14.A plank weighs 62 kgs., 152cms is the shift of its center of gravity if a weight of 38kg is
place
on it at a distance of 400 cm from its original center of gravity.
15.When mass is removed from a body, the centre of gravity of the body will move
directly away
from the centre of gravity of the mass removed, the distance it will move can be found
formula:
GG1= w x d / final mass
16.Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the density of the substance to the density
of fresh
water.
17.The substance will sink with a relative density greater than 1.
18.1.025 is the average specific gravity of water in all oceans.
19.Hydrometer is the instrument used to determine the density of liquid.
20.Relative density is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a given
difference
material.

Prelim

PRELIM
Module 1
1. Forces and Moments
2. Centroids and Center of Gravity
3. Density and Specific Gravity
4. Laws of Floatation
5. Effects of Density on Draft and Displacement
6. Displacement

MODULE 1 Lesson 1 - Forces and Moments

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the students shall be able to:
LO 1.1: Describe as any push or pull exerted on a body
LO 1.2: DESCRIBE AS THE FORCE EXERTED ON IT BY EARTH’S GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
LO 1.3: Describe is the product of weight and distance

Guide Questions

1. What is force?
2. What is component force?
3. What is resultant force?
4. What is the moment of forces?
5. What is the moment of mass?

What Is Forces and Moments?

The solution of many of the problems concerned with ship stability involves an understanding of
the resolution of forces and moments. For this reason, a brief examination of the basic principles
will be advisable.

Forces
A force can be defined as any push or pull exerted on a body. The S.I. unit of force is the
Newton, one Newton being the force required to produce in a mass of one kilogram an
acceleration of one meter per second. When considering a force, the following points regarding
the force must be known:
(a) The magnitude of the force.
(b) The direction in which the force is applied.
(c) (c) The point at which the force is applied.

The resultant force. When two or more forces are acting at a point, their combined effect can
be represented by one force which will have the same effect as the component forces. Such a
force is referred to as the ‘resultant force’, and the process of finding it is called the ‘resolution of
the component forces’
 The resolution of forces. When resolving forces, it will be appreciated that a force acting
towards a point will have the same effect as an equal force acting away from the point, so long as
both forces act in the same direction and in the same straight line. Thus, a force of 10 Newtons
(N) pushing to the right on a certain point can be substituted for a force of 10 Newtons (N) pulling
to the right from the same point.

(a) Resolving two forces which act in the same straight line If both forces act in the same
straight line and in the same direction the resultant is their sum, but if the forces act in
opposite directions the resultant is the difference of the two forces and acts in the
direction of the larger of the two forces.
(b) Resolving two forces which do not act in the same straight line When the two forces do not
act in the same straight line, their resultant can be found by completing a parallelogram of
forces.
(c) Resolving two forces which act in parallel directions When two forces act in parallel
directions, their combined effect can be represented by one force whose magnitude is
equal to the algebraic sum of the two component forces, and which will act through a point
about which their moments are equal.
world all communicates information through technical writing with the sole purpose of instruction
and education.

Moments of Forces
The moment of a force is a measure of the turning effect of the force about a point. The turning
effect will depend upon the following:
(a) The magnitude of the force.
(b) The length of the lever upon which the force acts, the lever being the perpendicular distance
between the line of action of the force and the point about which the moment is being taken.
The magnitude of the moment is the product of the force and the length of the lever. Thus, if
the force is measured in Newtons and the length of the lever in meters, the moment found will be
expressed in Newton-meters (Nm).
Resultant moment. When two or more forces are acting about a point their combined effect
can be represented by one imaginary moment called the ‘Resultant Moment’. The process of
finding the resultant moment is referred to as the ‘Resolution of the Component Moments’
Resolution of moments. To calculate the resultant moment about a point, find the sum of the
moments to produce rotation in a clockwise direction about the point, and the sum of the
moments to produce rotation in an anticlockwise direction. Take the lesser of these two moments
from the greater and the difference will be the magnitude of the resultant. The direction in which
it acts will be that of the greater of the two component moments.

