IPTI 1036: Pulp and Paper Processing

UNIT #1: Papermaking Background

SECTION A: History of Paper Making

105 AD - China is the birthplace of paper. Process involved pouring fiber suspension over a mold.
Paper was dried on cloth and then removed. Fiber source: mulberry tree, plants, old fish
nets, linen and hemp rags

800’s AD - Papermaking was mainly known throughout the Orient and started moving west to
“Middle Eastern” countries. Arab countries used flax and cotton fibers to make paper.

1000 -1400 - Paper first made in Europe. Techniques spread from the middle east to Europe.

1456 - Johann Gutenberg developed the printing press and mass-produced the bible. This
technology allowed for mass distribution of knowledge and ideas.
Marks the birth of modern paper and printing industry.

1690 - First paper mill in North America at Germantown, PA. Cotton was mainly used for
papermaking.

1700’s - Rene de Réaumur discovered wood could be broken down and reformed into paper.
Idea was taken from wasps eating wood and regurgitating to make their nests. It would be
over 100 years before wood fiber was used industrially.

1798 - Nicholas Louis Robert invented a machine to make paper in continuous rolls rather than
sheets (France). This was further developed by Donking and the Fourdrinier brothers.

1800’s - Industrial Revolution: application of power driven machinery to manufacturing (work

previously performed by hand was mechanized).

1803 - First mill built in Quebec, Canada. Pulped rags, cotton, and other plant fibers were used
to make paper.

1838 - At the age of 17, Charles Fenerty of Upper Falmouth, Nova Scotia, started
experimenting with how to make paper from wood. By 1844, he had perfected his
pulping process, including bleaching of the pulp to make it white.

1870 - Wood fiber usage developed on a large scale.

1860-1950 -Increased machine speeds, enlarged paper width, and introduction of electric drive.

1950-Today Along with further increases in speed and web width came the use of new materials (new
pulps, fillers, chemicals, dyes, recycled paper), automation, and specialization of paper
types.

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SECTION B: Introduction to Pulping and Papermaking

Paper is one of the single most important achievements that has had a significant impact on the
growth and development of humankind.

According to Smook (2016), “the significance of paper and paper products in modern life is
obvious to everyone; no manufactured product plays a more meaningful role in every area of
human activity”. (p.1)

There exist many paper grades with many applications; however, the majority of paper grades
produced can fall into three broad categories.

Category Properties to Consider

1) Printing Grades – communication, information Brightness

and literary purposes Gloss
Newsprint Opacity
Catalogue Color
Rotogravure Basis weight
Publication (Magazine) Smoothness
Banknote, Document Thickness
Bible Porosity, Density, Bulk
Bond, Ledger Formation
Stationary Strength (tensile, tear)
Photo Appearance
Stiffness
2) Industrial Grades – commercial, packaging, Stretch
industrial and constructional use Wet strength
Bag Softness
Linerboard Dirt (from bark, recycled)
Corrugated Medium Runability
Construction Paper Printability
Greaseproof Dimensional Stability
Glassine Acidity
Absorptivity
3) Tissues – personal, sanitary purposes
Sanitary tissues
Condenser tissue
Toweling
Wrapping Tissue

Within each category, the function of paper has evolved. The end use of a given type of paper
has dictated the enhancement and control of certain properties of the paper. As a result, paper is
an engineered structure. Even though the fundamental papermaking process is essentially the
same for paper, tissue and board production, for a specific grade or type of paper, the properties
are controlled or enhanced by manipulating the content of the base components in the sheet
(fibrous materials, non-fibrous materials, chemical additives) and/or by changes to the paper
manufacturing process.

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 Notes on Paper — the Fourhttps://www.thefourdrinier.com/notes-on-paperdrinier

What is Paper?
Paper is an aqueous deposit of any vegetable fiber in sheet form. “Pulp fibers are
overwhelmingly of plant origin, but animal, mineral, or synthetic fibers may be used in small
quantities for special applications” (Smook, p.1). If you tear a piece of paper, you will see a
number of minute whiskers sticking out from the line of the tear. These are the fibers, they are
very small in size, (~1 mm) and there are millions of them in any piece of paper.

Modern paper is made from 3 base components:

1) Wood Fibers (fibrous material from the stem of a tree)
2) Fillers (nonfibrous minerals or clays)
3) Chemical Additives (small amounts of chemicals that promote paper properties)

Making Paper from Wood

Wood is made of cellulose fibers that are bound together by a material called lignin. In a pulp
mill, the fibers are separated from one another into a mass of individual fibers. This is called
pulpwood.

The trees used in papermaking are mainly cone bearing, for example, spruce, pine, or fir
(softwoods), and leaf-bearing trees such as birch, beech, or eucalyptus (hardwoods).

No two species of tree produce the same grade of fiber. Softwoods provide long strong cellulose
fibers. These long strong cellulose fibers are used to produce papers where strength is needed.
For example, packaging papers. The shorter hardwood fibers provide bulk, smoothness and
opacity (stops dark printing showing through the paper.) They are used to produce fluting
medium (the wavy layer inside cardboard) and printing/writing paper.

