MULTI OPERATIONAL VEHICLE FOR AGRICULTURAL APPLICATION

ABSTRACT

India is an agriculture based country in which, 70% of people depends on

the outcome of farming. But if we observe that with increase in population the
farm gets distributed among the family and because of this, farmer in India held
averagely only two acre farm. Also economically, farmers are very poor due to
which they are unable to purchase tractors and other costly equipment hence
they use traditional method of farming. Basically, many farmers in India also
use bullocks, horses and he-buffalo for farming operation. This will not satisfy
need of energy requirement of the farming as compared to other countries in the
world. So we are thinking that human and animal efforts can be replaced by
some advance mechanization which will be suitable for small scale farmer from
economical and effort point of view. So we are developing this equipment
which will satisfy all this need and to solve labour problem. In this equipment
we used ploughing rod, water pump and seed sower attachment. This machine
perform three farming operation (ploughing, sowing, water spraying) which is
used small scale farming. By using above attachments one may perform various
farming operations in less time and economically.
INTRODUCTION

Agriculture has been the backbone of the Indian economy and it will
continue to remain so for a long time. It has to support almost 17 percent of
world population from 2.3 percent of world geographical area and 4.2 percent of
world’s water resources. The present cropping intensity of 137 percent has
registered an increase of only 26 percent since 1950-51. The net sown area is
142 Million hectare. The basic objective of sowing operation is to put the seed
and fertilizer in rows at desired depth and spacing, cover the seeds with soil and
provide proper compaction over the seed. The recommended row to row
spacing, seed rate, seed to seed spacing and depth of seed placement vary from
crop to crop and for different agricultural and climatic conditions to achieve
optimum yields and an efficient sowing machine should attempt to fulfil these
requirements. In addition, saving in cost of operation time, labour and energy
are other advantages to be derived from use of improved machinery for such
operations. A traditional method of seed sowing has many disadvantages. This
paper is about performing different agricultural operations with the help of
single vehicle setup which can perform simultaneous operations.
CONSTRUCTION

The base frame for mounting overall setup is fabricated with the help of
square tubes and channels with the help of metal cutting and metal joining
process called welding. Wheels are mounted to the frame for its displacement,
ploughing rod attachment is mounted at its front end portion of the frame whose
depth of ploughing is controlled by means of lead screw mechanism. Front end
wheel shaft is coupled to the disc plate which is connected to the activating
lever of the reciprocating pump, whose outlet is connected to multi opening for
covering large workspace. On the rear end shaft seed sprinkling attachment is
placed which has the loading hopper which houses the seed to be dipped and it
gets sprinkled by metring plate which is powered by means of manual drive.

FACTORS DETERMINING THE CHOICE OF MATERIALS

The various factors which determine the choice of material are discussed below.
1. Properties:

The material selected must posses the necessary properties for the
proposed application. The various requirements to be satisfied can be weight,
surface finish, rigidity, ability to withstand environmental attack from
chemicals, service life, reliability etc.

The following four types of principle properties of materials decisively

affect their selection

a. Physical
b. Mechanical
c. From manufacturing point of view
d. Chemical
The various physical properties concerned are melting point, Thermal
Conductivity, Specific heat, coefficient of thermal expansion, specific gravity,
electrical Conductivity, Magnetic purposes etc.
The various Mechanical properties Concerned are strength in tensile,
compressive shear, bending, torsional and buckling load, fatigue resistance,
impact resistance, elastic limit, endurance limit, and modulus of elasticity,
hardness, wear resistance and sliding properties.

The various properties concerned from the manufacturing point of view

are.

Cast ability,
weld ability,
Brazability,
forge ability,
merchantability,
surface properties,
shrinkage,
Deep drawing etc.
2. Manufacturing Case:
Sometimes the demand for lowest possible manufacturing cost or surface
qualities obtainable by the application of suitable coating substances may
demand the use of special materials.

3. Quality Required:
This generally affects the manufacturing process and ultimately the
material. For example, it would never be desirable to go for casting of a less
number of components which can be fabricated much more economically by
welding or hand forging the steel.

4. Availability of Material:
 Some materials may be scarce or in short supply. It then becomes
obligatory for the designer to use some other material which though may not be
a perfect substitute for the material designed.

The delivery of materials and the delivery date of product should also be kept in
mind.

5. Space Consideration:
Sometimes high strength materials have to be selected because the forces
involved are high and the space limitations are there.

6. Cost:
As in any other problem, in selection of material the cost of material
plays an important part and should not be ignored. Some times factors like scrap
utilization, appearance, and non-maintenance of the designed part are involved
in the selection of proper materials.

GENERALLY USED MATERIALS

End Cover Materials:

LIGHT DUTY MEDIUM DUTY HEAVY

DUTY

1. Aluminium stock Aluminium stock Hard tensile

(Fabricated) (Fabricated) Castings

2. Brass stock Brass stock

 (Fabricated) (Fabricated)

3. Aluminium Aluminium, Brass,

Castings iron or steel Castings.

Piston Materials:

LIGHT DUTY MEDIUM DUTY HEAVY DUTY

1.Aluminium Aluminium Castings Aluminium Forgings,

Castings Brass (Fabricated) Aluminium Castings.

2. Bronze (Fabricated) Bronze (Fabricated)

3. Iron and Steel Brass, Bronze, Iron or

Castings Steel Castings.

