NANO ABRASIVE RAILS FILTER

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of

DIPLOMA
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
BY

Under the guidance of----------------------------

20-20
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
Register number: _________________________
 This is to certify that the project report titled “TITLE” submitted by the
following students for the award of the degree of bachelor of engineering is record
of bonafide work carried out by them.

Done by

Mr. /Ms._______________________________

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree in

Diploma/Engineering in Mechanical Engineering

During the Year – (20__-20__)

_________________ _______________
Head of Department Guide

Coimbatore –641651.
Date:

Submitted for the university examination held on ___________

_________________ ________________
Internal Examiner External Examiner
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At this pleasing moment of having successfully completed our

project, we wish to convey our sincere thanks and gratitude to the
management of our college and our beloved chairman
…………………………………………………, who provided all the
facilities to us.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to our principal
………………………………………, for forwarding us to do our
project and offering adequate duration in completing our project.
We are also grateful to the Head of Department Prof.
…………………………………….., for her constructive suggestions &
encouragement during our project.
 With deep sense of gratitude, we extend our earnest & sincere
thanks to our guide ……………………………………………………..,
Department of Mechanical for her kind guidance & encouragement
during this project.
We also express our indebt thanks to our TEACHING and NON
TEACHING staffs of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT,……………………….(COLLEGE NAME).

CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO PARTICULAS PAGE NO.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
1. SYNOPSIS

2. INTRODUCTION

3. COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

4. WORKING PRINCIPLE

5. DESIGN AND DRAWINGS

6. LIST OF MATERIAL

7. COST ESTIMATION

8. APPLICATIONS, ADVANTAGED AND

DISADVANTAGES

9. CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY
PHOTOGRAPHY

CHAPTER-1

SYNOPSIS
The Machine we designed and fabricated is used for grinding any shape of object like
Circular, Rectangular, and Polygon. In our project the work abrasive belt is used to
grinding the material. The abrasive belt is rotated by the single phase induction motor.
Hence our project namely abrasive belt grinder is a Special type of Machine. According
to the type of material to be grind, the grinding tool can be changed.

This project gives details of grinding various shapes and sizes of components.
This machine can be widely applied in almost all type of industries. By varying the pulley
sizes I can get a high end speed of over 10,000 rpm if needed. The only change I would
make is to have a totally enclosed motor to keep out the grit.
 CHAPTER-2
INTRODUCTION

Our project is design and fabrication of Multi Use abrasive belt Grinder. It is used to grind
the machining surfaces to super Finish and accuracy. It can be used as an external Grinder
by fixing the belt grinder attachment on the conveyor roller. The principle parts of this
attachment are main body, motor with pulley, bearings, rope pulley and conveyor abrasive belt
etc.
 CHAPTER-3

COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

The components used in this project are:

1. AC Motor
2. Belt drive
3. Abrasive sheet
4. Bearing
5. Shaft

Bearings:
 A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion to only the desired
motion, and reduces friction between moving parts. The design of the bearing may, for example,
provide for free linear movement of the moving part or for free rotation around a fixed axis; or, it
may prevent a motion by controlling the vectors of normal forces that bear on the moving parts.
Most bearings facilitate the desired motion by minimizing friction. Bearings are classified
broadly according to the type of operation, the motions allowed, or to the directions of the loads
(forces) applied to the parts.
Rotary bearings hold rotating components such as shafts or axles within mechanical
systems, and transfer axial and radial loads from the source of the load to the structure
supporting it. The simplest form of bearing, the plain bearing, consists of a shaft rotating in a
hole. Lubrication is used to reduce friction. In the ball bearing and roller bearing, to reduce
sliding friction, rolling elements such as rollers or balls with a circular cross-section are located
between the races or journals of the bearing assembly. A wide variety of bearing designs exists
to allow the demands of the application to be correctly met for maximum efficiency, reliability,
durability and performance.
The term "bearing" is derived from the verb "to bear";a bearing being a machine element
that allows one part to bear (i.e., to support) another. The simplest bearings are bearing surfaces,
cut or formed into a part, with varying degrees of control over the form, size, roughness and
location of the surface. Other bearings are separate devices installed into a machine or machine
part. The most sophisticated bearings for the most demanding applications are
very precise devices; their manufacture requires some of the highest standards of current
technology.

TYPES OF BEARINGS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

1. BALL BEARINGS:

A ball bearing is a type of rolling-element bearing which uses balls to maintain the
separation between the moving parts of the bearing.

The purpose of a ball bearing is to reduce rotational friction and support radial and
axial loads. It achieves this by using at least two races to contain the balls and transmit the
loads through the balls. Usually one of the races is held fixed. As one of the bearing races
rotates it causes the balls to rotate as well. Because the balls are rolling they have a much
lower coefficient of friction than if two flat surfaces were rotating on each other.

Ball bearings tend to have lower load capacity for their size than other kinds of rolling-
element bearings due to the smaller contact area between the balls and races. However, they
can tolerate some misalignment of the inner and outer races.

Compared to other rolling-element bearings, the ball bearing is the least expensive,
primarily because of the low cost of producing the balls used in the bearing. There are
several common designs of ball bearing, each offering various trade-offs. They can be made
from many different materials, including: stainless steel, chrome steel, and ceramic. A
hybrid ball bearing is a bearing with ceramic balls and races of metal.

1.1. Single-row ball bearing:

a) General:

The rigid bearing with a row of balls is a bearing presenting a very good
performance/price ratio; it is relatively universal.

b) Aptitudes:

It has a good capacity to support the radial loads and also the axial loads in the two
directions. It presents a swivelling and exists in an instrumented version making it possible
in particular to determine the rotational speed of the shaft.

c) Uses:

This type of bearing is used in all the fields of mechanical engineering in general
(flaps, bearings of jet engines, transmissions of helicopters, on-board equipment...). It is
available with a segment which allows an axial immobilization without any retaining wall in
the housing.
1.2. Double-row ball bearing:

a) General:

These bearings require a good coaxiality between the shaft and the housing.

b) Aptitudes:

This type of bearing allows strong radial and axial loads in the two directions.