There are three main processes used to reduce wood to fibers:

Mechanical, Chemical, and a combination.

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Mechanical Pulping

Mechanical pulping is a very cost effective, but energy intensive, process because all the log part
is used except the bark. Mechanical pulping yields 85% to 95% of the wood as fiber. The pulp
is produced by forcing debarked logs, which are about 2 meters long, and hot water, between
enormous rotating steel discs with teeth that literally tear the wood apart. A different process
presses the wood against a grindstone; this is known as “ground stone pulp”.

Thermo-Mechanical-Pulp (TMP) is another form of mechanical pulping. Hot water and the
mechanical action of a refiner create the pulp. If a small amount of chemical(s) is used in
creating the TMP, some people will classify it as combination pulping (see below). Example:
Irving paper uses TMP for their products.

Papers made from mechanical pulp will discolor when left in the light. Trees contain up to 30%
lignin, a material that is sensitive to light and degrades. Newsprint is mostly produced from
mechanical pulp, which explains why newspapers will discolor over time. The special advantage
of mechanical pulp is that it makes the paper opaque and bulky.

Chemical Pulping

Most chemical wood pulp is made by a process called Kraft Pulping, which uses the chemicals
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium sulfide (Na2S) to breakdown the wood into individual
fibers. In the Kraft Process, the de-barked logs are chipped into small pieces (about an inch
wide) and these chips are dissolved by heating under pressure in a solution of NaOH and Na2S.
The pulp produced by the Kraft process is brown in color due to the effect of the chemicals on
the lignin and wood sap. Kraft pulp produces a strong paper. (The word Kraft comes from the
German word for strong.) Example: Irving Pulp and Paper is a Kraft operation.

Chemical pulping uses less energy than mechanical pulping. However, the process produces a
lower yield of fiber, typically about 40%-55%.

Combination Pulping

Chemi-Thermo-Mechanical-Pulp (CTMP) are a combination of the mechanical and chemical

processes. Debarked logs are chipped in both, and then heated to extreme temperatures to soften
them before passing them through refiners for mechanical reduction to fibers. In the CMTP
process, chemicals are sprayed onto the chips to assist with the softening of the chips during
refining. The main disadvantage of this form of pulping is the high-energy demand.

The consumer often requires high quality papers, which retain strength, do not discolor during
storage, or turn yellow when exposed to light. One of the most effective ways of achieving all
three of these is by bleaching. Bleaching has the added advantage of improving absorption
capacity and giving a high level of purity, which is particularly important when paper is being
used for hygiene, medical, or certain food packaging purposes.

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SECTION C: Wood Composition and Chemistry

Understanding the raw material (wood) helps in the development of a better paper product.

The Plant Kingdom:

I Plants that do not produce embryos (algae, fungi, bacteria, grow from cell
division [spores], asexual)
II Embryo-producing plants
A. Nonvascular – no formal conduction system (liverworts, mosses)
B. Vascular – Conduction system
1. Without seeds (ferns, horsetails)
2. Seed Plants
Conifers …seeds born naked….
………….called Gymnosperms or Softwoods
Flowering plants… seeds are protected in a fruit structure
………….called Angiosperms or Hardwoods

-Softwoods have approximately 600 species worldwide (typically evergreens, cone bearing)
-Hardwoods; approximately 12,000 species worldwide (both deciduous, flowering)

Tree Growth and Development

Mass originates from:
- Nutrients and minerals from soil [K (Potassium), N (Nitrogen), P (Phosphorous)]
- Water in Soil
- Carbon dioxide in atmosphere
- Oxygen in Air
- Light energy from sunlight

Major Sections of a Tree:

- Crown (canopy or leaves)

- Trunk (or stem)

-Cambium (the thin layer of tissue between

the bark and the inner wood)

- Outer bark

- Roots

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Basic tree growth mechanism:
- Sunlight and chlorophyll in leaves produce sugars from water and CO2. This process
is referred to as photosynthesis.
- The sugar (also known as sap made up of mainly glucose) travels down the outer
layer of the tree beneath the bark, water moves up the core of the tree.
- In North America (temperate zone), trees undergo an annual growth period.
- New annual growth occurs on the outer circumference in an area called the cambium.

INNER BARK (PHLOEM)

HEARTWOOD (XYLEM)
PITH
SAPWOOD (XYLEM)

CAMBIUM
OUTER BARK
File 1 6

The cambium is a single layer of cells between the phloem and xylem where all growth and
development of the stem occurs. Within the cambium the following is produced:

Phloem (Inner Bark): It contains sieve tubes that transport the sap.
Xylem (Wood): Has a structure of tracheids and/or vessels which transport water
(Inert pipes). (Tracheids are long and slender with tapered ends for
transporting water)

The xylem in a mature tree has two areas:

Heartwood – inactive cells that
provide structural support for the
tree
Sapwood - cells with some
physiological activity that transport
the majority of water and nutrients
throughout the tree.