Mount Materials:

LIGHT DUTY MEDIUM DUTY HEAVY DUTY

1. Aluminium Aluminium, Brass High Tensile

Castings
And Steel Castings Steel Castings

2. Light Alloy High Tensile

 (Fabricated) Steel Fabrication

Piston Rod Materials:

MATERIAL FINISH REMARKS

MILD STEEL Ground and polished Generally preferred chrome

hardened, ground and plated

polished.

STAINLESS STEEL Ground and Polished Less scratch resistant than

chrome plated piston rod

MACHINING PROCESS

These are some of the machining processed used in the fabrication of this
project.

Drilling:

Drilling is the operation of cutting a round hole by a rotating tool called

drill. Before drilling, the centre of the hole is located on the workpiece. For
this, two lines at right angles to each other are drawn. A centre punch is used to
mark the centre point at the intersection of two lines. The rotating drill is
pressed at the centre point marked on the workpiece to produce the hole.

Reaming:
 Drilling does not produce accurate holes. The internal surface produced
by drilling will be rough. Reaming is sizing and finishing the already drilled
hole. The tool used for reaming is known as reamer is a cylindrical tool having
many cutting edges. Reamer cannot produce a hole. It simply follows the path
of the already drilled hole. It removes a very small amount of metal (about
0.375mm). In reaming the spindle speed is half that of drilling.

Boring:

Boring is an operation of enlarging a hole by a single point cutting tool.

If the hole size is very large it cannot be drilled. Then, boring is done to enlarge
the hole. By boring, the hole is finished accurately to the required size. The
internal surface of cylinders is machined by boring. Boring corrects the out of
roundness of the hole. The cutter is held in a boring bar. The boring bar has a
tapped shank to fit into spindle hole. Boring is a slow process.

Tapping:

Tapping is an operation of cutting internal threads in a hole by using a

cutting tool called tap. A tap has cutting edges in the shape of threads. When
the tap is screwed into the hole it removes metal and cuts internal threads. The
drilled hole will be smaller than the tap size.

Milling:

Milling is the process of removing metal by a rotating multipoint cutter.

The work is fed past the cutter. The metal is removed in the form of small
chips.

As multipoint cutter is used, metal removal is very fast. One or more

number of cutters can be used at a time Milling produces a good surface finish.
The accuracy is high.
Grinding:

Grinding is a metal cutting operation where metal is cut by a rotating

abrasive wheel. By grinding, very good surface finish is obtained on the
workpiece. High dimensional accuracy is obtained in the workpiece. Mostly
grinding is used as a finishing operation. Grinding wheel is made of small
abrasive particles held together by a bonding material. The abrasive particles
are very hard and form multiple cutting edges. While grinding, the wheel is
rotated and the work is fed against the wheel. The abrasive particles move with
high velocity and shear off small metal particles from the workpiece.

Turning:

Turning is a machining process which is performed in the lathe. Turning

is used to reduce the dimensions of the workpiece and also to give a good
surface finish. Turning operation is widely used to reduce the diameter of
circular workpieces. The workpiece is rotated in a lathe and the single point
cutting tool is fed against it.

Tapping:

Tapping is an abrading process that is used to produce geometrically true

surfaces, correct minor surface imperfections, improve dimensional accuracy, or
provide a very close fit between two contact surfaces. Most lapping is done by
means of lapping shoes or quills, called laps that are rubbed against the work.
Cylindrical work is lapped by rotating the work in a lathe and the lap is
reciprocated over the work.

Honing:
 Honing is grinding or a abrading process mostly for finishing round holes
by means of bonded abrasive stones called hones. Honing is used to correct out
of roundness, taper, tool marks, and axial distortion. For precision honing, the
workpiece is usually held in a fixture and the honing tool is given a slow
reciprocating motion as it rotates.

Polishing:

Polishing is a surface finishing operation performed by a polishing wheel

for the purpose of removing appreciable metal to take out scratches, tool marks,
pits and other defects from rough surfaces polishing wheels are made of leather,
papers, canvas, felt or wood. Polishing may follow any of the machining
methods except honing, lapping or super finishing.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The various steps involved in the process of design could generally be

summarized as follows.
1. A close study of the Condition to be fulfilled, the aim of the
design.
2. Preparation of simple schematic diagrams.
3. Conceiving the shape of the unit/machine to be designed.
4. Preliminary strength calculations.
5. Consideration of factors like selection of material and
manufacturing method to produce most economical design.
6. Mechanical design.
7. Preparation of detailed manufacturing drawing of individual
components and assembly drawings.

Design of cylinder:
 Cylinder should be designed to withstand the high pressure and
temperature conditions; it should be able to transfer the heat efficiently.

So that metal temperature does not approach the dangerous limit, and it
should be economical to repair it in the event of wear and tear. The cylinder
should be made of such a material which is strong enough to withstand high gas
pressure and at the same time be sufficiently hard enough to resist wear due to
piston movement. It should be corrosion resistant.

Base plate:

The thickness of the base plate can be determined by the relation

t = {(D x C x Pmax) / St}

Where,

D – Diameter of cylinder

C – Constant = 0.1

St – Allowing Stress

P max – Maximum Pressure

Design of Piston:

Piston is an important part in the pneumatic cylinder which receives

impulse from the expanding gases. It also disperses a large amount of heat from
the chamber to the cylinder walls.