A preferential way is sometimes noticed, in case of filling notches. This bearing can be
installed alone or together with another bearing (where alignment is necessary).

c) Uses

This type of bearing is used in pumps, reducers (wheel and screw), equipment...
1.3. Double-row self-aligning ball bearing:

a) General:

The self-aligning ball bearing has two rows of balls and a common concave sphered
raceway in the outer ring. The bearing is consequently self-aligning and insensitive to
angular misalignments of the shaft relative to the housing.

b) Aptitudes:

Self-aligning ball bearings with extended inner ring are designed for less demanding
applications using commercial grade shafting. The special bore tolerance allows easy
mounting and dismounting.

c) Uses

It is particularly suitable for applications where considerable shaft deflections or

misalignment are to be expected.

Additionally, the self-aligning ball bearing has the lowest friction of all rolling
bearings, which allows it to run cooler even at high speeds.
Self-aligning ball bearings with extended inner ring are axially located on the shaft by
means of a pin or shouldered screw, which engages in a slot at one side of the inner ring and
also prevents the inner ring from turning on the shaft.

When two self-aligning ball bearings with extended inner ring are used to support a
shaft, they should be positioned so that the inner ring slots either face each other, or are at
the outboard positions of the bearings.

If this is not the case, the shaft is axially located in one direction only.

1.4. Single and double -row angular contact bearing:

a) General:

Angular contact ball bearings have raceways in the inner and outer rings that are
displaced with respect to each other in the direction of the bearing axis. This means that they
are designed to accommodate combined loads, i.e. simultaneously acting radial and axial
loads.

b) Aptitudes:

The axial load carrying capacity of angular contact ball bearings increases with
increasing contact angle.
 The contact angle is defined as the angle between the line joining the points of contact
of the ball and the raceways in the radial plane, along which the load is transmitted from one
raceway to another, and a line perpendicular to the bearing axis.

The contact angle varies from 15° to 40° and is measured relative to a line running
perpendicular to the bearing axis. Angular contact bearings are unidirectional thrust bearings
that can withstand heavy thrust loads and moderate radial loads.

See below: Single angular contact bearing.

c) Uses:

Angular contact bearings can have a number of different styles of seals or shielding.
Seals and shields provide protection from contamination and as a retainer for lubricant.

Seals provide better protection and lubricant containment than shields, but have
lower maximum speed capabilities.

Bearings with ball screw support are specially designed for use in ball screw or lead
screw applications.

Some bearings may also be flanged. Angular contact bearings may have a variety of
lubrication options.
 See below: Double-row angular contact bearing.

2. ROLLER BEARINGS:

Roller bearings are one of the most widely used industrial bearings. They are called as
roller bearings because they are able to carry a load by placing round elements between the
two pieces. With the movement of the two pieces, these round elements roll, thereby helping
to carry the load.

Most roller bearings use cylinder whose length is slightly greater than its diameter.
Roller bearings have higher radial load capacity compared to ball bearings but higher
friction and a low axial capacity under axial loads.

2.1. Applications of roller bearings:

Roller bearings are used in rotary applications to replace sliding movement with low
friction, rolling.

Automated roller bearing setting techniques offer many advantages like reduced setting
time, assembly cost, and and reliable setting. To select the right roller bearing, one must
determine the desired bearing life and a sufficient basic dynamic load rating to meet that life
requirement.
 Roller bearings are used in power generation, wind turbines, gear drives, rolling mills,
machine tool spindles, gear reduction units etc.

Roller bearings are the earliest known type of rolling-element-bearing.

2.2. One row, two row cylindrical bearings:

a) General:

This type of bearing supports axial loads only in one direction. They are thus generally
used in pairs, opposing each other. Their play must be regulated in order to obtain a good
rigidity for the connection. They can also be installed side by side.

Conical tapered roller bearings:

a) General:

These bearings consist of an internal ring (the cone), conical rollers spaced by a cage
and an external ring (the basin) separated from the rest. They support the axial loads only in
one direction and are generally installed in pairs, opposing each other. Their play must be
adjusted.

b) Aptitudes:
 They are bearings adapted to the high axial and radial loads, but they do not support
high rotational speeds. For high axial loads, a bearing with a significant contact angle, which
can vary from 10° to 30°, is used.

c) Uses:

They are installed in reducers, wheels of the landing gear, etc

Belt
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Flat belt

Flat belt drive in the machine shop at the Hagley Museum

A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more rotating shafts mechanically, most
often parallel. Belts may be used as a source of motion, to transmit power efficiently or to track
relative movement. Belts are looped over pulleys and may have a twist between the pulleys, and
the shafts need not be parallel.

In a two pulley system, the belt can either drive the pulleys normally in one direction (the same if
on parallel shafts), or the belt may be crossed, so that the direction of the driven shaft is reversed
(the opposite direction to the driver if on parallel shafts). As a source of motion, a conveyor
belt is one application where the belt is adapted to carry a load continuously between two points.
The belt drive can also be used to change the speed of rotation, either up or down, by using
different sized pulleys.

