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865732
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THRUST AND DRAG:

ITS PREDICTION
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AND VERIFICATION

Edited by
Eugene E. Covert
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts

Associate Editors:
C. R. James
Vought Corporation
Dallas, Texas

William F. Kimzey
Sverdrup Technology AEDC Group
Tullahoma, Tennessee

George K. Richey
U.S. Air Force
Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio

Eugene C. Rooney
U.S. Navy Department of Defense
Washington, D.C.

Volume 98
PROGRESS IN
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS

Martin Summerfield, Series Editor-in-Chief

Princeton Combustion Research Laboratories, Inc.
Monmouth Junction, New Jersey

Published by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.

1633 Broadway, New York, NY 10019
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American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.

New York, New York

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Main entry under title:

Thrust and drag: its prediction and verification.

(Progress in astronautics and aeronautics; v. 98)

Includes index.
1. Drag (Aerodynamics) 2. Airplanes—Motors—Thrust.
I. Covert, Eugene E. II. Series.
TL507.P75 vol. 98 629.1s [629.132'34] 85-18681
[TL574.D7]
ISBN 0-930403-00-2
Second Printing
Copyright © 1985 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, Inc. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of any
part of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the
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Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics

Series Editor-in-Chief
Martin Summerfield
Princeton Combustion Research Laboratories, Inc.

Series Associate Editors

Burton I. Edelson Alien E. Fuhs

National Aeronautics Naval Postgraduate School
and Space Administration

Jack L. Kerrebrock
Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Assistant Series Editor

Ruth F. Bryans
Ocala, Florida

Norma J. Brennan Jeanne Godette

Director, Editorial Department Series Managing Editor
AIAA AIAA
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Table of Contents

Pref ace....................................................................................xi

Chapter I. Introduction.............................................................!
E.E. Covert
An Historic Perspective.......................................................2
Performance Calculations.................................................2
Estimation and Prediction of Drag......................................5
From Antiquity Through the Seventeenth Century............... 5
Rise of Experimentalism—The Eighteenth
and Nineteenth Centuries............................................6
Aerodynamic Reality—The Early Twentieth Century
Through World War I................................................7
Period Between the Wars to the End of World War II.......... 10
The Jet Era—World War II to 1960................................. 17
Modern Times—1963 to the Present................................20
A Short History of the Turbojet Engine..................................21
The Turbine.................................................................21
Compressor.................................................................. 22
Flight Validation...........................................................23

Chapter II. Thrust-Drag Accounting Methodology..........................29

E.C. Rooney, Naval Air Systems Command,
U.S. Navy, Department of Defense, Washington, D.C.
Thrust-Drag Accounting Approach....................................... 31
Airframe System Drag.......................................................33
Flow-Through Model Internal Drag Correction..................... 36
Scale-Model/Full Scale Geometry Correction....................... 37
Trim Drag....................................................................37
Reynolds Number Correction...........................................37
Full Scale Drag Polar......................................................38
Engine Thrust..................................................................38
Throttle-Dependent Drags..................................................40
Inlet Spillage Drag.........................................................40
Exhaust System Drag......................................................42
Auxiliary Airflow Thrust Drag..........................................44
Net Propulsive Force......................................................45
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Chapter III. Gas Turbine Engine Performance Determination.............47

W.F. Kimzey and S. Wehofer, Sverdrup/ARO, Inc.,
Arnold Air Force Station, Tennessee,
and E.E. Covert, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cam bridge, Massach usetts
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Engine Performance Estimation by Analysis

and Calculation.............................................................49
Practical Computational Limitations..................................50
General Application of Thermodynamic Approach................ 50
The Need for Approximations and Correlations.................... 5 3
Thermal and Mechanical Equilibrium Considerations.............55
Nonuniform Flowfields...................................................56
Averaging................................................................. 56
Recommendations for Averaging....................................59
Engine Computer Math Models.........................................60
Steady-State Math Model.............................................60
Transient Math Models................................................65
Performance Estimation by Ground Testing............................67
Test Configurations.......................................................68
Factors Affecting Engine Performance Measurement............. 71
Measurement Schemes....................................................72
Airflow-Metering Nozzle Methods..................................73
Continuity/Momentum Balance Method..........................74
Scale-Force Measurement Method..................................75
Fuel-Metering Method.................................................78
Measurement Error Sources.............................................79
Airflow.................................................................... 79
Gross Thrust.............................................................81
Fuel Flow.................................................................84
Measurement Resource Estimating.....................................84
Measurement Validation................................................. 85
Measurement Self-Consistency Checks............................. 86
Facility-to-Facility Comparisons....................................87
Scale-Model Test Comparisons.........................................89
Short-Duration Turbine Engine Testing..............................93
Engine Performance Estimation by Flight Testing................... 101
Preflight Test Considerations.......................................... 104
Engine Installation Effects............................................. 104
Engine Evaluation Methods............................................ 105
Engine Computer Math Model..................................... 105
Gas-Path/Nozzle Methods.......................................... 106
Calibrated Flight Engines............................................ 107
Flight Instrumentation Considerations.............................. 108
Unsteady Influences on Thrust Determination in Flight......... 110
Unsteady In-Flight Thrust Equations............................. 112
Magnitude of Time-Dependent Terms............................ 112
Engine Transient Thermal Effects in Flight...................... 114
Accounting Methods for Thermal Transient Effects...........! 14
Math-Model Method.................................................. 114
Gas-Path/Nozzle Methods.......................................... 115
Measurement Error from Inadequate
Transient Response.................................................115
Calculational Considerations.......................................... 115