The various design consideration for a piston are,

The piston is subjected to highly rigorous conditions and must therefore

have enormous strength and heat resistant properties to withstand high gas
pressures. Its construction should be rigid enough to withstand thermal and
Mechanical distortion to maintain the temperature limits.

The heat from the crown of piston must be dissipated quickly and
efficiently to the rings and bearing area and then to the cylinder walls. The
profile of piston head is dependent on the design of the compression chamber.
The thickness of the piston is determined by the criterion of strength and heat to
be dissipated. The most commonly used materials for the piston of compressor
are of aluminium, forged aluminium.

Thickness of Piston Head:

The thickness of the piston head can be calculated by assuring the head to
be a flat plate of uniform thickness and fired at the edges and assuring the gas
load to be uniformly distributed.

t = ( 3 x P x D² ) / ( 16 x St )

Where,

P - Max gas pressure

D - Cylinder bore

t - Piston head thickness

st - Allowable stress in bending.

Piston Rings:

These import the necessary radial pressure to maintain the seal between
the piston and cylinder bore. The Compression rings are usually made of
rectangular cross section and the diameter of the ring is made slight larger than
the cylinder bore.
 A part of the ring is cut off in order to permit it to go in to the slots in the
piston. The gap between the ends should be sufficiently large so that even at the
highest temperature the ends will not touch each other otherwise there might be
buckling of the ring. Piston rings are usually made of cast iron and alloy cast
iron because of their good wearing qualities and also their retaining the spring
characteristics even at high temperatures.

WORKING PRINCIPLE
 When the frame gets displaced on the field by adjusting the ploughing rod
according the ploughing depth, soil ploughing operation is performed. During
its activation the front and rear wheels gets rotated, the rotation of front wheel is
transferred to the activating lever of the reciprocating pump by the eccentric
connection of disc plate. Due to this water from the reservoir is collected and
discharged at the multi pass outlet pipe for performing water spraying operation.
Similarly on the rear end, metring plate carries the seed loaded in the hopper
and discharge at the ploughed field by the rotation experienced at the rear wheel
mounted shaft.

COMPONENTS USED:
The components used in this project are:

 Wheel
 Withworth mechanism
 Bearings
 Gear
 Pump

BEARING WITH BEARING CAP:-

The bearings are pressed smoothly to fit into the shafts because if
hammered the bearing may develop cracks. Bearing is made upof steel material
and bearing cap is mild steel.
INTRODUCTION
Ball and roller bearings are used widely in instruments and machines in
order to minimize friction and power loss. While the concept of the ball bearing
dates back at least to Leonardo da Vinci, their design and manufacture has
become remarkably sophisticated. This technology was brought to its
p resent state o f perfection only after a long period of research and
development. The benefits of such specialized research can be obtained when it
is possible to use a standardized bearing of the proper size and type.
However, such bearings cannot be used indiscriminately without a careful
study of the loads and operating conditions. In addition, the bearing must be
provided with adequate mounting, lubrication and sealing. Design engineers
have usually two possible sources for obtaining information which they can use
to select a bearing for their particular application:
a) Textbooks
b) Manufacturers’
Catalogs Textbooks are excellent sources; however, they tend to be
overly detailed and aimed at the student of the subject matter rather than the
practicing designer. They, in most cases, contain information on how to design
rather than how to select a bearing for a particular application. Manufacturers’
catalogs, in turn, are also excellent and contain a wealth of information which
relates to the products of the particular manufacturer. These catalogs, however,
fail to provide alternatives – which may divert the designer’s interest to
products not manufactured by them. Our Company, however, provides the
broadest selection of many types of bearings made by different manufacturers.

For this reason, we are interested in providing a condensed overview of

the subject matter in an objective manner, using data obtained from different
texts, handbooks and manufacturers’ literature. This information will enable the
reader to select the proper bearing in an expeditious manner. If the designer’s
interest exceeds the scope of the presented material, a list of references is
provided at the end of the Technical Section. At the same time, we are
expressing our thanks and are providing credit to the sources which supplied the
material presented here.
Construction and Types of Ball Bearings
A ball bearing usually consists of four parts: an inner ring, an outer ring,
the balls and the cage or separator.
To increase the contact area and permit larger loads to be carried, the
balls run in curvilinear grooves in the rings. The radius of the groove is slightly
larger than the radius of the ball, and a very slight amount of radial play must be
provided. The bearing is thus permitted to adjust itself to small amounts of
angular misalignment between the assembled shaft and mounting. The
separator keeps the balls evenly spaced and prevents them from touching each
other on the sides where their relative velocities are the greatest. Ball bearings
are made in a wide variety of types and sizes. Single-row radial bearings are
made in four series, extra light, light, medium, and heavy, for each bore, as
illustrated in Fig. 1-3(a), (b), and (c).
 100 Series 200 Series 300 Series Axial Thrust Angular Contact Self-aligning

Bearing Fig. 1-3 Types of Ball Bearings

The heavy series of bearings is designated by 400. Most, but not all,
manufacturers use a numbering system so devised that if the last two digits are
multiplied by 5, the result will be the bore in millimeters. The digit in the third
place from the right indicates the series number. Thus, bearing 307 signifies a
medium-series bearing of 35-mm bore. For additional digits, which may be
present in the catalog number of a bearing, refer to manufacturer’s details.