Mass
Mass in the S.I. system of units it is most important to distinguish between the mass of a body
and its weight. Mass is the fundamental measure of the quantity of matter in a body and is
expressed in terms of the kilogram and the tonne, whilst the weight of a body is the force exerted
on it by the Earth’s gravitational force and is measured in terms of the Newton (N) and
kilo-Newton (kN).
Weight and mass are connected by the formula:
Weight = Mass x Acceleration

Moments in Mass
If the force of gravity is considered constant then the weight of bodies is proportional to their
mass and the resultant moment of two or more weights about a point can be expressed in terms
of their mass moments.

Lesson 2 - Centroid and Center of Gravity

Intended Learning Outcomes

LO 2.1: Describe and locate the center of gravity of plane figures; Square, Rectangle, Circle,
Triangle
LO. 2.2: Describe and locate the center of gravity of a homogenous solid object, liquid, gas,
LO 2.3: Describe movement of the center of gravity of a body when:
a. Removing Weight
b. Adding Weight
c. Shifting Weight with in a body
d. Suspending Weight Within a body
LO 2.4: Calculate the shift of the CG (GG₁) and the new CG Of a body
Guide Questions

1. What is the purpose of finding the center of gravity of a:

a. Square
b. Rectangle
c. Circle
d. Triangle
e. homogenous solid object
f. liquid
g. gas
2. What will happen top center of gravity of a body when:
a. Removing weight
b. Adding weight
c. Shifting weight within a body
d. Suspending weight within a body

What is the Center Gravity?

The center of gravity of the ship is that point, G through which all the vertically downward
forces of weight are considered to act together. If it were possible to suspend the entire vessel
from its center of gravity, it could be lifted in perfect balance, with no trim or list.
https://youtu.be/pKYswgkPj9A - introduction of center of gravity

The centroid of an area is situated at its geometrical center. In each of the following figures ‘G’
represents the centroid, and if each area was suspended from this point it would balance.
The center of gravity of a body is the point at which all the mass of the body may be
assumed to be concentrated and is the point through which the force of gravity is
considered to act vertically downwards, with a force equal to the weight of the body. It is
also the point about which the body would balance.

https://youtu.be/R8wKV0UQtlo - center of gravity

The center of gravity of a homogeneous body is at its geometrical center. Thus, the center
of gravity of a homogeneous rectangular block is half-way along its length, half-way
across its breadth and at half its depth. Let us now consider the effect on the center of
gravity of a body when the distribution of mass within the body is changed.

Effect of removing or discharging mass.

Consider a rectangular plank of homogeneous wood. Its center of gravity will be at its
geometrical center: – i.e., half-way along its length, half-way across its breadth, and at
half depth. Let the mass of the plank be W kg and let it be supported by means of a
wedge placed under the center of gravity. The plank will balance.
https://youtu.be/0XsrqNuJyiA - change of center of gravity

Now let a short length of the plank, of mass w kg, be cut from one end such that its
centre of gravity is d metres from the centre of gravity of the plank. The other end, now
being of greater mass, will tilt downwards. shows that by removing the short length of
plank a resultant moment of w x d kg m has been created in an anti-clockwise direction
about G.

https://youtu.be/vyAu9a9GMzw - shift of center of gravity

Now consider the new length of plank as shown in Figure 2.3(b). The center of gravity will
have moved to the new half-length indicated by the distance G to G1. The new mass, (W
– w) kg, now produces a tilting moment of (W - w) x GG1 kg m about G. Since these are
simply two different ways of showing the same effect, the moments must be the same,
i.e

GG₁ = w x d / W - w meter

From this it may be concluded that when mass is removed from a body, the center of
gravity of the body will move directly away from the center of gravity of the mass
removed, and the distance it moves will be given by the formula:

GG₁ = w x d___
Final Mass

where GG1 is the shift of the center of gravity of the body, w is the mass removed, and d
is the distance between the center of gravity of the mass removed and the center of
gravity of the body.
Application to ships
In each of the above figures, G represents the center of gravity of the ship with a mass
of w tonnes on board at a distance of d meters from G. G to G1 represents the shift of
the ship’s centre of gravity due to discharging the mass.

