Transition Education

Transition
Transition
Facilitating the
Postschool Adjustment of
Students with Disabilities
Edward M. Levinson
First published 1998 by Westview Press
Published 2018 by Routledge

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Levinson, Edward M., 1952-
Transition : facilitating the postschool adjustment of students
with disabilities I Edward M. Levinson.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Handicapped youth—Services for—United States. 2. Handicapped
youth—Vocational education—United States. 3. Vocational guidance
for the handicapped—United States. 4. School-to-work transition—
United States. I. Title.
HV1569.3.Y68U9 1998
362.4′048′08350973—dc21 97-47025
CIP
ISBN 13: 978-0-367-21207-0 (hbk)

Contents
1 Introduction to Transition 1
Definitions of Transition, 2
What Is Meant by "Post-School Activities"? 4
What Is Meant by "Coordinated Set of Activities"? 5
What Is Meant by "Outcome-Oriented Process"? 5
What Activities Are to Be Considered
Part of Transition? 5
When Must Services Be Provided? 5
Who Determines What Services Are Needed? 5
Where Are Transition Services Provided? 6
Transdisciplinary Transition Model, 7
Career Development Theory, 11
Applying Career Development Theory to
Transdisciplinary Transition Planning, 15
Who Are "Individuals with Disabilities"?
Definitions of Disability Categories, 18
Historical Trends of Individuals with Disabilities:
Unemployment and Underemployment, 23
Legislative Initiatives, 27
Summary,29
References, 30
2 Assessing Individual Student Needs 35

A Multitrait, Multimethod Approach to
Multifactored Assessment, 36
Other Approaches to Assessment, 37
Assumptions Underlying Assessment, 42
Situational Factors That Influence
Assessment Results, 45
Reliability and Validity, 46
Evaluating Tests, 48
Assessment Techniques, 49
Areas to Be Assessed for Transition Planning, 53
v
vi Contents
Structuring Assessments for Transition Planning, 60

Summary,62
References, 63
3 Transition Planning 65
Systemic Versus Individual Transition Planning, 65
Steps in Systemic Transition Program Development
and Implementation, 66
Considerations in Program Model Development, 71
Individual Transition Planning, 75
Individual Education and Transition Plan Development, 76
Personal Attitudes and Values in the Planning Process, 77
Summary, 79
References, 79
4 Training 81
Principles of Effective Training, 81
Academic Skills, 84
Vocational Skills, 88
Career Development and Education, 92
Life Skills, 106
Summary, 109
References, 110
5 Placement 114
Issues in Job Placement, 114
Employment()ptions, 119
Issues in Residential Placement, 123
Residential Living ()ptions, 126
Issues in Postsecondary Training Placements, 129
Postsecondary Training ()ptions, 131
Summary, 134
References, 134
6 Roles for Professionals, Families, and Agencies 136

Vocational and Career Development Theory:
A Guide to Role Definition, 137
Roles for School Personnel, 139
Adult Service Agencies, 150
Parental Involvement, 153
Student Involvement, 159
Contents vii
Summary, 161
References, 162
7 Model Transition Programs 165

Characteristics of Successful Transition Programs, 165
Generic Transition Models, 169
Model Transition Programs, 172
Summary, 183
References, 183
Index 187
1
Introduction to Transition
In the past several years, schools have increasingly focused upon provid-
ing students with the services and skills they need in order to obtain and
maintain employment and to function effectively and independently in
the community. More often than not, this effort has been focused upon
students with disabilities, because those students have historically had
greater difficulty achieving such goals once they leave school. Though this
effort has been termed transition, the same term has been used to refer to
different processes within the school environment. Recently, I was teach-
ing a doctoral seminar in school psychology. One of the students asked if
she could make her required presentation on the topic of transition. I was
thrilled; however, my attempts to provide the student with needed infor-
mation were met with quizzical looks and blank stares. 'What does all
this have to do with preschool assessment and kindergarten transition
programs?" she asked. Slightly embarrassed, I explained that I misunder-
stood her topic, took back the reference materials I had provided to her,
explained that the term transition meant different things to different peo-
ple, and told her that her topic was nonetheless acceptable.
Though the term transition has been used to refer to different processes
within the educational environment (for example, it has been used to de-
scribe movement from preschool to kindergarten and from elementary
school to junior high school), for the purposes of this book, transition will
be used solely to describe the process of facilitating the postschool adjust-
ment of students, particularly students with disabilities. I define
postschool adjustment broadly to include adjustment to work, leisure,
and independent functioning in the community.
Appropriately, this chapter begins with a review of the more promi-
nent definitions of transition that appear in the literature. I highlight a
transdisciplinary transition model, which I advocate. I also discuss the
linkage between transition and career development and include a brief
review of career development theory within the context of the model's
discussion. This is followed by a discussion of the characteristics of "indi-
1
2 Introduction to Transition
viduals with disabilities," a review of the unemployment and underem-