Some makers list deep groove bearings and bearings with two rows of
balls. For bearing designations of Quality Bearings & Components (QBC), see
special pages devoted to this purpose. The radial bearing is able to carry a
considerable amount of axial thrust.
However, when the load is directed entirely along the axis, the thrust type
of bearing should be used. The angular contact bear- ing will take care of both
radial and axial loads. The self-aligning ball bearing will take care of large
amounts of angular misalignment. An increase in radial capacity may be
secured by using rings with deep grooves, or by employing a double-row radial
bearing. Radial bearings are divided into two general classes, depending on the
method of assembly. These are the Conrad, or nonfilling-notch type, and the
maximum, or filling-notch type. In the Conrad bearing, the balls are placed
between the rings as shown in Fig. 1-4(a). Then they are evenly spaced and the
separator is riveted in place. In the maximum-type bearing, the balls are a
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 100 Series Extra Light 200 Series Light 300 Series Medium
Axial Thrust Bearing Angular Contact Bearing Self-aligning Bearing Fig. 1-3
Types of Ball Bearings Fig. 1-4 Methods of Assembly for Ball Bearings
(a) Conrad or non-filling notch type (b) Maximum or filling notch type

GEARS:

Types of gears

Introduction

Gears are commonly used to transmit rotational motion between

machinery shafts. When gears of different types and sizes are combined, they
can change the rate of rotation, the direction of the axis of rotation, and change
rotary motion to linear motion.

SPUR GEAR:

The spur gears, which are designed to transmit motion and power
between parallel shafts, are the most economical gears in the power
transmission industry.
APPLICATION:

 Material handling
 Feed drives
 Machine tools
 Conveyors
 Marine hoists
INTERNAL SPUR GEAR:

The internal gears are spur gears turned "inside out." In other words, the
teeth are cut into the inside diameter while the outside diameter is kept smooth.
This design allows for the driving pinion to rotate internal to the gear, which, in
turn, allows for clean operation. Intended for light duty applications, these gears
are available only in brass. When choosing a mating spur gear, always
remember that the difference in the number of teeth between the internal gear
and pinion should not be less than 15 or 12.

APPLICATIONS:

 Light duty applications

 Timing
 Positioning
 Rollers

 Indexing

EXTERNAL SPUR GEAR:

Perhaps the most often used and simplest gear system, external spur gears
are cylindrical gears with straight teeth parallel to the axis. They are used to
transmit rotary motion between parallel shafts and the shafts rotate in opposite
directions.

They tend to be noisy at high speed as the two gear surfaces come into
contact at once. Internal spur gears: The internal spur gear works similarly to
the external spur gears except that the pinion is inside the spur gear. They are
used to transmit rotary motion between parallel shafts but the shafts rotate in the
same direction with this arrangement.

RACK AND PINION:

Rack and pinion gear system is used to transmit rotary motion into linear
motion. The rack is a portion of a gear having an infinite pitch diameter and the
line of action is tangent to the pinion.

HELICAL GEAR:

Step gears have two or more spur gears fastened together and each gear is
advanced relative to the adjacent one by a small amount. Helical gear can be
seen as a stepped gear with an infinite number of steps. Helical gears used to
transmit power between parallel shafts are called parallel helical gears and the
ones used to transmit power between non-parallel shafts are called crossed
helical gears.

The advantage of helical gears is they form a gradual contact across the
teeth as oppose to spur gear, which make contact across the entire face at once
during operation. This results is less impact loading and thus helical gears
operate more quietly than spur gears, have longer life, and stronger.

APPLICATIONS:
  Presses
 Machine tools
 Material handling
 Feed drives
 Marine applications
WORM GEARS:

Worm gears are made up of two parts: the pinion and the worm gear. The
pinion has a small number of teeth, usually one to four, and since they wrap
around the pitch cylinder they are called threads. The worm gear, while looks
like a helical gear, has concaved faces to fit the curvature of the worm in order
to provide line contact instead of point contact.

Worm gears can provide a high angular velocity reduction between

nonintersecting shafts at right angles. They are capable of transmitting high
tooth loads but the disadvantage is the high sliding velocities across the teeth.

APPLICATIONS:

 Packaging machinery
 Material handling
o Shrink wrapping
o Conveyors
o Pallet loaders
 Machine tools
 Indexing equipment
 Food processing

MITER AND BEVAL GEAR:

 The bevel gears are specifically designed for the efficient transmission of
power and motion between intersecting shafts at a right angle (90°). Miter gears
are a special type of bevel gear designed to operate in pairs with identical
numbers of teeth and diametral pitches, and a 1:1 ratio.

The special Gears are standard stock bevels and miters are manufactured
with a 20° pressure angle and are produced in accordance with AGMA
specifications for long and short gear and pinion addendum systems to reduce
the amount of pinion tooth undercut and to nearly equalize the strength and
durability of the gear and pinion.

The straight tooth bevel and miter gears have generated teeth with
Conflux tooth form. The spiral bevel and miter gears have an overlapping tooth
action that results in a smoother, quieter gear action, as well as a higher load
capacity than a straight tooth gear of equal size.

APPLICATIONS:

 Printing
 Agriculture
 Bottling
 Material handling

 Steering

SPUR GEAR
INTERNAL SPUR GEAR

WORM GEAR
BEVEL GEAR:
SHAFT

Drive shaft, driveshaft, driving shaft, propeller shaft (prop shaft),

or Cardan shaft is a mechanical component for transmitting torque and rotation,
usually used to connect other components of a drive train that cannot be
connected directly because of distance or the need to allow for relative
movement between them.