Effect of adding or loading mass

Once again consider the plank of homogeneous wood shown in Figure 2.2. Now add a
piece of plank of mass w kg at a distance of d metres from G
The heavier end of the plank will again tilt downwards. By adding a mass of w kg at a
distance of d metres from G a tilting moment of w x d kg m about G has been created.
From the above it may be concluded that when mass is added to a body, the centre of
gravity of the body will move directly towards the centre of gravity of the mass added,
and the distance which it moves will be given by the formula:

GG₁ = w x d meters
Final Mass

https://youtu.be/A3ApI4uIFuY - large wt added

where GG1 is the shift of the centre of gravity of the body, w is the mass added, and d is
the distance between the centres of gravity.
Application to ships

In each of the above figures, G represents the position of the center of gravity of the ship
before the mass of w tonnes has been loaded. After the mass has been loaded, G will
move directly towards the center of gravity of the added mass (i.e. from G to G1)

Effect of shifting weights

If G represents the original position of the center of gravity of a ship with a weight of ‘w’
tonnes in the starboard side of the lower hold having its center of gravity in position g1. If
this weight is now discharged the ship’s center of gravity will move from G to G1 directly
away from g1. When
the same weight is reloaded on deck with its center of gravity at g2 the ship’s center of
gravity will move from G1 to G2.

LESSON 3 - Density and Specific Gravity

Intended Learning Outcomes

LO 3.1: Define density as weight per unit

volume
LO 3.2: State the unit of density kg/m3
LO 3.3: States that the density of:
FW = 1000 kg/mᶟ; = 1.000 tons/mᶟ
SW = 1025 kg/mᶟ; = 1.025 tons/mᶟ
LO 3.4: State that Relative Density or Specific Density of a liquid is the ratio of the density of a
substance to density of FW.
RD or SG = density of substance / density of FW.
Guide Questions

1. What is the density of FW/SW?

2. What is the purpose of hydrometer?
3. Explain what is density
4. What is the specific gravity?
5. What is the different between volume and weight?

Density and Specific Gravity

Introduction

This section introduces the law governing floatation and will help in the understanding of
why ship floats It well form the basic level of understanding necessary to complete this
learning program.
Both density and specific gravity describe mass and may be used to compare different
substances. They are not, however, identical measures. Specific gravity is an expression of
density in relation to the density of a standard or reference (usually water). Also, density is
expressed in units (weight relative to size) while specific gravity is a pure number or
dimensionless.

What Is Density?

Density is a property of matter and can be defined as the ratio of mass to a unit
volume of matter. It's typically expressed in units of grams per cubic centimeter,
kilograms per cubic meter, or pounds per cubic inch. Density is expressed by the
formula:

P = m/V

Where: p = density, m = mass, V = volume,

Density is defined as ‘mass per unit volume’. For example, the mass density of
FW = 1000 kg per cubic metre or 1.000 tonne/m3
SW = 1025 kg per cubic metre or 1.025 tonne/m3
The specific gravity (SG) or relative density of a substance is defined as the ratio of the
weight of the substance to the weight of an equal volume of fresh water.
If a volume of one cubic metre is considered, then the SG or relative density of a
substance is the ratio of the density of the substance to the density of fresh water; i.e.

What Is Specific Gravity?

Specific gravity is a measure of density relative to the density of a reference substance.

The reference material could be anything, but the most common reference is pure water. If
a material has a specific gravity less than 1, it will float on water.

Density and specific gravity,

The specific gravity (SG) or relative density of a substance is defined as the ratio of the
weight of the substance to the weight of an equal volume of fresh water. If a volume of
one cubic metre is considered, then the SG or relative density of a
substance is the ratio of the density of the substance to the density of fresh water;
SG or relative = Density of the substance
Of a substance Density of fresh water
The density of FW = 1000 kg per cu.m
SG of a substance = Density of the substance in kg cu.m
1000
Density in kg per cu.m = 1000 x SG
https://youtu.be/omRMpPYh_vw - Density and specific gravity

Converting Between Density and Specific Gravity

Specific gravity values aren't very useful except for predicting whether or not something
will float on water and for comparing whether one material is more or less dense than
another. However, because the density of pure water is so close to 1 (0.9976 grams per
cubic centimeter), specific gravity and density are nearly the same value so long as the
density is given in g/cc. Density is very slightly less than specific gravity.