ployment rates that have historically confronted these individuals, and a
brief review of the federal legislation that has been passed to facilitate
transition.
Definitions of Transition
Wehman, Kregel, and Barcus (1985) offered the following definition of
vocational transition:
Vocational transition is a carefully planned process, which may be initiated

either by school personnel or by adult service providers, to establish and im-
plement a plan for either employment or additional vocational training of a
handicapped student who will graduate or leave school in three to five
years; such a process must involve special educators, parents and/ or the
student, an adult service system representative, and possibly an employer.
This definition clearly suggests that transition efforts must involve a

variety of school and community personnel and must include the parents
of the students or the students themselves. Moreover, the definition sug-
gests that transition is a planned and systematic process that occurs well
before the student is eligible to leave school.
Although the definition provided by Wehman, Kregel, and Barcus
(1985) emphasizes school-to-work transition, many transition specialists
argue that transition programs must focus upon community adjustment
and other aspects of adult life as well. In the landmark document
"OSERS Programming for the Transition of Youth with Disabilities:
Bridges from School to Working Life," Madeline Will of the Office of Spe-
cial Education and Rehabilitative Services defined transition as follows:
The transition from school to working life is an outcome oriented process en-
compassing a broad array of services and experiences that lead to employ-
ment. Transition is a period that includes high school, the point of graduation,
additional postsecondary education or adult services, and the initial years of
employment. Transition is a bridge between the security and structure offered
by the school and the opportunities and risks of adult life. Any bridge requires
both a solid span and a secure foundation at either end. The transition from
school to work and adult life requires sound preparation in the secondary
school, adequate support at the point of school leaving, and secure opportuni-
ties and services, if needed, in adult situations. (Will, 1984; p. 10)
More recently, the following definition of transition was proposed by

the Division on Career Development and Transition of the Council for
Exceptional Children:
Introduction to Transition 3
Transition refers to a change in status from behaving primarily as a student to

assuming emergent adult roles in the community. These roles include em-
ployment, participating in post-secondary education, maintaining a home, be-
coming appropriately involved in the community, and experiencing satisfac-
tory personal and social relationships. The process of enhancing transition
involves the participation and coordination of school programs, adult agency
services, and natural supports within the community. The foundations for
transition should be laid during the elementary and middle school years,
guided by the broad concept of career development. Transition planning
should begin no later than age 14, and students should be encouraged, to the
full extent of their capabilities, to assume a maximum amount of responsibil-
ity for such planning. (The OCDT Position on Transition, Halpern, 1994)
In October 1990, Congress enacted the Education of the Handicapped

Act Amendments of 1990 (Public Law 101--476), an amendment of Public
Law 94-142, the Education of the Handicapped Act (EHA). Under the
new law, the name EHA was changed to the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA). Though I discuss this legislation again later in this
chapter, IDEA includes a definition of transition that is currently the basis
for many school-based transition programs. Section 602(a) of IDEA de-
fines transition services as
a coordinated set of activities for a student, designed within an outcome-

oriented process, which promotes movement from school to post-school ac-
tivities, including post-secondary education, vocational training, integrated
employment (including supported employment), continuing and adult edu-
cation, adult services, independent living, or community participation. The
coordinated set of activities shall be based upon the individual student's
needs, taking into account the student's preferences and interests, and shall
include instruction, community experiences, the development of employ-
ment and other post-school adult living objectives, and, if appropriate, ac-
quisition of daily living skills and functional vocational evaluation. (Educa-
tion of the Handicapped Act Amendments of 1990, Public Law 101-476,
Section 602(a) [20 U.S.C. 1401(a)]).
Public Law 101--476 requires that a student's Individual Education

Plan (IEP) address the issue of transition and requires that transition
planning be initiated by at least age sixteen. Specifically, IDEA lists the
following additional requirements for the IEP:
(D) a statement of needed transition services for students beginning no later

than age 16 and annually thereafter (and, when determined appropriate for
the individual, beginning at age 14 or younger), including when appropri-
ate, a statement of the interagency responsibilities or linkages (or both) be-
fore the student leaves the school setting,
(F) in the case where a participating agency, other than the educational
agency, fails to provide the agreed upon services, the educational agency
shall reconvene the IEP team to identify alternative strategies to meet the
transition objectives.
Additionally, the law specifies that if the IEP team determines that ser-
vices are not needed in one or more of the areas specified in the legisla-
tion, the IEP must include a statement to that effect and the basis upon
which the determination was made.
In June 1997, President Clinton signed new amendments to IDEA
(Public Law 105-17) that made subtle but substantive changes to the law
(deFur and Patton, in press). Those changes include the following:
• "Related services" were added to the list of required transition