History
The mechanical belt drive, using a pulley machine, was first mentioned in the text the Dictionary
of Local Expressions by the Han Dynasty philosopher, poet, and politician Yang Xiong (53–18
BC) in 15 BC, used for a quilling machine that wound silk fibers on
to bobbins for weavers' shuttles.[1] The belt drive is an essential component to the invention of
the spinning wheel.[2][3] The belt drive was not only used in textile technologies, it was also
applied to hydraulic-powered bellows dated from the 1st century AD.[2]

Power transmission
Belts are the cheapest utility for power transmission between shafts that may not be axially
aligned. Power transmission is achieved by purposely designed belts and pulleys. The variety of
power transmission needs that can be met by a belt-drive transmission system are numerous, and
this has led to many variations on the theme. Belt drives run smoothly and with little noise, and
provide shock absorption for motors, loads, and bearings when the force and power needed
changes. A drawback to belt drives is that they transmit less power than gears or chain drives.
However, improvements in belt engineering allow use of belts in systems that only formerly
allowed chain drives or gears.

Power transmitted between a belt and a pulley is expressed as the product of difference of
tension and belt velocity:

where, T1 and T2 are tensions in the tight side and slack side of the belt respectively. They are
related as

where, μ is the coefficient of friction, and α is the angle (in radians) subtended by contact surface
at the centre of the pulley.

Pros and cons

Belt drives are simple, inexpensive, and do not require axially aligned shafts. They help
protect machinery from overload and jam, and damp and isolate noise and vibration. Load
fluctuations are shock-absorbed (cushioned). They need no lubrication and minimal
maintenance. They have high efficiency (90–98%, usually 95%), high tolerance for
misalignment, and are of relatively low cost if the shafts are far apart. Clutch action is
activated by releasing belt tension. Different speeds can be obtained by stepped or tapered
pulleys.

The angular-velocity ratio may not be constant or equal to that of the pulley diameters, due to
slip and stretch. However, this problem has been largely solved by the use of toothed belts.
Working temperatures range from −31 °F (−35 °C) to 185 °F (85 °C). Adjustment of center
distance or addition of an idler pulley is crucial to compensate for wear and stretch.

Flat belts
The drive belt: used to transfer power from the engine's flywheel. Here shown driving
a threshing machine.

A small section of a wide flat belt made of layers of leather with the fastener on one end, shown
in an exhibit at the Suffolk Mills in Lowell, Massachusetts

Flat belts were widely used in the 19th and early 20th centuries in line shafting to transmit power
in factories.[4] They were also used in countless farming, mining, and logging applications, such
as bucksaws, sawmills, threshers, silo blowers, conveyors for filling corn
cribs or haylofts, balers, water pumps (for wells, mines, or swampy farm fields), and electrical
generators. Flat belts are still used today, although not nearly as much as in the line-shaft era.
The flat belt is a simple system of power transmission that was well suited for its day. It can
deliver high power at high speeds (500 hp at 10,000 ft/min, or 373 kW at 51 m/s), in cases of
wide belts and large pulleys. But these wide-belt-large-pulley drives are bulky, consuming lots of
space while requiring high tension, leading to high loads, and are poorly suited to close-centers
applications, so V-belts have mainly replaced flat belts for short-distance power transmission;
and longer-distance power transmission is typically no longer done with belts at all. For example,
factory machines now tend to have individual electric motors.

Because flat belts tend to climb towards the higher side of the pulley, pulleys were made with a
slightly convex or "crowned" surface (rather than flat) to allow the belt to self-center as it runs.
Flat belts also tend to slip on the pulley face when heavy loads are applied, and many
proprietary belt dressings were available that could be applied to the belts to increase friction,
and so power transmission.

Flat belts were traditionally made of leather or fabric. Today most are made of rubber or
synthetic polymers. Grip of leather belts is often better if they are assembled with the hair side
(outer side) of the leather against the pulley, although some belts are instead given a half-twist
before joining the ends (forming a Möbius strip), so that wear can be evenly distributed on both
sides of the belt. Belts ends are joined by lacing the ends together with leather thonging (the
oldest of the methods),[5][6] steel comb fasteners and/or lacing, [7] or by gluing or welding (in the
case of polyurethane or polyester). Flat belts were traditionally jointed, and still usually are, but
they can also be made with endless construction.

Rope drives

In the mid 19th century, British millwrights discovered that multi-grooved pulleys connected
by ropes outperformed flat pulleys connected by leather belts. Wire ropes were occasionally
used, but cotton, hemp, manila hemp and flax rope saw the widest use. Typically, the rope
connecting two pulleys with multiple V-grooves was spliced into a single loop that traveled
along a helical path before being returned to its starting position by an idler pulley that also
served to maintain the tension on the rope. Sometimes, a single rope was used to transfer power
from one multiple-groove drive pulley to several single- or multiple-groove driven pulleys in this
way.

In general, as with flat belts, rope drives were used for connections from stationary engines to
the jack shafts and line shafts of mills, and sometimes from line shafts to driven machinery.
Unlike leather belts, however, rope drives were sometimes used to transmit power over relatively
long distances. Over long distances, intermediate sheaves were used to support the "flying rope",
and in the late 19th century, this was considered quite efficient.[8][9][10]

Round belts

Round belts are a circular cross section belt designed to run in a pulley with a 60 degree V-
groove. Round grooves are only suitable for idler pulleys that guide the belt, or when (soft) O-
ring type belts are used. The V-groove transmits torque through a wedging action, thus
increasing friction. Nevertheless, round belts are for use in relatively low torque situations only
and may be purchased in various lengths or cut to length and joined, either by a staple, a metallic
connector (in the case of hollow plastic), gluing or welding (in the case of polyurethane).
Early sewing machines utilized a leather belt, joined either by a metal staple or glued, to great
effect.

Spring belts

A two-stage transmission using spring belts on a toy vehicle

Spring belts are similar to rope or round belts but consist of a long steel helical spring. They are
commonly found on toy or small model engines, typically steam engines driving other toys or
models or providing a transmission between the crankshaft and other parts of a vehicle. The main
advantage over rubber or other elastic belts is that they last much longer under poorly controlled
operating conditions. The distance between the pulleys is also less critical. Their main
disadvantage is that slippage is more likely due to the lower coefficient of friction. The ends of a
spring belt can be joined either by bending the last turn of the helix at each end by 90 degrees to
form hooks, or by reducing the diameter of the last few turns at one end so that it "screws" into
the other end.