VI
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Chapter IV. Prediction and Verification of Aerodynamic Drag,

Part I: Prediction................................................121
C.E. Jobe, Air Force Wright Aeronautical Laboratories,
Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio
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Introduction.................................................................. 121
Drag......................................................................... 123
Level of Drag Prediction Detail.......................................125
The Preliminary Design Phase......................................125
The Detailed Design Phase..........................................126
The Final Design Phase............................................... 126
Subsonic Drag................................................................ 130
Empirical Correlations.................................................. 130
Bomber/Transport Aircraft.........................................131
Fighter/Attack Aircraft.............................................. 132
Detailed Drag Estimates—Component Buildup................... 137
Friction Drag........................................................... 137
Form Drag.............................................................. 140
Interference Drag...................................................... 143
Camber Drag........................................................... 143
Base Drag................................................................ 144
Miscellaneous Drag................................................... 144
Drag Due to Lift.......................................................144
Cruise Efficiency.......................................................... 150
Transonic Drag...............................................................151
The Drag Rise............................................................. 152
Detailed Drag Estimates—Component Buildup................... 153
Zero Lift Drag.......................................................... 153
Drag Due to Lift....................................................... 154
Numerical Transonic Aerodynamics.................................155
Supersonic Drag............................................................. 158
Friction Drag.............................................................. 159
Wave Drag................................................................. 160
Lift-Induced Drag........................................................ 162
Numerical Aerodynamics.................................................. 170

Prediction and Verification of Aerodynamic Drag,

Part II: Wind-Tunnel/Flight Correlation of Lift,
Drag, and Pitching Moment...................................173
A.W. Baldwin and D.W. Kinsey, Flight Dynamics
Laboratory, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio
Background................................................................... 173
Definition/Objective..................................................... 173
Correlation—Theoretical Procedures to Flight Test.............. 174
Correlation Analysis—Data Arrangement.............................175
Force Accounting System............................................... 175
Reference Conditions.................................................... 175
Inlet Spillage Drag..................................................... 175
Jet-Effects Drag........................................................ 177
Trim Drag............................................................... 178

VII
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Wind-Tunnel Model Data Adjustments.............................180

Aeroelasticity........................................................... 180
Scaling Effects.......................................................... 181
Geometric Difference................................................. 187
Tunnel Influence....................................................... 190
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Flight Variances........................................................... 193

Correlation Results.......................................................... 193

Chapter V. Throttle-Dependent Forces.......................................207

D.L. Bowers and G. Tamplin, Flight Dynamics Laboratory,
Wright Patter son Air Force Base, Ohio
Basic Concepts and Examples.............................................210
Supersonic/Transonic Aircraft Inlets................................210
Supersonic/Transonic Aircraft Nozzles............................. 212
Other Tactical Aircraft Throttle-Dependent Forces............... 216
Examples—Supersonic/Transonic Aircraft Throttle-
Dependent Forces...................................................219
Subsonic Aircraft Inlets/Nozzles......................................222
Examples—Subsonic Aircraft Throttle-
Dependent Forces...................................................223
Determination of Throttle-Dependent Forces.........................229
Experimental Techniques...............................................229
Difficulties in Experimental Testing..................................233
Qualitative Techniques to Assess Throttle-
Dependent Forces......................................................243
Analytical Techniques...................................................243
Inlet Analytical Techniques.........................................243
Afterbody/Nozzle Analytical Techniques........................245
Transport Nacelle Analytical Techniques........................250
Throttle-Dependent Forces in Flight.................................255
Sources of Error—Wind Tunnel/Analysis to Flight..............255
Wind Tunnel/Analysis to Flight Correlation—Examples....257
Appendix...................................................................... 273
Basic Definitions..........................................................273