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Why do tree rings form?
Thin walled fibers form in the spring/summer, dense thick walled fibers form in the summer/fall.
Stored photosynthates are consumed in the spring forming the crown (leaves) and shoot
elongation of the tree, as a result, the tree has a lack of sugars for radial stem growth, and this
leads to formation of thin walled fibers. With the development of shoots and leaves at the
beginning of summer, more photosynthates are available to the cambium, and thicker walled
fibers are formed. The difference appearance of the two types of fibers causes a shading
difference that has the look of rings.

All living organisms require a supply of energy, and there are two fundamental energy-extracting
processes in tree development:

PHOTOSYNTHESIS – Plant cells harness solar energy and translate it into chemical energy
locked in the synthesized molecule. This reaction is catalyzed by the green pigment chlorophyll.

6CO2 + 6H2O + absorbed light energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2

Glucose
RESPIRATION – glucose is broken down through enzyme-mediated reactions,
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy (38 ATP)
Glucose

The Chemical Composition of Wood

In general, wood is composed of cellulose fibers that are bound together by a substance called
lignin.

Chemical Components of Wood

File 2 4 File 2 28

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 Cellulose
• The primary structure in wood fibers, a carbohydrate (made up of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen)
• Straight chain, unbranched, polysaccharide (poly-sugar),
hydrophilic (water loving)
• Decomposes around 260-270°C
• density range is 1.27 to 1.60g/mL (~1.5 g/mL).
• Repeated monomers of (C6H10O5)n (Glucose)
• A cellobiose unit (two glucose monomers) is the repeated form.
-OH function group involved in H-bonding
Cellulose Molecule

File 2 7

Hemicelluloses
• polysaccharides of:
5 carbon sugars Xylose, arabinose
6 carbon sugars-Manose, galactose, glucose
• Cellulose framework is encased by (not
chemically bonded to) hemicelluloses
• Serves as a supportive matrix for the cellulose.
• Uniformly distributed across the fiber wall
• DP in the range of 50-300
• Amorphous (without crystalline structure)
• Hemicelluloses are not bonded to the cellulose
• Usually do not survive chemical pulping.
File 2 17

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 Lignin
• An amorphous, highly branched, 3D, phenolic
polymer, highly polymerized

• Bond fibers together

– provides rigidity and cohesiveness to the wood tissue

• Much less hydrophilic than cellulose (almost

hydrophobic)
– inhibits water absorption and fiber swelling.

• A thermoplastic material
– high temperatures will soften lignin.
File 2 19

The Building Units of Lignin

The conjugated (alternating) double bonds create colour

Lignin is a chromophore. Chromophores are molecules

File 2
that absorb certain wavelengths
21
of light
and appear colored. The color tends to come from molecules that are unsaturated (having double
bonds) that form resonance structures. (Cellulose has no double bonds and appears colorless.)

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 Extractives
• Many diverse substances (1000’s)
• Low molecular mass molecules
• Soluble in neutral organic solvents (methanol,
ethanol) or water
• Non-structural – do not add to wood structure
– Examples: Resin acids, fatty acids, turpenoid
compounds and alcohols
• Composition of extractives varies widely from
species to species

File 2 23

Cellulose: Degree of Polymerization

• degree of polymerization: the number of

repeated units in a polymer molecule.
– Example: polysaccharide (cellulose)
molecular weight of cellulose
DP =
molecular weight of one glucose unit

• Within wood, n (or DP) can be up to

10,000.
– This depends on the species
• The DP can be affected by pulping
– After chemical pulping
File 2
processing DP can 8
decrease to 500-2000.

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 Cellulose Hydrogen Bonding
• Cellulose fiber ~ 500,000 cellulose molecules.
• Cellulose molecules ~ 5,000 glucose resides
• The fiber would contain about 2.5 billion H-
bonds.
– Even if an H-bond is about 1/10 the strength of a
covalent bond, the cumulative bonding energy of 2.5
billion of them is large.

• H-bonding is the basis of the high tensile

strength of cellulose.
File 2 13

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Microfibrils are string like bundles of cellulose molecules that make up the cell wall. The middle S2 layer contains
most 80-90% of the cell wall where microfibrils are organized and wrap around the fiber like a helix angled slightly
off axis in the longitudinal direction. It will be later shown how these fibrils are involved in the paper making
process.

Putting it all Together:

The Fiber Wall Structure

File 2 27

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 Lignin is present throughout the entire fiber
wall. However, it is most concentrated in the
middle lamella; the area where the fibers are
connected.

File 1 22

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SECTION D: The Forest Resource
Trends in wood consumption are very different between developed and developing countries. In
developing countries, there is much more wood consumed as fuel for energy. As a result, more
fuel wood is consumed in the world than industrial round wood. Industrial Round Wood
includes: Sawn wood, wood based panels, pulp, paper and paperboard.

Table 3.1 in Smook indicates that 35% of wood production is in the form of long-fibered
softwoods, and 65% is in short –fibered hardwoods. The largest amount of softwood is found in
Russia, and the largest amount of hardwood is found in Brazil.