V belts

Belts on a Yanmar 2GM20 marine diesel engine

" A multiple-V-belt drive on an air compressor

V belts (also style V-belts, vee belts, or, less commonly, wedge rope) solved the slippage and
alignment problem. It is now the basic belt for power transmission. They provide the best
combination of traction, speed of movement, load of the bearings, and long service life. They are
generally endless, and their general cross-section shape is roughly trapezoidal (hence the name
"V"). The "V" shape of the belt tracks in a mating groove in the pulley (or sheave), with the
result that the belt cannot slip off. The belt also tends to wedge into the groove as the load
increases—the greater the load, the greater the wedging action—improving torque transmission
and making the V-belt an effective solution, needing less width and tension than flat belts. V-
belts trump flat belts with their small center distances and high reduction ratios. The preferred
center distance is larger than the largest pulley diameter, but less than three times the sum of both
pulleys. Optimal speed range is 1,000–7,000 ft/min (300–2,130 m/min). V-belts need larger
pulleys for their thicker cross-section than flat belts.

For high-power requirements, two or more V-belts can be joined side-by-side in an arrangement
called a multi-V, running on matching multi-groove sheaves. This is known as a multiple-V-belt
drive (or sometimes a "classical V-belt drive").

V-belts may be homogeneously rubber or polymer throughout, or there may be fibers embedded
in the rubber or polymer for strength and reinforcement. The fibers may be of textile materials
such as cotton, polyamide (such as Nylon) or polyester or, for greatest strength, of steel
or aramid (such as Technora, Twaron or Kevlar).
When an endless belt does not fit the need, jointed and link V-belts may be employed. Most
models offer the same power and speed ratings as equivalently-sized endless belts and do not
require special pulleys to operate. A link v-belt is a number of polyurethane/polyester composite
links held together, either by themselves, such as Fenner Drives' PowerTwist, or Nu-T-Link
(with metal studs). These provide easy installation and superior environmental resistance
compared to rubber belts and are length-adjustable by disassembling and removing links when
needed.

V-belt history

Trade journal coverage of V-belts in automobiles from 1916 mentioned leather as the belt
material,[11] and mentioned that the V angle was not yet well standardized. [12] The endless rubber
V-belt was developed in 1917 by John Gates of the Gates Rubber Company. Multiple-V-belt
drive was first arranged a few years later by Walter Geist of the Allis-Chalmers corporation, who
was inspired to replace the single rope of multi-groove-sheave rope drives with multiple V-belts
running parallel. Geist filed for a patent in 1925, and Allis-Chalmers began marketing the drive
under the "Texrope" brand; the patent was granted in 1928 (U.S. Patent 1,662,511). The
Texrope" brand still exists, although it has changed ownership and no longer refers to multiple-
V-belt drive alone.

Multi-groove belts

A multi-groove, V-Ribbed, or polygroove belt[13] is made up of usually between 3 and 24 "V"

shaped sections alongside each other. This gives a thinner belt for the same drive surface, thus it
is more flexible, although often wider. The added flexibility offers an improved efficiency, as
less energy is wasted in the internal friction of continually bending the belt. In practice this gain
of efficiency causes a reduced heating effect on the belt, and a cooler-running belt lasts longer in
service. Belts are commercially available in several sizes, with usually a 'P' (sometimes omitted)
and a single letter identifying the pitch between grooves. The 'PK' section with a pitch of
3.56 mm is commonly used for automotive applications.[14]

A further advantage of the polygroove belt that makes them popular is that they can run over
pulleys on the ungrooved back of the belt. Though this is sometimes done with V-belts with a
single idler pulley for tensioning, a polygroove belt may be wrapped around a pulley on its back
tightly enough to change its direction, or even to provide a light driving force.[15]

Any V-belt's ability to drive pulleys depends on wrapping the belt around a sufficient angle of
the pulley to provide grip. Where a single-V-belt is limited to a simple convex shape, it can
adequately wrap at most three or possibly four pulleys, so can drive at most three accessories.
Where more must be driven, such as for modern cars with power steering and air conditioning,
multiple belts are required. As the polygroove belt can be bent into concave paths by external
idlers, it can wrap any number of driven pulleys, limited only by the power capacity of the belt.
[15]

This ability to bend the belt at the designer's whim allows it to take a complex or " serpentine"
path. This can assist the design of a compact engine layout, where the accessories are mounted
more closely to the engine block and without the need to provide movable tensioning
adjustments. The entire belt may be tensioned by a single idler pulley.

Ribbed belt

A ribbed belt is a power transmission belt featuring lengthwise grooves. It operates from contact
between the ribs of the belt and the grooves in the pulley. Its single-piece structure is reported to
offer an even distribution of tension across the width of the pulley where the belt is in contact, a
power range up to 600 kW, a high speed ratio, serpentine drives (possibility to drive off the back
of the belt), long life, stability and homogeneity of the drive tension, and reduced vibration. The
ribbed belt may be fitted on various applications: compressors, fitness bikes, agricultural
machinery, food mixers, washing machines, lawn mowers, etc.

Film belts

Though often grouped with flat belts, they are actually a different kind. They consist of a very
thin belt (0.5–15 millimeters or 100–4000 micrometres) strip of plastic and occasionally rubber.
They are generally intended for low-power (less than 10 watts), high-speed uses, allowing high
efficiency (up to 98%) and long life. These are seen in business machines, printers, tape
recorders, and other light-duty operations.