There is a noticeable difference between density and specific gravity even though both are
used to represent mass and are used to compare different substances. Density is the
property of matter represented by a ratio of mass to a unit volume of matter. Specific
gravity which is also called as relative density is a measure of density with respect to a
density of pure water. There are many properties of water such as conductivity of water
and many more.

https://youtu.be/oMB9TAMFBnY

https://youtu.be/5GyJqQSebt0

Module 1 - Law of Floatation

Intended Learning Outcomes

LO 4.1: State that “Archimedes” Principles states that a floating object displace its own
weight of fluid in which it floats.
LO 4.2: Show that a variable immersion Hydrometer as an instrument used to determine
density of liquid
LO 4.3: State TPC as tons per centimeter immersion
LO 4.4: Describe reserve buoyancy as a volume of the enclosed spaces above the water
line LO 4.5: Explain that:
K = keel of the vessel
B = center of buoyancy when the is upright
KG = Height of the center of gravity Above the keel LO
4.6: States draft as the linear distance from keel to water
line.
LO 4.7: State KB = Height of the center of Buoyancy above the keel
LO 4.8: State G = Center of gravity
LO 4.9: State BG as vertical distance from Center of buoyancy to center of gravity
Guide Questions

1. What is Archimedes principle

2. What is law of floatation
3. What is ship hydrostatic
4. What is TPC
5. What is ship draft
6. What is ship displacement
7. What is ship reserve buoyancy
8. Know where to locate K, B, KG, KB, G

Law of Floatation

When a body is wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, it suffers a loss in mass/ weight
equal to the mass/ weight of the fluid it displaces.
The mass density of fresh water is 1,000 kgs. per cubic meter. Therefore, when a body is
immersed in fresh water it will appear to suffer a loss in mass of 1,000 kgs. for every 1
cubic meter of water it displaces

https://youtu.be/_p-hwElkrlk
ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE AND PRINCIPLE OF FLOATATION

The Archimedes' principle and the principle of floatation get people confuse.
Are these two principles the same or different? This has been a critical
question people do ask. What makes a gigantic structure like a ship to float on
the sea is another mystery. I also use to imagine how a ship of hundreds of
pounds in weight floats on water considering how heavy the loads it carries
while even half weight of the load will sink if thrown overboard.

In Olympic swimming competitions, it is possible to swim across a pool

floating if you stretch your body out flat on the water to establish equilibrium,
but the same individual will sink if the arms are wrap around the legs and curl
up into a ball. The reason for this occurrence is made possible due to the fact that
floatation has to do with how much water is pushed against the immersed
object. This phenomenon can be simply explained by Archimedes’ principle.

Law of flotation is simply the application of Archimedes' principle.

Archimedes made the first hypothesis about the relativity of displacement and
density of the matter immersed. It was verified before making it a principle.

Archimedes’ principle referred to as the physical law of buoyancy was

discovered by the ancient Greek inventor and mathematician known as
Archimedes. The principle states thus; the exerted upward buoyant force on a
body fully or partially immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by that the body acting in the upward direction at the center of mass
of the displaced fluid. This principle explained that the volume of displaced
fluid is equivalent to the volume of an object fully immersed in a fluid or to
that portion or fraction of the volume immersed for an object partially
submerged in a liquid since the density of the fluid is constant.

This can be illustrated mathematically using the equations below:

Weight = Mg; where M implies mass of an object and g is acceleration due to
gravity, g is a constant.
Mass = density x volume
Simply put,
Weight = density x volume x g
https://youtu.be/G2ktGrac5LQ Sea water density

By implication, the difference between the buoyant force and its weight is the net upward
force on the object. This net force could be positive, negative or neutral (zero), the object
floats if the net force is positive, the object sinks if negative and if zero (neural), the
object is neutrally buoyant which makes the object remains in place without either rising
or sinking.

The basics of naval architecture for ship design and construction was found in Archimedes’
principle. The weight of a floating object (static) must be equal to the weight of the
volume of water that is displaced by the object. This law of buoyancy explains both the
draft at which a vessel moves on water and the angles that it assume at equilibrium with
the water. When an object heavier than the amount of the fluid it displaces is released in
water, it will sink.