services.
• Students with disabilities are to participate in statewide testing.
• Functional behavior assessment is required.
• Increasing student self-determination is added as a goal of
transition.
• Transition planning is to begin at age fourteen.
The latter change is primarily a function of the high dropout rate

among students with disabilities. As deFur and Patton (in press) suggest,
if such excessive dropout rates are to be reversed, transition planning
must be initiated prior to age sixteen (the previous requirement), in that
many students have already dropped out of school by that age. Specifi-
cally, the legislation states: "(I) beginning at age 14, and updated annu-
ally, a statement of the transition service needs of the child under the ap-
plicable components of the child's IEP that focuses on the child's courses
of study (such as participation in advanced placement courses or a voca-
tional education program)." (section 614(d)(l)(A)(vii)
To better understand the transition process as specified by the law, it is
helpful to define and explain some of the terminology used in the legisla-
tion. Hence, the following section briefly describes what is meant by the
terminology used in Public Law 101-476.
What Is Meant by "Post-School Activities"?

The legislation includes the following in its description of "post-school
activities": postsecondary education, vocational training, integrated em-
ployment (including supported employment), continuing and adult edu-
cation, adult services, independent living, and community participation.
Clearly, then, transition is meant to address not just employment needs,

but future needs within the broader focus of life within the community.
What Is Meant by "Coordinated Set of Activities"?

According to federal regulations, the term coordinated set of activities
means the linkage between the activities that comprise transition services
and the relationships among agencies involved in the provision of transi-
tion services to a student. Because the transition process necessarily in-
volves different professionals from different agencies in the community,
the regulations require that activities and services be complimentary and
nonduplicating in nature and that agencies and professionals be aware of
what their and others' responsibilities are.
What Is Meant by "Outcome-Oriented Process"?

The term outcome in outcome-oriented process describes the major goals and
objectives of the transition process. As specified by the legislation, those
are employment, postsecondary education, vocational training, continu-
ing and adult education, adult services, independent living, and commu-
nity participation.
What Activities Are to Be Considered Part of Transition?

The legislation states that the coordinated set of activities must include
instruction, community experiences, the development of employment
and other postschool adult living objectives, and, if appropriate, acquisi-
tion of daily living skills and functional evaluation. Each of those areas
must be addressed in a student's IEP. Moreover, specific objectives must
be established for each student in each of those areas, based upon the in-
dividual needs of the particular student.
When Must Services Be Provided?

Services must be provided to students no later than age fourteen.
Who Determines What Services Are Needed?

The law states that the following individuals must be involved in transi-
tion planning: the student, the student's teacher(s), a representative of
the school, the parents, and representatives from outside agencies that
will be involved in planning or providing services needed by the individ-
ual student.
How Does the Team Detennine What Services Are Needed?

IDEA does not specifically identify how the IEP team determines what
services are needed by a particular student. Since transition is a compo-
nent of the IEP, however, it naturally follows that the process used to
identify other educational or related services needed by students with
disabilities (within the context of IEP development) would apply. Hence,
needed services would be identified based upon a comprehensive assess-
ment of the individual student. This assessment would focus upon, but
not be limited to, issues such as employment, postsecondary education,
adult services, independent living, and community functioning and
would be designed to answer the following questions:
• What competencies and knowledge does the student need to

successfully move into employment, postsecondary education,
and so forth?
• What skills and knowledge does the student presently possess in
each of those areas?
• What skills and knowledge does the student still need to acquire
in each of those areas?
Who Provides the Services?

One public agency, typically the school, is primarily responsible for the
provision of transition services, though the law is clear in indicating that
other community agencies need to be involved as well. According to the
law, the school's responsibilities in service provision must be clearly
stated in the IEP. The responsibilities of the other involved agencies must
also be stated in the IEP. Linkages among participating agencies (that is,
who provides what service, when services are to be provided, and to
whom services are to be provided) should be agreed upon by agencies
beforehand and formalized in cooperative interagency agreements.
Where Are Transition Services Provided?

Though the legislation does not specifically mention where transition
services are to be provided, it infers that they should be provided in a va-
riety of settings including in the school, in the community, on the job, and
in the residence.
In particular, it is important to note that the legislation's definition of
transition as well as other definitions suggest that the transition process
is "transdisciplinary" in nature. This term implies that transition plan-
ning must include professionals from agencies outside of the schools

who have expertise in areas other than education (Levinson, 1993). That
is, planning must occur jointly among professionals from such fields as
education, mental health, social services, and vocational rehabilitation.
Though educators may carry the major burden of transition planning (as
a result of IDEA), educators must involve professionals from the fields
previously mentioned because those are the agencies that are primarily
responsible for providing services to individuals with disabilities once
they leave the school environment. It is unlikely that transition planning
that fails to include professionals from those agencies will be successful.
Transdisciplinary Transition Model