Timing belts
Timing belt

Belt-drive cog on a belt-driven bicycle

Timing belts (also known as toothed, notch, cog, or synchronous belts) are a positive transfer
belt and can track relative movement. These belts have teeth that fit into a matching toothed
pulley. When correctly tensioned, they have no slippage, run at constant speed, and are often
used to transfer direct motion for indexing or timing purposes (hence their name). They are often
used instead of chains or gears, so there is less noise and a lubrication bath is not
necessary. Camshafts of automobiles, miniature timing systems, and stepper motors often utilize
these belts. Timing belts need the least tension of all belts and are among the most efficient.
They can bear up to 200 hp (150 kW) at speeds of 16,000 ft/min (4,900 m/min).

Timing belts with a helical offset tooth design are available. The helical offset tooth design forms
a chevron pattern and causes the teeth to engage progressively. The chevron pattern design is
self-aligning and does not make the noise that some timing belts make at certain speeds, and is
more efficient at transferring power (up to 98%).
Disadvantages include a relatively high purchase cost, the need for specially fabricated toothed
pulleys, less protection from overloading, jamming, and vibration due to their continuous tension
cords, the lack of clutch action (only possible with friction-drive belts), and the fixed lengths,
which do not allow length adjustment (unlike link V-belts or chains).

Specialty belts

Belts normally transmit power on the tension side of the loop. However, designs for continuously
variable transmissions exist that use belts that are a series of solid metal blocks, linked together
as in a chain, transmitting power on the compression side of the loop.

Rolling roads

Belts used for rolling roads for wind tunnels can be capable of 250 km/h (160 mph).[16]

Standards for use

The open belt drive has parallel shafts rotating in the same direction, whereas the cross-belt drive
also bears parallel shafts but rotate in opposite direction. The former is far more common, and
the latter not appropriate for timing and standard V-belts unless there is a twist between each
pulley so that the pulleys only contact the same belt surface. Nonparallel shafts can be connected
if the belt's center line is aligned with the center plane of the pulley. Industrial belts are usually
reinforced rubber but sometimes leather types. Non-leather, non-reinforced belts can only be
used in light applications.

The pitch line is the line between the inner and outer surfaces that is neither subject to tension
(like the outer surface) nor compression (like the inner). It is midway through the surfaces in film
and flat belts and dependent on cross-sectional shape and size in timing and V-belts. standard
reference pitch diameter can be estimated by taking average of gear teeth tips diameter and gear
teeth base diameter. The angular speed is inversely proportional to size, so the larger the one
wheel, the less angular velocity, and vice versa. Actual pulley speeds tend to be 0.5–1% less than
generally calculated because of belt slip and stretch. In timing belts, the inverse ratio teeth of the
belt contributes to the exact measurement. The speed of the belt is:

Speed = Circumference based on pitch diameter × angular speed in rpm

Selection criteria
Belt drives are built under the following required conditions: speeds of and power transmitted
between drive and driven unit; suitable distance between shafts; and appropriate operating
conditions. The equation for power is

power [kW] = (torque [N·m]) × (rotational speed [rev/min]) × (2π radians) / (60 s × 1000
W).

Factors of power adjustment include speed ratio; shaft distance (long or short); type of drive
unit (electric motor, internal combustion engine); service environment (oily, wet, dusty);
driven unit loads (jerky, shock, reversed); and pulley-belt arrangement (open, crossed,
turned). These are found in engineering handbooks and manufacturer's literature. When
corrected, the power is compared to rated powers of the standard belt cross-sections at
particular belt speeds to find a number of arrays that perform best. Now the pulley diameters
are chosen. It is generally either large diameters or large cross-section that are chosen, since,
as stated earlier, larger belts transmit this same power at low belt speeds as smaller belts do
at high speeds. To keep the driving part at its smallest, minimal-diameter pulleys are desired.
Minimum pulley diameters are limited by the elongation of the belt's outer fibers as the belt
wraps around the pulleys. Small pulleys increase this elongation, greatly reducing belt life.
Minimal pulley diameters are often listed with each cross-section and speed, or listed
separately by belt cross-section. After the cheapest diameters and belt section are chosen, the
belt length is computed. If endless belts are used, the desired shaft spacing may need
adjusting to accommodate standard-length belts. It is often more economical to use two or
more juxtaposed V-belts, rather than one larger belt.

In large speed ratios or small central distances, the angle of contact between the belt and
pulley may be less than 180°. If this is the case, the drive power must be further increased,
according to manufacturer's tables, and the selection process repeated. This is because power
capacities are based on the standard of a 180° contact angle. Smaller contact angles mean
less area for the belt to obtain traction, and thus the belt carries less power.

Belt friction

Main article: Belt friction

Belt drives depend on friction to operate, but excessive friction wastes energy and rapidly
wears the belt. Factors that affect belt friction include belt tension, contact angle, and the
materials used to make the belt and pulleys.

Belt tension

Power transmission is a function of belt tension. However, also increasing with tension is
stress (load) on the belt and bearings. The ideal belt is that of the lowest tension that does not
slip in high loads. Belt tensions should also be adjusted to belt type, size, speed, and pulley
diameters. Belt tension is determined by measuring the force to deflect the belt a given
distance per inch of pulley. Timing belts need only adequate tension to keep the belt in
contact with the pulley.

Belt wear

Fatigue, more so than abrasion, is the culprit for most belt problems. This wear is caused by
stress from rolling around the pulleys. High belt tension; excessive slippage; adverse
environmental conditions; and belt overloads caused by shock, vibration, or belt slapping all
contribute to belt fatigue.

Belt vibration

Vibration signatures are widely used for studying belt drive malfunctions. Some of the
common malfunctions or faults include the effects of belt tension,
speed, sheave eccentricity and misalignment conditions. The effect of sheave Eccentricity on
vibration signatures of the belt drive is quite significant. Although, vibration magnitude is
not necessarily increased by this it will create strong amplitude modulation. When the top
section of a belt is in resonance, the vibrations of the machine is increased. However, an
increase in the machine vibration is not significant when only the bottom section of the belt
is in resonance. The vibration spectrum has the tendency to move to higher frequencies as
the tension force of the belt is increased.