For instance, when a ship is launched, it sinks into the ocean unless the weight of the
water it displaces is just equal to its own weight. As more load is added to the ship, it
sinks deeper, whereby displacing more water, so, the magnitude of the buoyant force will
continually be matching the weight of the ship plus its cargo. Literally, the size of that ship
is a function of the volume of displaced water by a ship, also, in turn, the ship’s size
depends on the weight of water that is to be matched by displacement. Ships are
designed to carry a specified weight of cargo, including some needed supplies such as
lubricating oil, fuel, crew, and some other first aids and some life aiding equipment.

All these forms of weights are combined to form a deadweight. The deadweight, and all
other weight that contributes to the shipping weight are categorized as lightship weight.
Displacement is referred to the weight of displaced water which must be equaled to the
weight of the ship for it to float is the sum of deadweight and lightship weight.
Ship Stability relative to Archimedes’ Principle

To achieve great ship stability, many items contributing to the weight of the ship must be
distributed with a considerable precision. Uneven distribution of item weight contributes
ship instability and bad inclination, which makes the ship to float in an unwanted angle of
heel and trim referred to as sideways and endwise inclination respectively. Archimedes’
principle to the first moments of weights and volumes ensured to avoid such inclinations.
The two main problems of stability are attributed to Nonzero heel angle and Nonzero trim
angle.

Nonzero heel is considered more dangerous, because of the sideways inclination, it makes
all activities and routines on board very difficult, also it enhances the possibility and
margin of capsizing. During heavy weather, nonzero trim angles could enhance the
possibility that the bow will slam into waves, it may also cause the tips of propeller blades
to stay above the water surface.

For a ship at rest in still water, there are two vertical forces always act upon the ship; its
weight (W) and displacement (D). The weight acts downwards through the center of
gravity (G), and the displacement (D), acts upwards through the center of buoyancy B.
The magnitude of both the weight and the displacement are always an equal and same
line of motion in order to maintain the body at equilibrium. For the ship to be in
equilibrium, the sum of their moments must be zero. The moment will act in the stable
direction, as long as the point M is above G, point M is the point where the midplane
intersects the buoyant force where G is the center of gravity of the ship and its contents.
The angle of heel tends to increase by the forces of weight and buoyancy, if M is below G,
the equilibrium will be unstable. The transverse metacentric height is the distance from G
to M, taken to be positive if M is above G. The stability of a ship under most conditions is
designed to be able to overcome any form of restriction or resistance that may be
encountered during a heavy storm in the sea, nevertheless, ships possess undesirable roll
characteristics when the balance of oscillations in roll is twice that of oscillations in heave,
thus capsizing is inevitable https://youtu.be/_p-hwElkrlk

Summary

Law of flotation is simply the application of Archimedes' principle. The fundamentals of

naval architecture are found in Archimedes’ principle. An extension of Archimedes’
principle to the first moments of weights and volumes is ensured to avoid nonzero trim
and nonzero heel inclinations in ship design and construction. The first weight moment of
the water displaced must be equal to the collective first moment of all weights for a ship
to float.

TPC (Tons Per Centimeter Immersion ),

As weights are loaded on board a vessel, it will gradually sink lower in the water. The
amount of weight which will sink the vessel 1 cm deeper in the water, that is, the weight
which will increase the draft by 1 cm is called the tonnes per centimetre immersion
(TPC).

https://youtu.be/Zbiz_vugjTM - TPC
is a measurement of how many tons that are required to change the ship’s draught by one
centimeter.The TPC may vary at different draughts and trim calculations.
TPC = water-plane area x Density
100

RESERVE BOUYANCY

Reserve buoyancy is a very important factor in determining a ship's seaworthiness

minimum freeboards are assigned to a ship to ensure that there is adequate reserve
buoyancy at all times.

Is the volume of the intact spaces remaining above the waterline. As weight is added
to the vessel, this volume decreases. When no reserve bouyancy remains, the vessel will
sink. A direct measure of reserve bouyancy is the vessel’s freeboard.
https://youtu.be/QUgXf2Rj2YQ - metacenter
Reserve buoyancy It has already been shown that a floating vessel must displace its
own weight of water. Therefore, it is the submerged portion of a floating vessel which
provides the buoyancy. The volume of the enclosed spaces above the waterline are not
providing buoyancy but are being held in reserve. If extra weights are loaded to increase
the displacement, these spaces above the waterline are there to provide the extra
buoyancy required. Thus, reserve buoyancy may be defined as the volume of the
enclosed spaces above the waterline. It may be expressed as a volume or as a
percentage of the total volume of the vessel.
Reserve Bouyancy = Vol. of the vessel – Vol. of water displaced

Upright Cross section of a vessel afloat

STABILITY NOMENCLATURE

https://youtu.be/pkxU45nPCME - stability

Ship's stability is one of the most important and complex concepts about safety of
ship and safety of navigation and it is governed by maritime law as well as maritime
codes. Loss of ship's stability is presented as a threat to safety of navigation.