Paper Employment Pyramid

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The Global Forest Resource:

Vegetation Zones:

1) Arctic / Antarctic Zones

- Treeless areas
- Mean temp of warmest summer month is less than 10°C

2) Boreal Zone
- Annual precipitation is 300-1500 mm
- Annual mean temperature is -5°C to 5°C
- Maximum temp in summer is > 10°C and summer lasts no longer than 4 months
- Humid and characterized by coniferous tree species
- Growth strongly influenced by seasonal nature of precipitation
- Rainfall exceeds potential evaporation to give a positive water balance.
- Approx. 20% of global raw wood material comes from these forests.

3) Temperate Zone
- Annual mean temperature is 5°C to 15°C, summer is 4 to 7 months
- Annual precipitation is 500-2000 mm, usually humid
- Typically contains broadleaved, deciduous species, however, coniferous may also be
common.
- Dry forests occur in areas with less than 1000mm of rain
- Forests range from structured and closed to open woodlands and short, sparse wood-
like vegetation.
- Typical to see annual growth rings in the trees due to stops and starts in tree growth
over the four seasons (Winter/Spring/Summer/Autumn).

4) Tropical Zone
- Mean annual temperature is 22°C to 28°C
- Forest existence depends strongly on precipitation and its distribution (The main
deserts of the world exist in this zone)
- Over half the world’s forest area.
- Some areas are Evergreen Rainforests receiving over 2000mm of rain evenly
distributed over the year.
- May not see annual growth rings in trees if they grow continuously throughout the
year. That is, no change in growth rate throughout the four seasons.

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 Forest Regions Classification (Natural Resources Canada Website)

In Canada, most of the forest exists in the Boreal zone. As a result, the majority of our wood is
coniferous with species such as spruce, fir and pine.

Net
Land Productive Harvest
Allowable
Area Commercial (1993)
Region Cut (1993)
Million Forest Area millions
millions
ha Millions ha m3/a
m3/a
Atlantic provinces 50.2 21.1 19.6 15.5
Quebec/Ontario 224.8 94 92.7 55.2
Prairies (Alb., Sask., Man.) 176.3 50.2 39.3 20
British Columbia 93 49.1 78.8 78.1
Northwest Territories 377.3 21.1
TOTAL 921.6 235.5 230.4 168.8

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Canadian Forest Resources by Region:

In Canada, overall, the forestland is mainly owned by the provincial government. However, New
Brunswick has the highest portion of private woodland ownership - approximately 50%. Before
1992, the primary source for wood supply was from private land. After 1992, companies were
obligated to use up 100% crown wood first and use other sources after otherwise they could face
a monetary penalty. The provincial government sees the allowable cut as an economic source
that must be fully utilized for maximum revenue. We are a net importer of timber.
Approximately 20% of wood entering mills is from private wood lots and mills are not required
to take it.

Crown Federal Provincial Private Unspecified Total

NF 60 11022 188 0 11270
NS 112 1030 2624 0 3766
PE 2 19 257 0 278
NB 71 2888 2995 0 5954
QC 313 45907 7771 0 53991
ON 268 36351 5539 45 42203
MB 336 13821 1081 0 15238
SK 460 11784 390 0 12634
AB 1704 22464 1284 252 25704
BC 472 49145 2121 0 51738
YT 73 7398 0 0 7471
NT 2373 11948 0 0 14321
Total 6244 213777 24250 297 244568
Ownership of Inventoried Timber Productive Forest Land (thousands of ha)

Softwood Hardwood
Spruce (red, white, black) 33.0 Red Maple 8.2
Balsam Fir 21.3 Sugar Maple 5.5
Jack Pine 1.8 Yellow Birch 3.9
White Pine 2.2 White Birch 4.7
Red Pine 0.3 Aspen 6.7
Cedar 7.0 Beech 2.4
Hemlock 1.0 Other Hardwood 0.9
Larch 1.1
Total Softwood 67.7 Total Hardwood 32.3
New Brunswick’s Species Composition

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SECTION E: Wood Processing
Wood can be supplied to the pulp and paper industry as logs or chips.
In both cases, wood must be debarked; as bark is detrimental to the papermaking process.

Methods of Logging:

1) Shortwood system: 4-12 ft long

2) Longwood system: 13-50 ft long
3) Full-tree system: stem with 2-4” at top without limbs
4) Tree-length system: tree, including branches and foliage

* Mechanization leads to a decrease of shortwood, and an increase of longwood and full-tree.

Debarking:

Debarking is necessary to ensure final product quality (cleanliness). It can be performed based
on low bond strength at cambium (the layer between bark and wood).

1) Debarking Drums: most common type, operated wet or dry, bark is removed by friction
created from rotating drum action as logs rub against each other, slots in drum for bark removal

2) Ring Debarkers / Cambium Shear Debarkers: a rotating ring of several arms with scraping
tips applying radial and tangential pressure that removes bark from the tree at the cambium layer

Drum Debarker Ring Debarker

3) King Debarkers: stationary chamber with 2 rotors, rotors and chamber have debarking
plates, log are rocked and rolled against the plates, very versatile process with moderate to low
wood losses.