The transdisciplinary transition model (TTM), which I advocate, is de-
picted in Table 1.1. The term transdisciplinary is used instead of multidisci-
plinary to depict the need to involve professionals "across disciplines" in
the transition process. Traditionally, the term multidisciplinary has been
used in education to depict the need to involve educators from different
fields within education in a particular process. For example, "multidisci-
plinary teams" responsible for identifying students with disabilities are
often made up of school psychologists, teachers, guidance counselors,
school nurses, and school administrators, all of whom are educational
personnel based in schools. Those multidisciplinary teams do not typi-
cally include professionals from outside the schools (they include profes-
sionals from multiple disciplines within schools). As Table 1.1 indicates,
the model encompasses services from a variety of community agencies in
addition to the schools and consists of the following phases: assessment,
planning, training, placement, and follow-up. The reader should note
that those phases are not conceptualized as separate processes, each of
which occurs at only one distinct point in time. Rather they are consid-
ered to be ongoing interacting processes that affect each other. Moreover,
each phase represents a process that may occur repeatedly over a period
of time. For example, a student may be assessed as having interest and
aptitude in automotive mechanics, and a plan may be developed and
training initiated to prepare the student for placement in an automotive
mechanics training program. During the course of training, however, the
student's interests may change or the student may demonstrate limita-
tions that render placement in an automotive mechanics program inap-
propriate. That may require a reassessment of the student and develop-
ment of a new plan. The entire process may be repeated at different
points during the school years. For example, it may occur when the team
is considering placement in a vocational program, or later, when they are
considering placement in a job or a residence.
Table 1.1 Components of Transition Planning

Assessment Planning
Objectives
Needs in Utilizing By in By
Intellectual/ Tests School Employment School
Cognitive Psychologist Area Personnel
Area Interviews
Teachers Residential Vocational
Educational/ Observation Living Area Rehabilitation
Academic Counselors Personnel
Area Rating Community
Scales Vocational Functioning Mental
Social Evaluators Area Health/Mental
Interpersonal Work Retardation
Area Samples Social Personnel
Workers
Occupational/ Situational Social Service
Vocational Assessment Speech Agency Personnel
Area Therapists
Employers
Independent School
Living Area Nurses Parents
Physical/ Occupational/ Students

Sensory Area Physical
Therapists
(continues)
Although all the phases will be discussed in more detail in subsequent

chapters, a brief review of each phase follows.
1: Assessment: An initial first step in transition planning is an assess-

ment of a student's skills and individual needs. As Table 1.1 suggests, a
variety of domains need to be assessed, including the following: intellec-
tual/ cognitive, educational/ academic, social/ interpersonal, occupa-
tional/ vocational, independent living, and physical/ sensory. Different
assessment approaches and techniques can be utilized to gather informa-
tion about a student, different domains may be targeted for assessment at
different points in the student's educational career, and the purposes of
assessment may vary from one assessment to another. Assessment
should not be the responsibility of one professional but instead should be
conducted by a team of professionals, each of whom is responsible for
gathering specific information about the student. Professionals involved
in this process may be employed by the schools or by community agen-
cies. The process by which the team should conduct the assessment is
Table 1.1 (continued)

Training Placement Follow-up
Vocationally Residentially
Skills in In By in in By
Intellectual/ School Teachers Competitive Independent School
Cognitive Setting Employment Living in Personnel
Area School • Single-
Residential Psychologist Supported Family Vocational Provide
Educational/ Setting Employment Home Rehabilitation Needed
Academic Vocational Personnel Support
Area Community Rehabilitation Sheltered • Group Services
Setting Counselors Employment Home Mental
Social/ Health/ Evaluate
Interpersonal Social Supported Mental Adequacy
Area Workers Living in Retardation of Services
• Family's Personnel Provided
Occupational/ Job Home
Vocational Coaches • Group Social
Area Home Service
Employers Agency
Independent Institutional Personnel
Living Area Parents Living in
• Nursing Parents
Physical/ Speech Home
Sensory Therapists • Hospital
Area
Occupational/
Physical
Therapists
discussed more fully in Chapter 2. The roles of individual team members

in assessment and all other phases of transition is discussed in Chapter 6.
2: Planning: Following a thorough assessment of the student's individ-
ual needs and skills, the information gathered is used by the transdisci-
plinary transition team to develop a transition plan to be included in the
student's IEP. This plan should specify goals and objectives regarding
employment, residential living, and community functioning and should
identify which professionals and agencies are responsible for providing
needed services. Additionally, a time frame for service provision should
be included. The planning phase is discussed in more detail in Chapter 3.
3: Training: Following the development of a transition plan as part of
the student's IEP, instruction and training are initiated. In addition to
school personnel, professionals from a variety of agencies may be in-
volved in training the student. Additionally, this training may take place
in a variety of settings, including the school, the workplace, the commu-
nity, and the residence. The training phase is discussed in more detail in
Chapter4.
4: Placement: Once instruction and training have been completed, the