HYDROMETERS

A hydrometer is an instrument used to measure the specific gravity or relative density of

liquids, i.e. the ratio of the density of the liquid to the density of water.
Hydrometers are usually made of glass and consists of a cylindrical stem and a bulb weighted with a
heavy material to make it float upright. The liquid to be tested is poured into a hydrometer cylinder
and the hydrometer is gently lowered into the liquid until it floats freely. The point at which the
surface of the liquid touches the stem of the hydrometer is noted. Hydrometers usually contain a
scale inside the stem, so that the specific gravity can be read directly.

https://youtu.be/0rj8s6mMAsE how to use a hydrometer

The variable immersion hydrometer

The variable immersion hydrometer is an instrument, based on the Law of Archimedes,

which is used to determine the density of liquids. The type of hydrometer used to find the
density of the water in which a ship floats is usually made of a non-corrosive material and
consists of a weighted bulb with a narrow rectangular stem which carries a scale for
measuring densities between 1000 and 1025 kilograms per cubic meter, i.e. 1.000 and
1.025 t/m3.

Module 1 - Effects of Density on Draft and Displacement

Intended Learning Outcomes

LO 5.1: Recognize;
Box shape vessel,
Ship shape (prismatic) vessel
LO 5.2: Demonstrate how to find KB and underwater volume of a box shape and ship
shape vessel
LO. 5.3: Define displacement as the amount of water displace by a vessel when floating
at her load draft
LO 5.4: Define fresh water allowance (FWA) as the number of millimeters by which mean
draft changes when the ship passes from salt to fresh or vice versa
LO 5.6: Define dock water allowance as the distance by which “S” can be submerged
while the ship is on dock water, density between fresh and salt water
LO 5.7: Identify sign and symbols used in load line marks; TF = tropical fresh, F = fresh
water, S = salt water , W = winter , WNA = winter north Atlantic

Guide Questions

1. What is the hull form at a

i. Box shape vessel
ii. Ship shaped vessel
2. What is the effect of charge of density when the displacement is constant?
 3. What is FWA
4. What is DWA
5. What is the purpose of load line?

Effects of Density on Draft and Displacement

The first estimate that the Naval Architect makes for a new ship is to estimate the
lightweight.

Lightweight: This is the weight of the ship itself when completely empty, with
boilers topped up to working level. It is made up of steel weight, wood and outfit
weight, and the machinery weight. This lightweight is evaluated by conducting an
inclining experiment normally just prior to delivery of the new vessel. Over the
years, this value will change

Deadweight: This is the weight that a ship carries. It can be made up of oil fuel,
fresh water, stores, lubricating oil, water ballast, crew and effects, cargo and
passengers. This deadweight will vary, depending on how much the ship is loaded
between light ballast and fully-loaded departure conditions.

Displacement: This is the weight of the volume of water that the ship displaces

Displacement = Lightweight ÷ Deadweight

https://youtu.be/mYw5LS4U7y8

Effect of change of density when the displacement is constant

When a ship moves from water of one density to water of another density, without there
being a change in her mass, the draft will change. This will happen because the ship must
displace the same mass of water in each case. Since the density of the water has
changed, the volume of water displaced must also change. This can be seen from the
formula:

Mass x Volume x Density

If the density of the water increases, then the volume of water displaced must decrease
to keep the mass of water displaced constant, and vice versa.