As torque carriers, drive shafts are subject to torsion and shear stress,
equivalent to the difference between the input torque and the load. They must
therefore be strong enough to bear the stress, whilst avoiding too much
additional weight as that would in turn increase their inertia.

To allow for variations in the alignment and distance between the driving
and driven components, drive shafts frequently incorporate one or
moreuniversal joints, jaw couplings, or rag joints, and sometimes a splined
joint or prismatic joint

Vehicles
 An automobile may use a longitudinal shaft to deliver power from an
engine/transmission to the other end of the vehicle before it goes to the wheels.
A pair of short drive shafts is commonly used to send power from a
central differential, transmission, or transaxle to the wheels.

A truck double propeller shaft Front-engine, rear-wheel drive

In front-engined, rear-drive vehicles, a longer drive shaft is also required

to send power the length of the vehicle. Two forms dominate: The torque
tube with a single universal joint and the more common Hotchkiss drive with
two or more joints. This system became known as Système Panhard after the
automobile companyPanhard et Levassor patented it.

Most of these vehicles have a clutch and gearbox (or transmission)

mounted directly on the engine with a drive shaft leading to a final drive in the
rear axle. When the vehicle is stationary, the drive shaft does not rotate. A few,
mostly sports, cars seeking improved weight balance between front and rear,
and most commonlyAlfa Romeos or Porsche 924s, have instead used a rear-
mounted transaxle. This places the clutch and transmission at the rear of the car
and the drive shaft between them and the engine. In this case the drive shaft
rotates continuously as long as the engine does, even when the car is stationary
and out of gear.
 A drive shaft connecting a rear differential to a rear wheel may be called
a half-shaft. The name derives from the fact that two such shafts are required to
form one rear axle.

Early automobiles often used chain drive or belt drive mechanisms rather
than a drive shaft. Some used electrical generators and motors to transmit power
to the wheels.

Front-wheel drive

In British English, the term "drive shaft" is restricted to a transverse shaft

that transmits power to the wheels, especially the front wheels. A drive shaft
connecting the gearbox to a rear differential is called a propeller shaft, or prop-
shaft. A prop-shaft assembly consists of a propeller shaft, a slip joint and one or
more universal joints. Where the engine and axles are separated from each
other, as on four-wheel drive and rear-wheel drive vehicles, it is the propeller
shaft that serves to transmit the drive force generated by the engine to the axles.

Several different types of drive shaft are used in the automotive industry:

 One-piece drive shaft

 Two-piece drive shaft
 Slip-in-tube drive shaft

The slip-in-tube drive shaft is a new type that improves crash safety. It can
be compressed to absorb energy in the event of a crash, so is also known as a
collapsible drive shaft.

Four wheel and all-wheel drive

These evolved from the front-engine rear-wheel drive layout. A new form
of transmission called the transfer case was placed between transmission and
final drives in both axles. This split the drive to the two axles and may also have
included reduction gears, a dog clutch or differential. At least two drive shafts
were used, one from the transfer case to each axle. In some larger vehicles, the
transfer box was centrally mounted and was itself driven by a short drive shaft.
In vehicles the size of a Land Rover, the drive shaft to the front axle is
noticeably shorter and more steeply articulated than the rear shaft, making it a
more difficult engineering problem to build a reliable drive shaft, and which
may involve a more sophisticated form of universal joint.

Modern light cars with all-wheel drive (notably Audi or the Fiat Panda)
may use a system that more closely resembles a front-wheel drive layout. The
transmission and final drive for the front axle are combined into one housing
alongside the engine, and a single drive shaft runs the length of the car to the
rear axle. This is a favoured design where the torque is biased to the front
wheels to give car-like handling, or where the maker wishes to produce both
four-wheel drive and front-wheel drive cars with many shared components.

Drive shaft for Research and Development (R&D)

The automotive industry also uses drive shafts at testing plants. At

an engine test stand a drive shaft is used to transfer a certain speed / torque from
the Internal combustion engine to a dynamometer. A "shaft guard" is used at a
shaft connection to protect against contact with the drive shaft and for detection
of a shaft failure. At a transmission test stand a drive shaft connects the prime
mover with the transmission.

Motorcycle drive shafts

 The exposed drive shaft on BMW's first motorcycle, the R32

Drive shafts have been used on motorcycles since before WW1, such as
the Belgian FN motorcycle from 1903 and the Stuart Turner Stellar motorcycle
of 1912. As an alternative to chain and belt drives, drive shafts offer relatively
maintenance-free operation, long life and cleanliness. A disadvantage of shaft
drive on a motorcycle is that helical gearing, spiral bevel gearing or similar is
needed to turn the power 90° from the shaft to the rear wheel, losing some
power in the process. On the other hand, it is easier to protect the shaft linkages
and drive gears from dust, sand, and mud.

BMW has produced shaft drive motorcycles since 1923; and Moto
Guzzi have built shaft-drive V-twins since the 1960s. The British
company, Triumph and the major Japanese
brands, Honda, Suzuki, Kawasaki and Yamaha, have produced shaft drive
motorcycles. All geared models of the Vespa scooter produced to date have
been shaft-driven.[citation needed] Vespa's automatic models, however, use a
belt.

