(1a) Define Carbonhydrate (b) Classify Carbohydrate stating their types, source and functions (c)What

are the Medicinal Properties of Opium, and how is it traditionally processed to create pharmaceutical
drugs?

(2a) Briefly explain biosynthesis of carbohydrate stating their properties (2b) wriite short note on the
following: (I) Synthesis source (ii) Mineral source (iii) Human source (iv) Animal Source

(3a) Explain the definitive therapy of Diabetes.

(b) Discuss the various types of insulin

(4a) Explain the process of extracting and utilizing natural sources of antibiotics, like penicillin from fungi,
in medicine.

(b) Describe the mechanism of action of digitalis, a drug derived from foxglove plants, in the treatment
of heart conditions.

1a) Definition of Carbohydrate: Carbohydrates are organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen, with a general formula of (CH2O)n. They serve as a primary source of energy for living
organisms and are essential for various cellular functions.

1b) Classification of Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates can be categorized into three major types:
monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides: Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates and cannot be further
hydrolyzed to simpler sugars. Examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose. They are found in fruits,
honey, and many other naturally occurring sources.

Disaccharides: Disaccharides are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharide units. Common
examples include sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose), and maltose (glucose +
glucose). They are present in table sugar, milk, and grains.
Polysaccharides: Polysaccharides consist of long chains of monosaccharide units linked together. They
are usually complex carbohydrates. Examples include starch (an energy storage polysaccharide in plants),
glycogen (an energy storage polysaccharide in animals), and cellulose (a structural polysaccharide in
plant cell walls).

The functions of carbohydrates include providing energy for cellular activities, serving as structural
components of cells and tissues, contributing to the immune system, and acting as recognition
molecules on the cell surface.

1c) Medicinal Properties of Opium: Opium, derived from the poppy plant (Papaver somniferum),
contains several alkaloids with pharmacological properties. The main alkaloids include morphine,
codeine, and thebaine. Opium has been traditionally used for its medicinal properties, including
analgesic (pain-relieving), cough-suppressing, and sedative effects.

To create pharmaceutical drugs from opium, the raw opium is typically subjected to a process known as
extraction. This involves dissolving opium in water or other solvents to extract the desired alkaloids. The
extracted alkaloids are then further processed and purified to create specific opioid medications. These
medications are used in the treatment of pain, cough, and other medical conditions. However, due to
the potential for abuse and addiction, opium-derived medications are strictly controlled substances.

2a) Biosynthesis of Carbohydrates: Biosynthesis of carbohydrates involves the synthesis of glucose, the
primary monosaccharide used for energy production, within living organisms. The process of
biosynthesis occurs in plants during photosynthesis and in animals through various metabolic pathways.

In plants, photosynthesis combines carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere with water (H2O)
through the action of sunlight and chlorophyll in the presence of enzymes. This process produces
glucose and oxygen as byproducts. Glucose is subsequently converted into other carbohydrates like
starch for storage or used directly for energy production.

In animals, glucose is mainly synthesized through the breakdown of dietary carbohydrates or other
biomolecules like proteins and fats. This occurs through various metabolic pathways such as glycolysis,
gluconeogenesis, and glycogenolysis. Glucose can be stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles for later
use or utilized immediately as an energy source.

Carbohydrate biosynthesis is regulated by several enzymes and hormonal signals to maintain glucose
levels within the body and provide energy as required.
2b) Short Notes on Different Sources of Carbohydrates: (I) Synthesis Source: This refers to the synthesis
of carbohydrates within living organisms, both in plants and animals, through metabolic processes like
photosynthesis or glycolysis.

(ii) Mineral Source: Carbohydrates do not have a direct mineral source as they are primarily composed of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. However, the mineral elements required for the synthesis and utilization
of carbohydrates include carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen themselves, as well as elements like phosphorus,
sulfur, and various ions (e.g., potassium, magnesium) that act as cofactors for enzymes involved in
carbohydrate metabolism.

(iii) Human Source: Humans obtain carbohydrates from a variety of dietary sources such as grains, fruits,
vegetables, legumes, and dairy products. These sources provide monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
polysaccharides that are broken down and utilized as energy sources by human cells.

(iv) Animal Source: Animals also acquire carbohydrates through their diet, primarily from plant-based
food sources. For example, herbivorous animals consume plants containing various forms of
carbohydrates, which are subsequently digested and utilized by their cells for energy production.

3a) Definitive Therapy of Diabetes: The definitive therapy for diabetes depends on the type and severity
of the condition. Here are some general approaches to managing diabetes:

Type 1 Diabetes: Since type 1 diabetes is characterized by an absolute deficiency of insulin, treatment
typically involves the lifelong administration of insulin through injections or an insulin pump. Regular
blood glucose monitoring, dietary management, and physical exercise are also crucial components of the
treatment plan.

Type 2 Diabetes: Type 2 diabetes often involves insulin resistance and impaired production of insulin.
Treatment options include lifestyle modifications like dietary changes, regular exercise, and weight
management. Oral medications that improve insulin sensitivity or stimulate insulin production may also
be prescribed. In some cases, insulin injections might be necessary.

Gestational Diabetes: Gestational diabetes occurs during pregnancy and usually resolves after delivery.
Treatment involves blood glucose monitoring, dietary adjustments, regular exercise, and, in some cases,
insulin therapy to maintain stable blood sugar levels and minimize risks for both the mother and the
baby.
Individualized treatment plans are essential for people with diabetes, and regular monitoring by
healthcare professionals is crucial to optimize management and prevent complications.

b) Various Types of Insulin: Insulin medications differ in onset, peak action, and duration. Here are some
commonly used types:

Rapid-Acting Insulin: This type of insulin begins working quickly (within 15 minutes), peaks within 30
minutes to 3 hours after administration, and lasts for 3 to 5 hours. It is typically taken before meals to
control the rise in blood sugar levels after eating.

Short-Acting Insulin: Short-acting insulin starts working within 30 minutes, peaks between 2-4 hours, and
lasts for about 6-8 hours. It is usually taken before meals to cover the rise in blood sugar levels caused by
food.

Intermediate-Acting Insulin: Intermediate-acting insulin has a slower onset and a longer duration
compared to short-acting insulin. It starts working within 1-2 hours, peaks between 4-10 hours, and can
last for up to 16-24 hours. It may often be combined with rapid- or short-acting insulin to provide more
extended control of blood sugar levels.

Long-Acting Insulin: Long-acting insulin has a slow and steady release, providing a basal insulin level
throughout the day. It starts working within 1-2 hours, has no pronounced peak, and can last for up to 24
hours or more. It is typically taken once or twice a day to maintain a stable blood sugar level between
meals and during sleep.

The specific types of insulin used and their dosing are determined by healthcare professionals based on
individual needs and the type of diabetes being treated. Insulin can be administered via injection or
through insulin pumps.