The effect on box-shaped vessels

New mass of water displaced = Old mass of water displaced

New volume x New density = Old volume x Old density
 New volume = Old density
Old volume New
density But volume = L X B
X Draft
L X B New draft = old density
L X B Old Draft New density

The effect on ship-shaped vessels

It has already been shown that when the density of the water in which a vessel floats is
changed the draft will change, but the mass of water in kg or tones displaced will be
unchanged; i.e.
New displacement = Old displacement or

New volume x New density = Old volume x Old density

New Volume = Old density
Old volume New density

The Fresh Water Allowance is the number of millimeters by which the mean draft
changes when a ship passes from salt water to fresh water, or vice versa, whilst floating
at the loaded draft. It is found by the formula:
https://youtu.be/puUupqs6DZM - Fresh water allowance

https://youtu.be/GUfnDbI_iaQ - Definition of Dock water allowance

When a ship moves from water of one density to water of another density, without there
being a change in her mass, the draft will change. This will happen because the ship must
displace the same mass of water in each case. Since the density of the water has
changed, the volume of water displaced must also change.

THE LOAD LINE

ship’s load line marks.
https://youtu.be/YpCyP1sM_cA - Load line marks

The center of the disc is at a distance below the deck line equal to the ship’s statutory
freeboard. Then 540 mm forward of the disc is a vertical line 25 mm thick, with horizontal
lines measuring 230 x 25 mm on each side of it. The upper edge of the one marked ‘S’ is
in line with the horizontal line through the disc and indicates the draft to which the ship
may be loaded when floating in salt water in a Summer Zone. Above this line and pointing
aft is another line marked ‘F’, the upper edge of which indicates the draft to which the
ship may be loaded when floating in fresh water in a Summer Zone. If loaded to this draft
in fresh water the ship will automatically rise to ‘S’ when she passes into salt water. The
perpendicular distance in millimeters between the upper edges of these two lines is
therefore the ship’s Fresh Water Allowance.
When the ship is loading in dock water which is of a density between these two limits ‘S’
may be submerged such a distance that she will automatically rise to ‘S’ when the open
sea and salt water is reached. The distance by which ‘S’ can be submerged, called the
Dock Water Allowance

Module 1 – Displacement

Intended Learning Outcomes

LO 6.1: State that, for a ship to float, it must displace a mass of water equal to its own
weight LO 6.2: Explain how, when the mass of a ship changes, the mass of water
displaced changes by an equal amount.
LO 6.3: State that the displacement of a vessel is its weight and its measured in tonnes.
LO 6.4: State that displacement is represented by the symbol Δ
LO 6.5: Explain the relationship between the displacement and mean draft of a ship by
using the graph or scale.
LO 6.6: Given a displacement /draught curve, finds;

• Displacement for given mean draft

• Mean draft for given displacements
• The change in mean draft when given weight are loaded or discharge
• The weight of the cargo to be loaded or discharges to produces a required change
of draft.
LO. 6.7: Define: “light displacement” is the weight of the vessel without any store, fuel, FW,
ballast and cargo onboard
LO 6.8: Define “load displacement” is the weight of the vessel including any stores,
fuel, FW, ballast and cargo onboard that she can carry up to her appropriate load
mark.
LO 6.9: Define “deadweight” is the maximum weight a vessel can carry up to her
appropriate Load marks; it is the different between load and light displacement.
LO 6.10: Uses a deadweight scale to find the deadweight and displacement of a ship at
various draft in seawater.
LO 6.11: Defines: “tons per centimeter immersion (TPC) as the weight to be
loaded or discharge to change the mean draft by (1) centimeter.
LO 6.12: Explain why TPC varies with different draft.
LO 6.13: Uses a deadweight scale to obtain TPC at given
draft.

LO 6.14: Uses TPC obtained from deadweight to find:

• The change of mean draft when given weight are loaded and discharged
• The weight of the cargo to be loaded or discharge to produce a required chance
of draft.
LO 6.15: Define “block coefficient” (CB)
LO 6.16: Calculate ‘Cb’ from given displacement and dimension

Guide Questions
1. What is Archimedes law of floatation?
2. What is hydrostatic table/curve
3. What is deadweight scale
4. What is the purpose of TPC?
5. What is “block coefficient”
 DISPLACEMENT INTRODUCTION

The displacement or displacement tonnage of a ship is its weight based on the

amount of water its hull displaces at varying loads. It is measured indirectly using
Archimedes' principle by first calculating the volume of water displaced by the ship then
converting that value into weight displaced.

Archimedes' principle states: An object immersed in a fluid experiences a buoyant

force that is equal in magnitude to the force of gravity on the displaced fluid.