Belt dressing

Belt slippage can be addressed in several ways. Belt replacement is an obvious solution, and
eventually the mandatory one (because no belt lasts forever). Often, though, before the
 replacement option is executed, retensioning (via pulley centerline adjustment) or dressing
(with any of various coatings) may be successful to extend the belt's lifespan and postpone
replacement. Belt dressings are typically liquids that are poured, brushed, dripped, or sprayed
onto the belt surface and allowed to spread around; they are meant to recondition the belt's
driving surfaces and increase friction between the belt and the pulleys. Some belt dressings
are dark and sticky, resembling tar or syrup; some are thin and clear, resembling mineral
spirits. Some are sold to the public in aerosol cans at auto parts stores; others are sold in
drums only to industrial users.

Specifications

To fully specify a belt, the material, length, and cross-section size and shape are required.
Timing belts, in addition, require that the size of the teeth be given. The length of the belt is
the sum of the central length of the system on both sides, half the circumference of both
pulleys, and the square of the sum (if crossed) or the difference (if open) of the radii. Thus,
when dividing by the central distance, it can be visualized as the central distance times the
height that gives the same squared value of the radius difference on, of course, both sides.
When adding to the length of either side, the length of the belt increases, in a similar manner
to the Pythagorean theorem. One important concept to remember is that as D 1 gets closer to
D2 there is less of a distance (and therefore less addition of length) until its approaches zero.

On the other hand, in a crossed belt drive the sum rather than the difference of radii is the
basis for computation for length. So the wider the small drive increases, the belt length is
higher.

V-belt profiles
v-belt angle, XPZ & SPZ profile

Metric v-belt profiles:

Widt
Classic profile Height Angle* Remarks
h

Z 10mm - -

12.7mm = 0.5 inch width, 38°

A 13mm 9mm 40°
angle if inches

16.5mm = 21/32 inch width, 38°

B 17mm 11mm 40°
angle if inches

22.2mm = 7/8 inch width, 38°

C 22mm 14mm 40°
angle if inches

D 32mm 19mm 40° 31.75mm = 1.25 inch width, 38°

 angle if inches

38.1mm = 1.5 inch width, 38°

E 38mm 25mm 40°
angle if inches

Widt
Narrow-profile Height Angle* Remarks
h

SPZ 10mm 8mm 34°

SPA 13mm - -

SPB 17mm - -

SPC 22mm - -

High-Performance Widt
Height Angle* Remarks
Narrow-profile h

XPZ 10mm - -

XPA 13mm - -

XPB 17mm - -
 XPC 22mm - -

 Common pulley design is to have a higher angle of the first part of the opening, above the
so-called "pitch line".

E.g. the pitch line for SPZ could be 8.5mm from the bottom of the "V". In other words, 0-8.5mm
is 34° and 38° from 8.5 and above

Motor
Electric motors are so much a part of everyday life that we seldom give them a second
thought. When we switch on an electric drill, for example, we conWdently expect it to run
rapidly up to the correc speed, and we do not question how it knows what speed to run at, or how
it is that once enough energy has been drawn from the supply to bring it up to speed, the power
drawn falls to a very low level. When we put the drill to work it draws more power, and when we
Wnish the power drawn from the mains reduces automatically, without intervention on our part.
The humble motor, consisting of nothing more than an arrangement of copper coils and steel
laminations, is clearly rather a clever energy converter, which warrants serious consideration. By
gaining a basic understanding of how the motor works, we will be able to appreciate its potential
and its limitations, and (in later chapters) see how its already remarkable performance can be
further enhanced by the addition of external electronic controls. This chapter deals with the basic
mechanisms of motor operation, so readers who are already familiar with such matters as
magnetic Xux, magnetic and electric circuits, torque, and motional e.m.f can probably aVord to
skim over much of it. In the course of the discussion, however, several very important general
principles and guidelines emerge. These apply to all types of motors and are summarised in
Section 1.8. Experience shows that anyone who has a good grasp of these basic principles will be
well equipped to weigh the pros and cons of the diVerent types of motor, so all readers are urged
to absorb them before tackling other parts of the book.
PRODUCING ROTATION
Nearly all motors exploit the force which is exerted on a currentcarrying conductor placed in a
magnetic Weld. The force can be demonstrated by placing a bar magnet near a wire carrying
current , but anyone trying the experiment will probably be disappointed to discover how feeble
the force is, and will doubtless be left wondering how such an unpromising eVect can be used to
make eVective motors. We will see that in order to make the most of the mechanism, we need to
arrange a very strong magnetic Weld, and make it interact with many
conductors, each carrying as much current as possible. We will also see later that although the
magnetic Weld (or ‘excitation’) is essential to the working of the motor, it acts only as a catalyst,
and all of the mechanical output power comes from the electrical supply to the conductors on
which the force is developed. It will emerge later that in some motors the
parts of the machine responsible for the excitation and for the energy converting functions are
distinct and self-evident. In the d.c. motor, for example, the excitation is provided either by
permanent magnets or by Weld coils wrapped around clearly deWned projecting Weld poles on
the stationary part, while the conductors on which force is developed are on the rotor and
supplied with current via sliding brushes. In many motors, however, there is no such clear-cut
physical distinction between the ‘excitation’ and the ‘energy-converting’ parts of the machine,
and a single stationary winding serves both purposes. Nevertheless, we will
Wnd that identifying and separating the excitation and energy-converting
functions is always helpful in understanding how motors of all types operate.
Returning to the matter of force on a single conductor, we will Wrst look at what determines the
magnitude and direction of the force,