4) Flail debarking: Debarking chains reach the entire log, removing the bark through the
contact of the hardened links while in rotational movement.

5) Hydraulic: water jets tear bark off, one log at a time, best for large diameter

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 King Debarker Flail Chain Debarking System

Debarking variables affecting bond strength:

• Wood Species: examples of winter cut bond strength (60 lb/in2 pine, 90 lb/in2 for
fir/hemlock)
• Cutting Season: bond strength (100% spruce) higher in fall than in summer
• Log storage: As logs age, after being cut, and dry out, the bark becomes more
difficult to remove
• Temperature: 2-5 times stronger bond when frozen instead of thawed
• Moisture: log moisture reduces bond strength
• Log Form: best when straight and defect free

Chip Processing

Some pulping processes require small pieces of wood so that water, chemicals, and heat can
penetrate quickly and uniformly. For example, in chemical pulping, chip thickness is critical due
to the nature of the impregnation process. Thinner chips produce a more uniformly cooked chip.

Typical chip sizes are on average:

• Kraft Chemical Pulping: 15 - 25 mm long, 4 mm thick
• Sulphite Chemical Pulping: 25 - 35 mm long, 4 mm thick
• Mechanical: 20±2 mm long, 3 mm thick

Off size chips adversely affect the chemical pulping process and the quality of the resultant pulp
by causing undercooking and overcooking. Chip quality is measured by uniformity of size and
level of contaminants. Contaminants may be oversized chips (either length or thickness), pin
chips (normal length but <7mm in width and thickness), fines (can pass through 3mm holes),
bark, burnt wood, rotten wood, dirt and any foreign material.

The shape of the chip is also important. In chemical pulping, a rectangular chip increases the
packing ability of the chips in the digester increasing the capacity.

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Chipping Processes
When a knife is forced into the log at a certain angle the wood splits and chip pieces loosen from
the wood. The knife cuts and shears the wood at the same time.

The most common chipping method is the flywheel-type disc with a series of blades mounted
radially where logs are typically fed at an angle.

Common Chippers

Variables that Impact Chip Size:

Knife Sharpness – worn knives increase pin chips and amount of dust
Knife Tip Extension – determines chip length and affects chip thickness
Complementary Angle – larger angles give thinner chips (10-14°) (balance between splitting and
shearing of the wood).
Moisture Content – when the moisture content is below cell wall saturated moisture
(approximately 30% of wet weight) the power demand grows, chips are thinner, and there are
more fines produced (more brittle). Also, frozen wood impacts chip size.
Brooming of logs during debarking – when damage occurs to logs during debarking.

Chip Screening
The purpose of screening: to form the most even chip size distribution possible for pulping.
Screening does not produce better chips it just removes the poor quality ones. Conventionally,
fines and oversized chips are removed; oversized may be re-processed and sent back to
screening.

The chip size distribution can be assessed through chip classification using the SCAN-MC40.88
method:
F1 = oversized, 45mm round holes
F2 = overly thick chips, round rods
F3 = accept, 7 mm round holes
F4 = pin chips, 3 mm round holes
F5 = fines, closed plate

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 Chip Classifier SCAN-CM

Fraction Deck dim. After chipper % After conventional After thickness

mm screening % screening %
F1 > 45 Incl. F2 0.2 0.2
F2 >//8 11 8 2
F3 >7 Incl. F4 Incl. F4 Incl. F4
F4 >3 88 91.5 97.5
F5 <3 1 0.3 0.3
Screen Analysis of a Chip Sample

Example: Complete the table below.

Fraction Deck dim. Mass (g) %
mm
F1 > 45 45
F2 >//8 65
F3 >7 111
F4 >3 38
F5 <3 55

Screening Methods:

Conventional screening separates only oversized chips and dust. A re-chipper normally handles
the oversize chips before returning them to the screen.

Coarse Screen – to remove debris that could damage equipment

Gyrating Screen – rotating shaft in middle of screen vibrates box at a small amplitude, screened
chips fall and flow towards the discharge

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 Cross Section of a Gyrating Screen

Disc Screen – numerous shafts of discs and

spacers which moves the chips while they fall
through the spaces between the discs

Roll Screen– chip roll over screen

orienting towards nip and pas thru if
sufficiently thin

Bar Screen – two interlaced screen

decks of bars gently oscillate repeatedly
tumbling the chips, reduced surface wear

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Pocket Roll Fines Screen- fines fall through spaces between moving rolls.

Successful screening requires the following:

- Sufficient screening area (for capacity, chip quality, and desired separation effect)
- Sufficient agitation (dust removal)
- Minimum number of moving units (especially if they require frequent maintenance)
- Easy cleaning of screens

Chips:
- More economical to handle than logs
- Two main ways of transporting chips:
o Pneumatically within pipes (lower initial cost but higher energy consumption,
greater chip damage)
o Conveyor belts (higher initial cost but lower energy consumption, less chip
damage)
- Losses of 1% per month due to microorganism activity
- Need effective chip pile management to reduce storage time (1st in, 1st out)
- A good ground barrier of concrete or asphalt reduces dirt contamination and mobility
of ground organisms
- Chips are segregated by species
- Magnets are used to remove metallic debris

Key Chip Measurements

The following parameters are used to estimate the mass of wood added to a digester.