student is ready to be placed in a job, in a residence, and/ or in a postsec-
ondary educational setting for additional training. A variety of employ-
ment, residential living, and postsecondary placement options exist for
students, and the appropriateness of any one option for a student de-
pends upon his or her level of functioning. Employment options include
competitive employment, supported employment, and sheltered em-
ployment. Residential living options include independent living, sup-
ported living, and institutional living. Postsecondary educational options
include community colleges, four-year colleges and universities, private
technical and trade schools, and so forth. Chapter 5 includes a discussion
of those options, as well as a discussion of placement issues.
5: Follow-up: The transdisciplinary transition model specifies that dur-
ing the final phase an evaluation must be made of the degree to which a
student is functioning successfully in various postschool settings. Termi-
nation of some support services, initiation of other services, and/ or a
change of placement may result from this follow-up evaluation. Issues
associated with conducting such a follow-up evaluation are discussed
more fully in Chapter 5.
The model also assumes that transition is part of the broader phenom-
enon of career development. That is, rather than conceptualizing transi-
tion planning as a separate process that is initiated at age fourteen or six-
teen, the model conceptualizes transition planning as a natural part of
the lifelong process of career development and career planning. That is,
the knowledge and skills individuals need to make a successful transi-
tion from school to work and community living begin to develop at birth
and continue throughout the life span. Hence, issues like understanding
oneself and getting along with others, which should be addressed as
early as the elementary school years, ultimately affect transition. Hence,
planning for a student's successful transition actually begins in elemen-
tary school and continues throughout his or her educational career.
Hence, the model conceptualizes transition planning as an ongoing
process that is inextricably linked to career development and begins the
moment a student sets foot in school.
As Szymanski (1994) rightly notes, our current knowledge of career de-
velopment of individuals with disabilities clearly suggests that transition
services should incorporate a longitudinal, career-oriented focus, rather
than a single-time, occupational-choice perspective. Moreover, she argues
that a major goal of transition planning should be to empower individuals.
That is, individuals need to be provided with the knowledge and skills nec-
essary to negotiate the developmental tasks that confront them throughout
the life span, not just be assisted in making the decisions that allow them to
move successfully from the school environment to the community at large

at the point of school exiting. While the latter is important, focusing solely
on it as an objective may foster dependency and render individuals unpre-
pared to deal with similar developmental issues later in their lives. Conse-
quently, it is important for professionals involved in transition planning to
understand career development theory and to use it as a guide when estalr
lishing transition objectives for students at various points in their educa-
tional careers. The following section briefly discusses career development
theory. That section is followed by an application of career development
theory to the transdisciplinary transition planning model I advocate.
Career Development Theory

Career development has been defined as "the total constellation of psy-
chological, sociological, educational, physical, economic, and chance fac-
tors that combine to shape the career of any individual over the lifespan"
(Sears, 1982). Developmental theories assume that the choice of a career
is an orderly and rather predictable process that consists of a series of
well-defined and hierarchical stages. Those stages identify the issues,
roles, and conflicts that most individuals confront at given points in their
lives and provide a birth-to-death perspective of vocational maturation.
As with other aspects of development, the age and rate at which individ-
uals progress through each of the vocational stages varies. Although vo-
cational development theorists associate age ranges with the stages, one
must interpret those age ranges cautiously and not rigidly. Just as some
children begin to walk at ten months and others at thirteen months, a
normal variability is inherent in the age ranges associated with the stages
of vocational development. The ages associated with the stages, however,
do provide some guidelines that can be used to assess whether a student
is progressing at an average rate in his or her vocational development
and what career-related goals and objectives might be appropriate to set
for individuals at varying points in their educational careers. As such,
professionals can use career development theory as a guide when estab-
lishing transition objectives for individuals throughout the school years.
As Isaacson (1986) has suggested, probably no one has written as much
about, or had as much influence on, the field of vocational development
as has Donald Super. Super has devoted almost fifty years to the study of
vocational development (Super, 1942) and is one of the most widely
known and respected career development theorists in the world. He first
proposed his theory in a relatively complete form in 1953 and has been
continually modifying it ever since.
Super proposed the existence of five major stages: growth, exploration,
establishment, maintenance, and decline. Each of those major stages is
composed of several substages, and each stage is associated with several

developmental tasks. Figure 1.1 summarizes those stages, substages, and
developmental tasks. Although only two major stages generally occur
during the traditional school years (growth and exploration), I have
listed and summarized all the stages in keeping with the birth-to-death
perspective inherent in developmental theory. Because a major goal of
transition is to provide individuals with the knowledge and skills they
need to function successfully in society, recognition of the developmental
issues that confront individuals years after they leave school is impor-
tant. That is, transition services not only should afford individuals the
ability to successfully negotiate the developmental tasks that confront
them just prior to and just after exiting school, but should empower and
prepare them more generally to negotiate the major developmental is-
sues that confront them throughout life as adults.
The following ten propositions underlie Super's theory:
1. People differ in abilities, interests, and personalities.