before turning to ways in which the mechanism is exploited to produce rotation. The concept of the
magnetic circuit will have to be explored, since this is central to understanding why motors have the
shapes the do. A brief introduction to magnetic Weld, magnetic Xux, and Xux density is included before
that for those who are not familiar with the ideas involved.
Magnetic field and magnetic flux
When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic Weld, it experiences a force.
Experiment shows that the magnitude of the force depends directly on the current in the wire,
and the strength of the magnetic Weld, andthat the forceis greatestwhen themagnetic Weld
isperpendicular to the conductor. In the set-up shown in Figure, the source of the magnetic Weld
is a bar magnet, which produces a magnetic Weld as shown in Figure . The notion of a ‘magnetic
Weld’ surrounding a magnet is an abstract idea that helps us to come to grips with the mysterious
phenomenon of

magnetism: it not only provides us with a convenient pictorial way of picturing the directional
eVects, but it also allows us to quantify the ‘strength’ of the magnetism and hence permits us to
predict the various eVects produced by it.
The dotted lines in Figure are referred to as magnetic Xux lines, or simply Xux lines. They
indicate the direction along which iron Wlings (or small steel pins) would align themselves when
placed in the Weld of the bar magnet. Steel pins have no initial magnetic Weld of their own, so
there is no reason why one end or the other of the pins should point to a particular pole of the bar
magnet.
However, when we put a compass needle (which is itself a permanent magnet) in the Weld we
Wnd that it aligns itself as shown in Figure. In the upper half of the Wgure, the S end of the
diamond- haped compass settles closest to the N pole of the magnet, while in the lower half of
the Wgure, the N end of the compass seeks the S of the magnet. This immediately suggests that
there is a direction associated with the lines of Xux, as shown by the arrows on the Xux lines,
which conventionally are taken as positively directed from the N to the S pole of the bar magnet.
The sketch in Figure 1.2 might suggest that there is a ‘source’ near the top of the bar magnet,
from which Xux lines emanate before making their way to a corresponding ‘sink’ at the bottom.
However, if we were to look at the Xux lines inside the magnet, we would Wnd that they were
continuous, with no ‘start’ or ‘Wnish’. (In Figure 1.2 the internal Xux lines have been omitted
for the sake of clarity, but a very similar Weld pattern is produced by a circular coil of wire
carrying a d.c. See Figure
1.6 where the continuity of the Xux lines is clear.). Magnetic Xux lines always form closed
paths, as we will see when we look at the ‘magnetic circuit’, and draw a parallel with the electric
circuit, in which the current is also a continuous quantity. (There must be a ‘cause’ of the
magnetic Xux, of course, and in a permanent magnet this is usually pictured in terms of atomic-
level circulating currents within the magnet material. Fortunately, discussion at this physical
level is not necessary for our purpose.)
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC MOTORS
All electric motors are governed by the laws of electromagnetism, and are subject to essentially
the same constraints imposed by the materials (copper and iron) from which they are made. We
should therefore not be surprised to Wnd that at the fundamental level all motors – regardless of
type – have a great deal in common. These common properties, most of which have been
touched on in this chapter, are not usually given prominence. Books tend to concentrate on the
diVerences between types of motors, and manufacturers are usually interested in promoting the
virtues of their particular motor at the expense of the competition. This divisive emphasis causes
the underlying unity to be obscured, leaving users with little opportunity to absorb the sort of
knowledge which will equip them to make informed
judgements.
The most useful ideas worth bearing in mind are therefore given below, with brief notes
accompanying each. Experience indicates that users who have these basic ideas Wrmly in mind
will find themselves able to understand why one motor seems better than another, and will feel
much more conWdent when faced with the diYcult task of weighing the
pros and cons of competing types.
Operating temperature and cooling
The cooling arrangement is the single most important factor in determining the output from any
given motor. Any motor will give out more power if its electric circuit is worked harder (i.e. if
the current is allowed to increase). The limiting factor is normally the allowable temperature rise
of the windings, which depends on the class of insulation.
For class F insulation (the most widely used) the permissible temperature rise is 100 K, whereas
for class H it is 125 K. Thus if the cooling remains the same, more output can be obtained simply
by using the higher-grade insulation. Alternatively, with a given insulation the output can be
increased if the cooling system is improved. A throughventilated motor, for example, might give
perhaps twice the output power of an otherwise identical but totally enclosed machine. Torque
per unit volume For motors with similar cooling systems, the rated torque is approximately
proportional to the rotor volume, which in turn is roughly
proportional to the overall motor volume. This stems from the fact that for a given cooling
arrangement, the speciWc and magnetic loadings of machines of diVerent types will be more or
less the same. The torque per unit length therefore depends Wrst and foremost on the square of
the diameter, so motors of roughly the same diameter and length can be expected to produce
roughly the same torque. Power per unit volume – importance of speed
Output power per unit volume is directly proportional to speed. Low-speed motors are
unattractive because they are large, and therefore expensive. It is usually much better to use a
high-speed motor with a mechanical speed reduction. For example, a direct drive motor for a
portable electric screw driver would be an absurd proposition. Size effects – specific torque and
efficiency
Large motors have a higher speciWc torque (torque per unit volume) and are more eYcient than
small ones. In large motors the speciWc electric loading is normally much higher
than in small ones, and the speciWc magnetic loading is somewhat higher. These two factors
combine to give the higher speciWc torque. Very small motors are inherently very ineYcient
(e.g. 1% in a wristwatch), whereas motors of over say 100 kW have eYciencies above 95%.
The reasons for this scale eVect are complex, but stem from the fact that the resistance volt-drop
term can be made relatively small in large electromagnetic devices, whereas in small ones the
resistance becomes the dominant term. Efficiency and speed The eYciency of a motor improves
with speed.
For a given torque, power output rises in direct proportion to speed, while electrical losses are –
broadly speaking – constant. Under these conditions, eYciency rises with speed.
Rated voltage
A motor can be provided to suit any voltage. Within limits it is always possible to rewind a
motor for a diVerent voltage without aVecting its performance. A 200 V, 10 A motor could
be rewound for 100 V, 20 A simply by using half as many turns per coil of wire having twice the
cross-sectional area. The total amounts of active material, and hence the performance, would be
the same. Short-term overload Most motors can be overloaded for short periods without damage.
The continuous electric loading (i.e. the current) cannot be exceeded
without damaging the insulation, but if the motor has been running with reduced current for
some time, it is permissible for the current (and hence the torque) to be much greater than normal
for a short period of time. The principal factors which inXuence the magnitude and duration of
the permissible overload are the thermal time-constant (which governs the rate of rise of
temperature) and the previous pattern of operation. Thermal time constants range from a few
seconds for small motors to many minutes or even hours for large ones. Operating patterns are
obviously very variable, so rather than rely on a particular pattern being followed, it is usual for
motors to be provided with overtemperature protective devices (e.g. thermistors) which trigger
an alarm and/or trip the supply if the safe temperature is exceeded.
Shaft
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A shaft is a rotating machine element, usually circular in cross section, which is used
to transmit power from one part to another, or from a machine which produces power to a
machine which absorbs power.[1] The various members such as pulleys and gears are mounted on
it.