Chip Moisture:

- Determined by measuring the mass of the same sample of chips wet then completely
dried.
 Mass of Wet Chips − Mass of Dry Chips 
ChipMoisture =    100%
 Mass of Wet Chips 

Chip moistures typically range from 30-50 %

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Chip Density Parameters:

1) ρW = Wood Density

Refers to density of the original wood in tree. Typically 1.5 g/cm3

2) ρC = Chip Density
ChipMass
c =
ChipVolume
Refers to chip density as measured in lab after drying. Usually referred to as odg/cm3 ,
meaning oven dried grams/ cm3 Typically 0.35 – 0.55 g/cm3

3) ρLP = Loose Packed Density

When chips are dumped in a pile, we can estimate the bulk density known as the “Loose Packed”
density.

It can be assumed that ρLP ≈ (1/3) ρC Typically ρLP = 0.12 to 0.18 g/cm3

Knowing the volume of the chip pile, the mass of chips in the pile can then be calculated using
the Loose Packed Density value.

4) ρB = Bulk Density (g/cm3)

ρB refers to chips inside a container. This parameter is used to estimate the weight of chips in a
batch digester. (Generally under 11 kPa (225 lb/ft2) pressure.)

To determine the density of this system we must account for the volume of the space between the
chips. These spaces will contribute no mass.

Chips

Voids

Bulk density is termed ρB , and represents the density of a system where the volume of the
container is defined.

Compaction Factor:

If chips are just dumped in a batch digester we can use ρLP to determine the mass of the chips
inside the digester given we know the volume occupied by the chips.

Charging a batch digester with loose packed chips can create problems for the operation.

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Steam packing involves dumping in the chips into the digester while steam is added tangentially
to the batch digester. This distributes the chips evenly and creates a uniform pile. Steam packing
also reduces the void space between the chips.

To describe this advantage in packing we use the “compaction factor” (ρ*)

Compaction factor: ρ* = ρB / ρLP

Where ρB = Bulk density of the packed chip bed

Where ρLP = Loose packed density

Typically ρ* ≈ 1.3 to 1.45

SECTION F: Related Pulp Properties

Tests are performed on pulp to help characterize its quality and help better control the pulping
process with the end goal of producing better paper. As a result, standard test methods are often
used to properly and consistently quantify these properties.

Some common producers of standard methods are:

ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
TAPPI (Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry)
PAPTAC (Pulp and Paper Technical Association of Canada)
ASTM (American Society for Testing Materials)

The objective of testing is to get an accurate and precise value for a given property. There are
various factors to consider that affect the accuracy and precision of a given result which include:
- Sampling
- Procedural
- Calibration
- Instrument precision and sensitivity
- External (environmental)

Consistency
One of the most important and common tests for a pulp suspension is consistency. Consistency
refers to the wt% of dry fiber in a pulp solution.

Low Consistency (<5-6%). Pulp behaves like water and can be moved with standard pumps.
Med-High Consistency (8-35%). Pulp behaves like a thick oatmeal and needs specialized
equipment for processing.

Drainability
Pulp drainage (or the resistance of a fiber mat to the flow of water) is very important in pulping
and papermaking. Its one of the fundamental properties used to control the process both in
pulping and papermaking. The standard test used is the Canadian Standard Freeness (CSF).

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Fast Draining – FREE
Slow Draining – SLOW

The figure 22-2 shows the CSF Tester. A 20°C, 0.3% pulp
suspension is released from the upper chamber, through a
screen, and the water drained flows downward by gravity.
The amount of water collected from the side orifice ‘in
mL’ is the CSF or freeness. If pure water is tested it
displays a max freeness of 880. Pulp freenesses generally
can range from 40-800. Values around 50 and below tend
to show more inaccuracy.

Drainability of pulp is affect by many factors but one of

the major factors is fiber length distribution. A fiber length
distribution is a better way of quantifying drainage but is
much less practical from an operational perspective.

Standard test includes corrections when the pulp sample

deviates from 20°C and 0.3% consistency.

SECTION G: Related Paper Properties

1) Basis Weight (Grammage)
Define as mass per unit area and includes moisture. An important parameter that, within a grade,
classifies paper. It can imply a thickness or bulkiness of the sheet. Basis Weight ranges from 5 g/m2
(tissue) to 400 g/m2 (liner board).

A ream is the area of 500 sheets of a standard size for a given grade. The ream sheet size varies with
paper grade. For example, LWC (light weight coated) paper has a sheet area of 3300 ft2; for newsprint it
is 3000 ft2.