2. Each individual is qualified, by virtue of those characteristics,
for a number of occupations.
3. Each of those occupations requires a characteristic pattern of
abilities, interests, and personality traits, with tolerances wide
enough, however, to allow for both some variety of occupations
for each individual and some variety of individuals in each
occupation.
4. Vocational preferences and competencies-the situations in
which people live and work and hence their self-concepts-
change with time and experience, making choice and
adjustment a continual process.
5. The process described in item 4 may be summed up in a series
of life stages characterized as growth, exploration,
establishment, maintenance, and decline. Those stages can be
subdivided into the tentative, transition, and trial phases of the
exploratory stage, and the commitment and stabilization phase
and the advancement phase of the establishment stage.
6. The nature of the career pattern is determined by the
individual's parental socioeconomic level, mental ability, and
personality characteristics and by the opportunities to which he
or she is exposed.
7. Development through the life stages can be guided, partly by
facilitating the process of maturation of abilities and interests
and partly by aiding in reality testing and in development of the
self-concept.
FIGURE 1.1 Super's Stages of Career Development
Stage Growth Exploration Establishment Maintenance Decline
Substage Fantasy Interest Capacity Tentative Transition Trial Commitment Deceleration
and Advancement
Stabilization
Age Range 0-10 11-12 13-14 15-17 18-21 22-24 25-30 31-44 45-64 65-70 71 and on
Primary Tasks Increase self-awareness Explore various vocational Settle and advance within Preserve voca- Cope with declining
and awareness of the options and implement a chosen occupation tional status vocational abilities
world of work vocational choice and gains and begin to adjust
to retirement
Note: From Children's Needs II (p. 537) by G. Bear, K. Menke, and A. Thomas (Eds.), Washington, DC: National Association of School Psycholo-
gists. Copyright 1997 by the National Association of School Psychologists. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
.....
w
8. The process of vocational development is essentially that of

developing and implementing a self-concept; it is a compromise
process in which the self-concept is a product of the interaction
of inherited aptitudes, neural and endocrine makeup, the
opportunity to play various roles, and evaluations of the extent
to which the results of the role-playing meet with the approval
of superiors and fellows.
9. The process of compromise between individual and social
factors, between self-concept and reality, is one of role-playing,
whether the role is played in fantasy, in the counseling
interview, or in real-life activities such as school classes, clubs,
part-time work, and entry-level jobs.
10. Work satisfaction and life satisfaction depend on the extent to
which the individual finds adequate outlets for his or her
abilities, interests, personality traits, and values; satisfaction
depends on establishment in a type of work, a work situation,
and a way of life in which the individual can play the kind of
role that growth and exploratory experiences have led him or
her to consider congenial and appropriate.
Simply put, Super believes that each of us has a relatively unique set of
personality characteristics (interests, abilities, values, attitudes, and so
forth) that qualifies us for a vast array of occupations. Although all occu-
pations require characteristic sets of abilities, interests, and personality
traits, enough variability (tolerance) is inherent in each set of traits to ac-
commodate a variety of kinds of people. Super believes, as do most voca-
tional theorists, that there is no one right occupation for anyone. There are
many right occupations for everyone. The traits that characterize people's
personalities and thereby qualify them for jobs develop as a result of a
progression through the five stages detailed in Figure 1.1 and are influ-
enced by environmental factors like socioeconomic status, parents, other
family members, friends, and schooling.
Super believes that the early years of life are a time of growth during
which people develop the interests, skills, values, and attitudes (including
attitudes about work) that become part of their personalities. The early
years are also the time during which people begin to learn about them-
selves and to develop self-concepts. In adolescence, teens explore and "test
out" their self-concepts via school, leisure, and part-time work experiences.
Self-concept is further refined as a result of those experiences, and eventu-
ally career and leisure activities are chosen in which individuals believe
they can fully implement their self-concepts and experience satisfaction.
Once having selected and entered a career, an individual experiences an
initial "settling in" period during which he or she assesses the job's suit-
ability (that is, the degree to which the job allows the person to fully imple-
ment his or her self-concept). The individual may make several job
changes before he or she stabilizes and feels comfortable and secure in his
or her career choice. Following this stabilization and commitment, the in-
dividual puts effort into "climbing the corporate ladder," so to speak. Ad-
vancement in one's career becomes of paramount importance when people
reach their thirties and forties. This is generally considered to be the time of
peak performance. In their late forties and fifties, individuals, having ac-
complished much in their careers, attempt to preserve their accomplish-
ments in the face of competition from younger, achievement-oriented col-
leagues (those most likely in the advancement stage). When people reach
their sixties, physical and mental skills begin to deteriorate, work activities
change, and individuals begin to look toward nonwork activities for self-
concept implementation and satisfaction. Disengaging from work and ad-
justing to retirement are major developmental tasks during those years.
Applying Career Development Theory to