Motorcycle engines positioned such that the crankshaft is longitudinal

and parallel to the frame are often used for shaft-driven motorcycles. This
requires only one 90° turn in power transmission, rather than two. Bikes from
Moto Guzzi and BMW, plus the Triumph Rocket III and Honda ST series all
use this engine layout.

Motorcycles with shaft drive are subject to shaft effect where the chassis
climbs when power is applied. This effect, which is the opposite of that
exhibited by chain-drive motorcycles, is counteracted with systems such as
BMW's Paralever, Moto Guzzi's CARC and Kawasaki's Tetra Lever.

Marine drive shafts

On a power-driven ship, the drive shaft, or propeller shaft, usually

connects the transmission inside the vessel directly to the propeller, passing
through a stuffing box or other seal at the point it exits thehull. There is also
a thrust block, a bearing to resist the axial force of the propeller. As the rotating
propeller pushes the vessel forward, any length of drive shaft between propeller
and thrust block is subject to compression, and when going astern to tension.
Except for the very smallest of boats, this force isn't taken on the gearbox or
engine directly.

Cardan shafts are also often used in marine applications between the
transmission and either a propeller gearbox or waterjet.

Locomotive drive shafts

The rear drive shaft, crankshaft and front drive shaft of a Shay locomotive.
 The Shay, Climax and Heisler locomotives, all introduced in the late 19th

century, used quill drives to couple power from a centrally mounted multi-

cylinder engine to each of the trucks supporting the engine. On each of

these geared steam locomotives, one end of each drive shaft was coupled to the

driven truck through a universal joint while the other end was powered by

the crankshaft, transmission or another truck through a second universal joint. A

quill drive also has the ability to slide lengthways, effectively varying its length.

This is required to allow the bogies to rotate when passing a curve.

Cardan shafts are used in some diesel locomotives (mainly diesel-

hydraulics, such as British Rail Class 52) and some electric

locomotives (e.g. British Rail Class 91). They are also widely used in diesel

multiple units.

Drive shafts in bicycles

A shaft-driven bicycle.
 The drive shaft has served as an alternative to a chain-drive
in bicycles for the past century, never becoming very popular. A shaft-driven
bicycle (or "Acatane", from an early maker) has several advantages and
disadvantages:

Advantages

 Drive system is less likely to become jammed, a common problem with

chain-driven bicycles
 The rider cannot become dirtied from chain grease or injured by "Chain
bite" when clothing or a body part catches between an unguarded
chain and a sprocket
 Lower maintenance than a chain system when the drive shaft is enclosed
in a tube
 More consistent performance. Dynamic Bicycles claims that a drive shaft
bicycle can deliver 94% efficiency, whereas a chain-driven bike can
deliver anywhere from 75-97% efficiency based on condition
 Greater ground clearance: lacking a derailleur or other low-hanging
machinery, the bicycle has nearly twice the ground clearance

Disadvantages

 A drive shaft system weighs more than a chain system, usually 1-

2 pounds heavier
 Many of the advantages claimed by drive shaft's proponents can be
achieved on a chain-driven bicycle, such as covering the chain and gears
 Use of lightweight derailleur gears with a high number of ratios is
impossible, although hub gears can be used
  Wheel removal can be complicated in some designs (as it is for some
chain-driven bicycles with hub gears).

Line Shafts

A typical line shaft would be suspended from the ceiling of one area and
would run the length of that area. One pulley on the shaft would receive the
power from the a parent line shaft elsewhere in the building. The other pulleys
would supply power to pulleys on each individual machine or to subsequent line
shafts. In manufacturing where there were a large number of machines
performing the same tasks, the design of the system was fairly regular and
repeated. In other applications such as machine and wood shops where there
was a variety of machines with different orientations and power requirements,
the system would appear erratic and inconsistent with many different shafting
directions and pulley sizes. Shafts were usually horizontal and overhead but
occasionally were vertical and could be underground. Shafts were usually rigid
steel, made up of several parts bolted together at flanges. The shafts were
suspended by hangers with bearings at certain intervals of length. The distance
depended on the weight of the shaft and the number of pulleys. The shafts had
to be kept aligned or the stress would overheat the bearings and could break the
shaft. The bearings were usually friction type and had to be kept lubricated.
Pulley lubricator employees were required in order to ensure that the bearings
did not freeze or malfunction.

In the earliest applications power was transmitted between pulleys using

loops of rope on grooved pulleys. This method is extremely rare today, dating
mostly from the 18th century. Flat belts on flat pulleys or drums were the most
common method during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The belts were
generally tanned leather or cotton duck impregnated with rubber. Leather belts
were fastened in loops with rawhide or wire lacing, lap joints and glue, or one
of several types of steel fasteners. Cotton duck belts usually used metal
fasteners or were melted together with heat. The leather belts were run with the
hair side against the pulleys for best traction. The belts needed periodic cleaning
and conditioning to keep them in good condition. Belts were often twisted 180
degrees per leg and reversed on the receiving pulley to cause the second shaft to
rotate in the opposite direction.

Pulleys were constructed of wood, iron, steel or a combination thereof.