Shaft animation

Types
They are mainly classified into two types.

 Transmission shafts are used to transmit power between the source and the machine
absorbing power; e.g. counter shafts and line shafts.
 Machine shafts are the integral part of the machine itself; e.g. crankshaft.

Materials
The material used for ordinary shafts is mild steel. When high strength is required, an alloy
steel such as nickel, nickel-chromium or chromium-vanadium steel is used.

Shafts are generally formed by hot rolling and finished to size by cold
drawing or turning and grinding.

Standard sizes
Source:[2]

Machine shafts

 Up to 25 mm steps of 0.5 mm

Transmission shafts

 25 mm to 60 mm with 5 mm steps
 60 mm to 110 mm with 10 mm steps
 110 mm to 140 mm with 15 mm steps
 140 mm to 500 mm with 20 mm steps

The standard lengths of the shafts are 5 m, 6 m and 7 m.

Stresses
The following stresses are induced in the shafts.

1. Shear stresses due to the transmission of torque (due to torsional load).

2. Bending stresses (tensile or compressive) due to the forces acting upon the machine
elements like gears and pulleys as well as the self weight of the shaft.
3. Stresses due to combined torsional and bending loads.
Design stresses
The maximum permissible (design) stresses in bending (tension or compression) may be taken
as:

1. 112 N/mm2 for shafts with allowance for keyways.

2. 84 N/mm2 for shafts without allowance for keyways.

The maximum permissible (design) shear stresses may be taken as:

1. 56 N/mm2 for shafts with allowance for keyways.

2. 42 N/mm2 for shafts without allowance for keyways.
 CHAPTER-4
WORKING PRINCIPLE

The abrasive belt is used to grind the material. This abrasive belt is rotated by the single
phase induction motor. In our project consist of end bearings with bearing cap, roller wheel,
shaft, single phase induction motor and abrasive belt. This whole arrangement is fixed on the
frame structure where the component rests.

The roller wheel is mounted on the two end bearings with bearing cap by suitable
arrangement. There are two roller wheel is used in our project to rotate the abrasive belt. One
side of the roller wheel shaft, one v-pulley is coupled by the suitable arrangement. The single
phase induction motor with V-pulley arrangement is used to rotate the abrasive belt through the
belt drive mechanism.
 CHAPTER-5
DESIGN AND DRAWINGS
 CHAPTER-6

LIST OF MATERIALS

Sl.No. PARTS Qty. Material

i. AC Motor 1 Electricals

ii. Belt 1 Rubber

iii. Pulley 1 Plastic

iv. Shaft 1 Cast Iron

v Bearings 4 Steel

vi Abrasive Filter 1 Abrasive

Sheet

vii Frame 1 Mild Steel

 CHAPTER-7

COST ESTIMATION

MATERIAL COST:

Sl.No. PARTS Qty. Material Amount (Rs)

i. AC Motor 1 Electricals

ii. Belt 1 Rubber

iii. Pulley 1 Plastic

iv. Shaft 1 Cast Iron

v Bearings 4 Steel

vi Abrasive Filter 1 Abrasive

Sheet

vii Frame 1 Mild Steel

Total = Rs.
2. LABOUR COST

LATHE, DRILLING, WELDING, GRINDING, POWER HACKSAW, GAS CUTTING:

Cost = 1500/-

3. OVERHEAD CHARGES

The overhead charges are arrived by “Manufacturing cost”

Manufacturing Cost = Material Cost + Labour cost

= +1500
=

Overhead Charges = 20% of the manufacturing cost

=
TOTAL COST

Total cost = Material Cost + Labour cost + Overhead Charges

=
= Rs

Total cost for this project = Rs.

 CHAPTER-8

APPLICATIONS, ADVANTAES AND DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES

1. The machine is compact and rigid in size.

2. Maintenance is less.
3. It can be used on any place of small grinding application
4. By varying the pulley diameter the speed of the abrasive belt to be changed.

DISADVANTAGES

1. The abrasive belt should be changeable one for different material. This process
takes more time.
APPLICATIONS
1. Grinding outside the job in any size of body can be done.
2. As the feed is given automatic, 0.8 micron finish may be achieved.
3. By changing the grades of abrasive belt grinding it can be used to grind
the carbon steel, Alloy steel and stainless steel etc.

CHAPTER-9
CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PHOTOGRAPHY