Transdisciplinary Transition Planning
When one reviews the career developmental objectives that confront in-
dividuals during the school years, several major themes emerge. Career
development is an ongoing process that involves a series of decisions. To
empower individuals and render them capable of making realistic and
informed decisions independently (and hence to help them negotiate the
developmental tasks that confront them throughout life), one must pro-
vide them with opportunities to learn about themselves, learn about the
world of work, and learn how to make decisions in a logical, rational
manner. Hence, improving self-awareness, improving occupational
awareness, and improving decisionmaking abilities should be major ob-
jectives throughout the school years. Figure 1.2 elaborates on those three
major themes and lists specific vocational and career objectives by grade
level. Transition planning through the school years should have the pur-
pose of assisting students in accomplishing those objectives.
The transdisciplinary transition model advocates periodic assessment
of the degree to which students have accomplished those vocational and
career objectives. Based upon that assessment, plans may be developed
that specify activities designed to facilitate accomplishment of the objec-
tives. Whatever training and instruction students need to accomplish
age-appropriate objectives can then be initiated.
Federal regulations governing implementation of Public Law 94-142,
the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (Department of Health,
Education and Welfare, 1977) require that students receiving special educa-
tion services be reevaluated for such services once every three years or
16
FIGURE 1.2 Phases of Career Education
Orientation
Awareness
• Developing a positive self-image
• Understanding self
• Understanding and identifying
• Identifying with workers
with the concept of work
• Acquiring knowledge of
• Increasing knowledge about
workers
workers
• Acquiring interpersonal skills
• Increasing interpersonal skills
K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Exploration
• Clarifying self-concept Preparation
• Assessing responsibility for career • Reality testing of self-concept
planning • Becoming aware of preferred
• Becoming aware of the decision- lifestyle
making process • Increasing knowledge of occu-
• Acquiring a sense of independence pations
• Acquiring knowledge of educa- • Acquiring knowledge of edu-
tional and vocational resources cational and vocational op-
• Increasing knowledge of occupations
tions • Tentatively committing to an
• Formulating tentative career plans occupation
Note: From Children's Needs II (p. 540) by G. Bear, K. Menke, and A. Thomas
(Eds.), Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists. Copyright
1997 by the National Association of School Psychologists. Reprinted by permis-
sion of the publisher.
more frequently if conditions warrant. Purposes of the reevaluation in-

clude determining the student's continuing eligibility for special education
services, assessing student progress, identifying unmet areas of need, and
generating information relevant to the student's future educational pro-
gramming. In that all students with disabilities are required to be re-
assessed once every three years and an Individual Education Plan must be
developed for each student and reviewed and revised annually, assess-
ment, planning, and training for transition can be embedded in the trien-
nial reevaluation and Individual Education Plan development processes.
As an example, consider a student who is initially evaluated and iden-
tified as having a disability in third grade. As part of this initial evalua-
tion, self-awareness and social/ interpersonal skills may be assessed, de-
ficient skills identified, a plan designed to remediate those deficiencies
developed and incorporated in the student's IEP, and training initiated.
Each year, as the student's IEP is reviewed and revised, an informal as-
sessment of the student's progress can be made, plans can be revised,
and training can be redirected if indicated. When the student reaches the
sixth grade and is required to be formally reevaluated, an assessment can
be made of the student's interests and understanding of the world of
work. Based upon this assessment, career exploration activities appropri-
ate for this student can be planned and initiated. Again, an informal as-
sessment of the extent to which the student is gaining an understanding
of careers of interest to him or her can be made in conjunction with the
annual IEP review and revision. Based on this, plans may be altered and
instructional activities changed as indicated. When the student is in the
ninth grade and undergoes another triennial reevaluation, an assessment
can be made of the student's aptitudes, decisionmaking skills, and inde-
pendent living skills. Based upon the assessment, continuing career ex-
ploration activities may be planned, instruction and training in decision-
making or aspects of independent living may be initiated, and placement
in a vocational training program consistent with the student's interests
and aptitudes may be considered. Again, progress can be reassessed and
monitored annually via the IEP and plans and training altered as indi-
cated. Finally, when the student again has a triennial reevaluation in the
twelfth grade, the assessment can focus upon the immediate task of
placement in a job consistent with previous training and in a residence
consistent with the independent living skills acquired by the student.
The previous example is provided simply to illustrate how the trans-
disciplinary transition model may be linked to career development the-
ory and objectives and to the triennial reevaluation and Individual Edu-
cation Plan processes that are mandated by law for students with
disabilities. Additionally, the example illustrates how the model concep-
tualizes transition as an ongoing, longitudinal process rather than a sin-
gle event. Lastly, the example illustrates how the phases of the model (as-
sessment, planning, training, placement, and follow-up) are ongoing and
interactive rather than separate and distinct.
Who Are "Individuals with Disabilities"?