Varying sizes of pulleys were used in conjunction to change the speed of
rotation. For example a 40" pulley at 100 rpm would turn a 20" pulley at 200
rpm. Pulleys solidly attached ("fast") to the shaft could be combined with
adjacent pulleys that turned freely ("loose") on the shaft (idlers). In this
configuration the belt could be maneuvered onto the idler to stop power
transmission or onto the solid pulley to convey the power. This arrangement
was often used near machines to provide a means of shutting the machine off
when not in use. Usually at the last belt feeding power to a machine, a pair of
stepped pulleys could be used to give a variety of speed settings for the
machine.

Occasionally gears were used between shafts to change speed rather than
belts and different sized pulleys, but this seems to have been relatively
uncommon.

WHEEL:

A wheel is a circular component that is intended to rotate on an

axle bearing. The wheel is one of the main components of the wheel and
axle which is one of the six simple machines. Wheels, in conjunction with axles,
allow heavy objects to be moved easily facilitating movement or transportation
while supporting a load, or performing labor in machines. Wheels are also used
for other purposes, such as a ship's wheel, steering wheel, potter's
wheel and flywheel.

Common examples are found in transport applications. A wheel greatly

reduces friction by facilitating motion by rolling together with the use of axles.
In order for wheels to rotate, a moment needs to be applied to the wheel about
its axis, either by way of gravity, or by the application of another external force
or torque.

Mechanics and function

`The wheel is a device that enables efficient movement of an object

across a surface where there is a force pressing the object to the surface.
Common examples are a cart pulled by a horse, and the rollers on an aircraft
flap mechanism.

Wheels are used in conjunction with axles; either the wheel turns on the
axle, or the axle turns in the object body. The mechanics are the same in either
case. The low resistance to motion (compared to dragging) is explained as
follows (refer to friction): the normal force at the sliding interface is the same.
the sliding distance is reduced for a given distance of travel. the coefficient of
friction at the interface is usually lower. Bearings are used to help reduce
friction at the interface. In the simplest and oldest case the bearing is just a
round hole through which the axle passes (a "plain bearing").

Example:

If a 100 kg object is dragged for 10 m along a surface with the coefficient

of friction μ = 0.5, the normal force is 981 N and the work done
(required energy) is (work=force x distance) 981 × 0.5 × 10 = 4905 joules.

Now give the object 4 wheels. The normal force between the 4 wheels
and axles is the same (in total) 981 N. Assume, for wood, μ = 0.25, and say the
wheel diameter is 1000 mm and axle diameter is 50 mm. So while the object
still moves 10 m the sliding frictional surfaces only slide over each other a
distance of 0.5 m. The work done is 981 × 0.25 × 0.5 = 123 joules; the work
done has reduced to 1/40 of that of dragging.

Additional energy is lost from the wheel-to-road interface. This is

termed rolling resistance which is predominantly a deformation loss. This
energy is also lowered by the use of a wheel (in comparison to dragging)
because the net force on the contact point between the road and the wheel is
almost perpendicular to the ground, and hence, generates an almost zero net
work. This depends on the nature of the ground, of the material of the wheel, its
inflation in the case of a tire, the net torque exerted by the eventual engine, and
many other factors.

A wheel can also offer advantages in traversing irregular surfaces if the

wheel radius is sufficiently large compared to the irregularities.

The wheel alone is not a machine, but when attached to an axle in

conjunction with bearing, it forms the wheel and axle, one of the simple
machines. A driven wheel is an example of a wheel and axle. Note that wheels
pre-date driven wheels by about 6000 years, themselves an evolution of using
round logs as rollers to move a heavy load—a practice going back in pre-history
so far, it has not been dated.

Construction

Rim
 An aluminum alloy wheel

The rim is the "outer edge of a wheel, holding the tire."[19] It makes up
the outer circular design of the wheel on which the inside edge of the tire is
mounted on vehicles such as automobiles. For example, on a bicycle
wheel the rim is a large hoop attached to the outer ends of the spokes of the
wheel that holds the tire and tube.

In the 1st millennium BCE an iron rim was introduced around the
wooden wheels of chariots.

Hub

The hub is the center of the wheel, and typically houses a bearing, and is
where the spokes meet. A hubless wheel (also known as a rim-rider or
centerless wheel) is a type of wheel with no center hub. More specifically, the
hub is actually almost as big as the wheel itself. The axle is hollow, following
the wheel at very close tolerances.

Spokes
 A spoked wheel on display at The National Museum of Iran, in Tehran. The
wheel is dated to the late 2nd millennium BCE and was excavated atChoqa
Zanbil.
A spoke is one of some number of rods radiating from the center of a
wheel (the hub where the axle connects), connecting the hub with the round
traction surface. The term originally referred to portions of a log which had
been split lengthwise into four or six sections. The radial members of a wagon
wheel were made by carving a spoke (from a log) into their finished shape.
A spokeshave is a tool originally developed for this purpose. Eventually, the
term spoke was more commonly applied to the finished product of
the wheelwright's work, than to the materials used.

Wire

The rims of wire wheels (or "wire spoked wheels") are connected to their
hubs by wire spokes. Although these wires are generally stiffer than a
typical wire rope, they function mechanically the same as tensioned flexible
wires, keeping the rim true while supporting applied loads.