Bond, writing, ledger 17 x 22 in - 500

Manuscript cover 18 x 31 in - 500
Blotting 19 x 24 in - 500
Box cover 20 x 24 in - 500
Cover 20 x 26 in - 500 or 1000
Bristol and tag 22.5 x 28.5 in - 500
Tissue 24 x 36 in - 480
Newsprint 24 x 36 in - 500
Hanging, waxing, bag, etc. 24 x 36 in - 500
Book and offset 25 x 38 in - 500
Index bristol 25.2 x 30.5 in - 500
Paperboard (all types) 12 x 12 in - 1000 (1,000 square feet)
Basic Ream Sizes for Various Types of Paper

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Example (Ream Area Calculation):

 ft 2 
For Book and Offset (Magazine): Ream Area = 25in  38in   2 
 500sheets = 3300 ft 2
 144in 
Example (Basis Weight Calculation):
A LWC papermachine is producing a 25 ft wide sheet at 3000 ft/min. In 50 min the machine turns up a
reel of paper that weighs a total of 45 tons. The spool weight is 10 tons. Calculate the basis weight of the
paper in lbs/ream and g/m2. The ream area is 3300 ft2.

2) Caliper / Thickness
A measurement of the thickness of a one-ply sheet of paper. Measured with a micrometer with a foot
area and squeeze pressure. Paper is compressible - a standard minimal pressure is necessary for the test.
(0.1 MPa or less)
Typical units: millimeters (mm), thousands of an inch (thou), microns (µm)

Micrograph of Cross-section of Coated Paper

3) Apparent Density / Bulk

Pure density describes the amount of mass in a given volume of homogeneous product. Apparent
density is relative to the volume which can be arbitrarily defined.

mass ( m ) basis weight ( BW )  g 

Apparent Density (  ) = = = 3 
volume of paper ( v ) caliper ( )  cm 

Density of fiber differs from density of paper. Typically, a rule of thumb, the average density of solid
wood fiber is approximately 1.5 g/cm3 for the majority of species. The density of a fiber including all its
voids (pores, lumen) is lower, 1-1.2 g/m3.

Bulk is the inverse of apparent density, describing a volume to a given mass of product. Bulk is often a
desired quality in papermaking: e.g. tissue can have an increased perceived softness with increase in
bulk; increased bulk gives the impression of more mass, in magazines increased bulk translates to a
stiffer magazine which can impress a higher quality or maybe more content.

volume  cm3 
Bulk =  
mass  g 

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4) Porosity
Used to describe a material containing holes or voids. A measurement
of the void volume (pores) within a sheet of paper. Typical pore size
range is 1-10 m. Generally measured with an air-leak type
measurement: related to flow rate of air or volume of air moved
through the sheet. (E.g. PPS porosity is (ml/min))

Comparison of Porosity
(Openness) of 2 Sheets

5) Formation
Formation is small scale grammage variation that is visually apparent.
Can be measured directly (gravimetrically) - measure BW of small punch
samples (not very popular) or indirectly - light transmittance or beta
radiation. Common methods involve indirect optical measurement - has
limitations but relates a good visual impression.
A Formation value is normally an arbitrary unitless number based on
magnitude and degree of variation (standard deviation). More uniform
fiber structure improves surface uniformity. For LWC, better formation
improves gloss, coating application uniformity, smoothness of sheet, etc.
A poor formation has a negative effect on tensile strength and opacity.

Paper Formation as Pulp Fibers are Dewatered

6) Tensile Strength, Stretch, TEA

Force required to break a narrow strip of paper (kN/m, lbf/in)

Rupture Force  kN lb f 
Tensile Strength of Paper =  , 
Width of Paper Strip  m in 

Effect of Stress on Paper

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Describes the level of inter-fiber bonding more so than individual fiber strength. Increases with basis
weight. More fiber and bonds exist at a given cross-section in the paper, therefore, requiring more
energy to break. Tensile strength (Stress) can be indexed by dividing by basis weight. From this, we can
determine how strong the material is regardless of dimensions (thickness, density). This is equivalent to
breaking length; how long a hanging strip of paper must be in order to break under its own weight.
Tensile tests are highly directional (Machine direction (MD), Cross direction (CD)).

Tensile Strength ( N / m)  N  m 
Tensile Index =  
Basis Weight ( g / m2 )  g 
Tensile Index ( N  m / g )
Breaking Length = ( km )
Acceleration Due to Gravity, g

Stretch is the % elongation under stress until failure. Stretch is related to burst strength and folding
endurance. Intrinsic Strength – strength of fibers loaded in the axial direction (zero-span tensile).

7) Tear Strength (Internal Tearing Resistance)

Measured as the force required to continue a tear in a paper sample; whereas the
force is applied perpendicular to the plane of the sheet. Units are (gf, mN). Tear
index = tear force / basis weight (mN · m2/g, gf · m2/g) Highly directional.
It represents of fiber strength and fiber length rather than bonding strength (at high
levels of bonding). Often inversely related to tensile.