For example, a ship that is launched sinks into the ocean until the weight of the water it
displaces is just equal to its own weight. As the ship is loaded, it sinks deeper, displacing
more water, and so the magnitude of the buoyant force continuously matches the weight
of the ship and its cargo.

When the ship moves from water of one density to water of another density, without
there being a change in her mass, the draft will change. This will happen because the
ship must displace the same mass of water in each case. Since the density on the water
has changed, the volume of water displaced must also change. If the density of the
water increases, then the volume of water displaced must decrease to keep the mass
of water displaced constant and vice versa.
https://youtu.be/xtfgUo0zlZQ -displacement

Ship Hydrostatics:

Some characteristic parameters calculated for a floating ship, which can either directly be
used to comment on the nature of stability of the ship or be used to evaluate other
stability parameters, are called ship hydrostatics. For a designer to be able to develop a
hull form, or a ship’s captain to understand the stability parameters, it is important for
both to be able to understand the meaning and practical significance of each hydrostatic
parameter of a surface ship. We will first list the hydrostatics of a surface ship, and then
move on to define them.
 • Vertical, Longitudinal and Transverse Center of Gravity
• Vertical, Longitudinal and Transverse Center of Buoyancy
• Mass Displacement (Δ)
• Volume Displacement ( )
• Longitudinal and Transverse Centre of Floatation
• Metacenter
• Metacentric Height
• Metacentric Radius
• Moment to Change Trim 1 cm (MCT)
• Tonnes per cm Immersion (TPC)

DEADWEIGHT SCALE

The deadweight (Dwt) scale provides a method for estimating the additional draft
or for determining the extra load that could be taken onboard when a vessel is
being loaded in water of density less than that of salt water. The main use of the
Dwt scale is to observe Dwt against draft

A drawing used for estimating the additional draught or for determining the extra load
that could be taken on board when a vessel is being loaded in water of density less than
that of salt water.

https://youtu.be/Yyvyj41njBs - displacements why don’t big ship sink?

Load displacement =the weight, in long tons, of a cargo vessel loaded so that the
summer load line touches the surface of the water.

Loaded displacement is the weight of the ship including cargo, passengers, fuel, water,
stores, dunnage and such other items necessary for use on a voyage. These bring the ship
down to its "load draft", colloquially known as the "waterline".
Light Displacement = the weight of a ship with all its permanent equipment, excluding
the weight of cargo persons, ballast, dunnage, and fuel, but usually including the weight
of permanent ballast and water used to operate steam machinery.

Deadweight (DWT) The deadweight is the difference between the displacement and
the mass of empty vessel (lightweight) at any given draught. It is a measure of ship's
ability to carry various items: cargo, stores, ballast water, provisions and crew, etc.

Tonnes per Centimeter Immersion (TPC)

As weights are loaded on board a vessel, it will gradually sink lower in the water.
The amount of weight which will sink the vessel 1 cm deeper in the water, that is,
the weight which will increase the draft by 1 cm is called the tonnes per
centimeter immersion (TPC).
The TPC is the mass which must be loaded or discharged to change the ship’s mean draft
by 1cm. When the ship is floating in salt water it is found by using the formula:
TPC = WPA
97.56
WPA = the area of the water-plane in sq. Meters.

https://youtu.be/Zbiz_vugjTM - TPC
The area of the water-plane of a box-shaped vessel is the same for all drafts if the trim be
constant, and so the TPC will also be the same for all drafts. In the case of a ship the
area of the water-plane is not constant for all drafts, and therefore the TPC will reduce at
lower drafts, The TPCs are calculated for a range of drafts extending beyond the light
and loaded drafts, and these are then tabulated or plotted on a graph. From the table or
graph the TPC at intermediate drafts may be found.
The block coefficient of a ship is the ratio of the underwater volume of ship to the
volume of a rectangular block having the same overall length, breadth and depth. ... As all
these factors would change with the change in draft, Cb would also change with change
of ship's draft
The coefficient of fineness of the water-plane area is the ratio of the area of the
waterplane to the area of a rectangle having the same length and maximum breadth.
Find the area of the water-plane of a ship 36 metres long, 6 metres beam, which has a
coefficient of fineness of 0.8.