Chapter VI. Precision and Propagation of Error............................281

R.B. Abernethy, Pratt & Whitney Engineering
Division, West Palm Beach, Florida
Introduction.................................................................. 281
Measurement Error......................................................282
Precision (Random Error)...........................................282
Bias (Fixed Error)......................................................283
Measurement Uncertainty............................................. .285
List of Statistical Quality-Control Chart References.................289
Basic References..........................................................289
Examples of Control Charts in Metrology..........................291
Propagation of Measurement Errors....................................292
Example I—Engine Inlet Airflow.....................................292
Example II—Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption (TSFQ........294
Measurement Process....................................................296

VIM
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Reporting Error...........................................................297
Traceability................................................................ 298
Uncertainty Model..........................................................299
Measurement Error Sources............................................ 300
Calibration Hierarchy Errors.......................................300
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Test Stand Force Measurement—An Example..................... 301

Force Measurement Error Sources....................................301
Force Transducer Calibration Hierarchy......................... 301
Precision Index.........................................................302
Degrees of Freedom................................................... 308
Bias....................................................................... 309
Uncertainty............................................................. 309
Data Acquisition and Data Reduction Errors................... 310
Applied Load Tests.................................................... 311
Elemental Error Evaluation......................................... 313
Stand Mechanics....................................................... 314
Net Thrust and Net Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption.............317
General......................................................................317
Gross Thrust Measurement Techniques.............................317
Scale-Force Method...................................................317
Momentum Balance Method........................................318
Propagation of Errors to Net Thrust.................................319
Propagation of Error to Net Thrust Specific
Fuel Consumption..................................................... 322

Chapter VII. Summary and Conclusions........................................331

E.E. Covert
Measurement of Engine Performance...................................333
Drag and Its Determination...............................................334
Closing Remarks.............................................................337

List of Series Volumes................................................................341

IX
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Preface

A HIS book is the outgrowth of a project started by the Flight Mechanics

Technical Committee under the chairmanship of C. R. James. The original
intent was to sponsor a series of special sessions at specified meetings and to
edit the material prepared for these sessions. As this plan evolved, it appeared
timely to conduct a more detailed review of the state of the art of prediction
and verification of the thrust and drag of aircraft in flight. The editorial
committee* agreed that a more practical approach was to commission a set of
essays dealing with specific topics. This proposal was submitted to both the
Flight Mechanics Panel, then under the chairmanship of Dr. Donald Daniel,
and to Dr. Martin Summerfield, editor-in-chief of the AIAA Progress in
Astronautics and Aeronautics series. Both groups accepted the revised pro-
posal, and understood the implication of increased time to publication.
It is a pleasure to report the outstanding support from industry, universities,
and government laboratories. In particular, the moral support provided by Dr.
Robert Whitehead of ONR was of great importance in the formative stages, as
was the full cooperation of Dr. Robert Abernethy and his SAE Committee
E-33. Indeed, the material summarized in Chap. VI was provided to us by Dr.
Abernethy, with the approval of that committee and the Society of Automotive
Engineers. We are also in debt to Mr. Brian Furness and the (British) Ministry
Industry Drag Analysis Panel (MIDAP) for information that was exchanged.
A complete listing of individuals who willingly helped us would be out of order
here. We wish to thank authors of individual essays, Mr. Sam Wehofer, Chap.
Ill; Dr. Charles Jobe, Mr. Wayne Baldwin, and Mr. Donald Kinsey for Chap.
IV; and Mr. Douglas Bowers and Mr. Gordon Tamplin for Chap. V.
Of course I am indebted to the final editorial board: Mr. C. R. James
(retired from Vought); Dr. William Kimzey, Director of Operations, Sverdrup
Technology AEDC Group; Dr. Keith Richey, Chief Scientist, Flight Dynamics
Laboratory, Air Force Wright Aeronautical Laboratories; and Mr. Eugene
Rooney, Naval Air Systems Command who wrote Chap. II. These associate
editors gave unstintingly of their time. Without their effort, the project would
have never succeeded. Some of my travel and artwork was supported by the

*At that time the editorial committee consisted of Dr. Covert, Mr. James, Dr. Richey, Mr.
Rooney, Mr. William Usab of Pratt & Whitney, and Mr. Harold P. Washington of NASA Dryden
Research Center.

xi
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General Electric Company through the MIT Gas Turbine and Plasma Dy-
namics Research Fund, for which I am thankful. I would also like to acknowl-
edge the assistance provided by Ms. Diana Park, who typed and retyped,
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carried out many important editorial tasks, and was otherwise of great value in
preparing the typescript.
Finally, I would like to make it clear that while every effort was made to
avoid errors of omission, co-mission, or by rewriting for clarification, ulti-
mately the decisions were mine and I apologize in advance for those errors and
oversights that may exist.

Eugene E. Covert
March 1984

XII