8) Moisture Content
All paper has a portion of water in it. Papermaker’s like to maximize moisture without hurting quality to
improve cost. As the water (or moisture) content increases, it disrupts hydrogen bonding, thus lowering
strength; however, it improves stretch of the sheet which helps balance a force applied to the sheet. A
paper sheet that is too dry can become brittle and break easily.

Effects of Moisture Content in Folding Paper: Left Sheet has

Proper Moisture, Sheet on Right Lacks Moisture

The relative humidity of surrounding air governs the moisture content of paper. Paper easily absorbs or
releases moisture with its surroundings. A range of 5-7 % is essential to maintain satisfactory strength
and workability of paper.

IPTI 1036 Pulp and Paper Processing Unit 1 Page 29 of 33

Effect of Outdoor Temperature on Indoor Temperature and Paper Moisture

Because of this strong dependence on moisture, paper samples to be tested are conditioned in a
constant temperature and constant humidity (CTCH) controlled lab which improves consistency and
accuracy.

Optical Properties
Visible light is electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic radiation is energy that travels in oscillating
electric and magnetic fields (waves) moving at the speed of light (3.0 x 108 m/s). EM waves do not
require a medium for transfer. (Astronauts in space use radio waves to communicate; sound requires a
medium.)

The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is perceivable by the human eye is generally between
400 and 700 nanometers wavelength.

Electromagnetic Spectrum [NASA Observatorium]

Within the visible range, colors are categorized by ranges of wavelength. Light energy reflected from
objects at various visible wavelengths is what allows us to see color and interpret color differences.

IPTI 1036 Pulp and Paper Processing Unit 1 Page 30 of 33

When light energy contacts a surface, such as paper, it can behave as follows:

REFLECTION – Surface reflection (gloss), occurs where the angle of viewing equals the angle of incidence.
TRANSMISSION – Light passes through the sheet and is lost, thereby reducing brightness.
SCATTERING – Light rays undergo multiple reflection and refraction from fibers causing an increase in
brightness.
ABSORPTION – Light strikes colored matter and is absorbed and converted to heat thereby reducing
brightness.
Light depends on the spectral energy distribution emitted, the spectral reflectance of the sample, and
the spectral response of the observer altogether producing a stimulus for color.

1) Brightness
Definition: The reflectance of light energy from paper. Brightness is dependant on both scattering and
absorption.

k (1 − R ) 2
=
s 2 R

Where: R  = the brightness of a sample of infinite thickness

k = absorption coefficient
s = scattering coefficient

Scattering of Light – a combination of the many reflections and refractions.

Absorption of Light – light energy absorbed into the chemical molecule and converted to heat

Spectral Reflectivity Curves for Several Papers

A – White Filter Paper, B – White Bond, C – Newsprint, D – Unbleached Kraft, E – Gray

Brightness is measured by the reflectance (R) of the sheet at 457 nm. A theoretical infinite thickness is
assumed so that no light is transmitted and so background won’t effect reflection.

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Why is brightness measured at only one frequency?
Allows for a single value measurement to describe brightness (Does
not characterize color of reflection). At 457 nm, there exists a larger
difference between brightness level changes which is easier to
measure and see a change.

Effect of Bleaching on Paper Brightness

2) Opacity
A measurement of the transmittance level of light through a single ply of paper. The ability of paper to
hide from view any non-active material behind it. Increasing scattering behavior will increase opacity.
Adding a filler such as TiO2, having a high refractive index, improves opacity of paper.

Ro (black background 1 ply )

% Opacity = = x100%
R (infinite thickness )
Example: The brightness of a single sheet on a black background was found to be 75%ISO. If the R∞ is
86.3%ISO, determine the % opacity.

3) Gloss
A measurement of the reflection off the surface; related to
surface smoothness, makes the object look shiny or lustrous.
The incident light is emitted at an incident angle of, typically,
45 degrees from the sample and the amount of light reflected
is measure opposite to the emitted light at the same angle.
A more reflective surface will concentrate the reflection
at the observer.

Gloss Measurement Hunter L, a, b Color Space

IPTI 1036 Pulp and Paper Processing Unit 1 Page 32 of 33

4) Color
The color or shade of paper cannot be fully described by using only one number. L,a,b spectrum is a
common method of quantifying the color of paper. a (red/green), b (blue/yellow), L (black/white).
Becoming more of an issue with customers. Typically, blue and red dye are added to correct for
unwanted yellow and green hues.

5) Dirt Content
Measurement of visual contaminants in paper. A small paper sample is made from the pulp, the dirt
count and size of each piece is collected and a dirt amount related to area (ppm, parts per million) is
stated

Dirt Estimation Chart

Effect of Humidity and Temperature on Paper Testing

Humidity and temperature both affect the

paper testing results. Samples must be
conditioned and tested in a constant
temperature humidity room.
Temperature: 23°C
Relative Humidity: 50%

Citation
Smook, Gary. (2016). Handbook for Pulp & Paper Technologists, 4th Edition. Peachtree
Corners, GA: TAPPI press.

IPTI 1036 Pulp and Paper Processing Unit 1 Page 33 of 33