Wire wheels are used on most bicycles and still used on

many motorcycles. They were invented by aeronautical engineer George
Cayley and first used in bicycles by James Starley. A process of assembling
wire wheels is described as wheelbuilding.
 A 1957 MGA Automobile with wire wheels

Tire/Tyre

Stacked and standing car tires

A tire (in American English and Canadian English) or tyre (in

some Commonwealth Nations such as UK, India, South Africa and Australia) is
a ring-shaped covering that fits around a wheel rim to protect it and enable
better vehicle performance by providing a flexible cushion that absorbs shock
while keeping the wheel in close contact with the ground. The word itself may
be derived from the word "tie," which refers to the outer steel ring part of a
wooden cart wheel that ties the wood segments together (see Etymology below).

The fundamental materials of modern tires are synthetic rubber, natural

rubber, fabric and wire, along with other compound chemicals. They consist of
a tread and a body. The tread provides traction while the body ensures support.
Before rubber was invented, the first versions of tires were simply bands of
metal that fitted around wooden wheels to prevent wear and tear. Today, the
vast majority of tires are pneumaticinflatable structures, comprising a doughnut-
shaped body of cords and wires encased in rubber and generally filled with
compressed air to form an inflatable cushion. Pneumatic tires are used on many
types of vehicles, such as cars, bicycles, motorcycles, trucks, earthmovers,
andaircraft.

Trywheel

A trywheel is an arrangement of three wheels mounted on a y-shaped frame for

the purpose of passing over stairs or rough ground. These may be driven by
external force or integral motors.

Patent wheels

To the 21st century observer, a wheel appears to be a fairly simple thing.

However, there have been many attempts to improve, and patent, wheels.
Inventors include:

Joseph Ledwinka, patent US808765 of 1906[20]

Manuel Herrera de Hora, patent US836578 of 1906[21]

Louis Mékarski, patent GB190702860 of 1907[22]

William Morris, patent US1159786 of 1915[23]

In many cases, the idea was to create a resilient wheel. This function is now
provided by the pneumatic tyre.

With worth mechanism

Slider-crank chain inversion arises when the connecting rod, or coupler, of a

slider-crank linkage becomes the ground link, so the slider is connected directly
to the crank. This inverted slider-crank is the form of a slider-crank linkage that
is often used actuate a hinged joint in construction equipment like a crane or
backhoe, as well as to open and close a swinging gate or door. A crank is an
arm attached at right angles to a rotating shaft by which reciprocating motion is
imparted to or received from the shaft. It is used to convert circular motion into
reciprocating motion, or vice versa. The arm may be a bent portion of the shaft,
or a separate arm or disk attached to it. Attached to the end of the crank by a
pivot is a rod, usually called a connecting rod. The end of the rod attached to the
crank moves in a circular motion, while the other end is usually constrained to
move in a linear sliding motion.

The term often refers to a human-powered crank which is used to manually turn
an axle, as in a bicycle crankset or a brace and bit drill. In this case a person's
arm or leg serves as the connecting rod, applying reciprocating force to the
crank. There is usually a bar perpendicular to the other end of the arm, often
with a freely rotatable handle or pedal attached.

Mechanisms:

The displacement of the end of the connecting rod is approximately

proportional to the cosine of the angle of rotation of the crank, when it is
measured from top dead center (TDC). So the reciprocating motion created by a
steadily rotating crank and connecting rod is approximately simple harmonic
motion:

where x is the distance of the end of the connecting rod from the crank axle, l is
the length of the connecting rod, r is the length of the crank, and α is the angle
of the crank measured from top dead center (TDC). Technically, the
reciprocating motion of the connecting rod departs from sinusoidal motion due
to the changing angle of the connecting rod during the cycle, and is expressed
(see Piston motion equations) as:

This difference becomes significant in high-speed engines, which may

need balance shafts to reduce the vibration due to this "secondary imbalance".

The mechanical advantage of a crank, the ratio between the force on the
connecting rod and the torque on the shaft, varies throughout the crank's cycle.
The relationship between the two is approximately:

where is the torque and F is the force on the connecting rod. But in reality, the
torque is maximum at crank angle of less than α = 90° from TDC for a given
force on the piston. One way to calculate this angle is to find out when
the conrod smallend (piston) speed becomes the fastest in downward direction
given a steady crank rotational velocity. Piston speed x' is expressed as:

For example, for rod length 6" and crank radius 2", numerically solving the
above equation finds the velocity minima (maximum downward speed) to be at
crank angle of 73.17615° after TDC. Then, using the triangle sine law, it is
found that the crank to conrod angle is 88.21738° and the conrod angle is
18.60647° from vertical (see Piston motion equations#Example).

When the crank is driven by the connecting rod, a problem arises when the
crank is at top dead centre (0°) or bottom dead centre (180°). At these points in
the crank's cycle, a force on the connecting rod causes no torque on the crank.
Therefore if the crank is stationary and happens to be at one of these two points,
it cannot be started moving by the connecting rod. For this reason, in steam
locomotives, whose wheels are driven by cranks, the connecting rods are
attached to the wheels at points separated by some angle, so that regardless of
the position of the wheels when the engine starts, at least one connecting rod
will be able to exert torque to start the train.

LAYOUT
ADVANTAGES
  Usage of external drives are not needed for its operation.
 Pollution free handling which is also helpful for crops.
 Instead of water liquid fertilizers can be sprayed.
 Reduces human effort, labour charges and time consumption.
 The maintenance and fabrication cost is cheap.

APPLICATIONS

 By varying the size of an equipment, it can be used in large and small

fields.