Definitions of Disability Categories
The following sections include reviews of the characteristics of "individ-
uals with disabilities." Included are discussions of the characteristics of
individuals with the following disabilities: learning disabilities, mental
retardation, emotional disturbance, physical impairment, visual impair-
ment, and hearing impairment. These sections are not meant to be ex-
haustive; rather, they are designed to provide the reader with a basic un-
derstanding of the different characteristics possessed by individuals with
disabilities who are often targeted for transition planning in the schools.
Learning Disabilities
Two prominent definitions of learning disability have been proposed. Pub-
lic Law 94-142 defines a specific learning disability as
a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in

understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which may manifest
itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do
mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as perceptual
handicap, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia and develop-
mental aphasia. The term does not include children who have learning
problems which are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor handi-
caps, of mental retardation, or of environmental, cultural or economic disad-
vantage. (Federal Register, 1977, p. 42,478)
The National Joint Committee for Learning Disabilities (Hammill et al.,

1981) defines learning disabilities as
a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in

the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning,
or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual and
presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction. Even though a
learning disability may occur concomitantly with other handicapping con-
ditions (e.g., sensory impairment, mental retardation, social and emotional
disturbance) or environmental influences (e.g., cultural differences, insuffi-
cient/inappropriate instruction, psychogenic factors), it is not the direct re-
sult of these conditions or influences. (p. 336)
As the definitions suggest, learning disabled students generally possess

average to above-average intelligence but demonstrate significantly be-
low-average achievement in specific academic areas. By definition, that
poor academic achievement is not the result of mental retardation, emo-
tional disturbance, environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage,
or physical disabilities such as blindness and deafness. Rather, it is be-
lieved to be the result of a deficit in "one or more of the basic psychologi-
cal processes involved in understanding or in using language." Unfortu-
nately, the identification of learning disabled individuals has been
plagued by several problems, the most basic of which is the lack of uni-
versal agreement over the condition's definition. Almost all of the pro-
posed definitions use terms that are vague and unclear and incorporate
concepts and traits that are difficult to operationalize and almost impos-
sible to measure. For example, professionals disagree about how to ade-
quately determine whether a "significant discrepancy" between ability
and achievement exists, whether it is possible to accurately measure a
"psychological process," and how one can rule out "environmental fac-
tors" as a potential cause of a student's learning difficulties. Those and
other definitional problems have led to inconsistencies in who is and
who is not determined to be learning disabled. As Algozzine and Ys-
seldyke (1983) have demonstrated, students who have been identified
and placed in programs for learning disabled students in the schools are
a heterogeneous group who may be indistinguishable from low-achiev-
ing students who have not been identified and placed in such programs.
As a result, Algozzine and Ysseldyke have argued that no defensible sys-
tem exists for classifying children as learning disabled.
For the reasons cited previously, it is difficult to identify uniform char-
acteristics of this group of students. However, most do possess at least
average intelligence and demonstrate below-average academic skills. In
addition, these students sometimes demonstrate social and interpersonal
skills deficits, short attention spans, and hyperactivity. Several studies
have suggested that learning disabled students demonstrate a slower
rate of career maturity than do non-learning disabled students (Bing-
ham, 1975, 1978, 1980; Kendall, 1980, 1981). Though a recent study sug-
gested no differences between students with and without learning dis-
abilities on a measure of career maturity, students with more-severe
learning disabilities demonstrated a lower level of career maturity than
did students with a mild learning disability or no learning disability
(Ohler, 1994). Additionally, studies have indicated that learning disabled
students are employed in lower-level jobs than are their non-learning
disabled counterparts (Weller and Buchanan, 1983; White et al., 1980) and
are less satisfied with their jobs than are their non-learning disabled
peers (Weller and Buchanan, 1983). Several studies reviewed by Biller
(1987) have suggested that learning disabilities have a negative impact

on educational attainment and that this subsequently influences the
learning disabled student's occupational outcomes.
Mental Retardation
Mental retardation is defined as "significantly below average general in-
tellectual functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive be-
havior, and manifested during the developmental period .... Signifi-
cantly subaverage refers to performance which is two or more standard
deviations from the mean or average of the test" (Grossman, 1983, p. 11).
Relatedly, mentally retarded students often possess a limited attention
span and weak academic, social, and expressive language skills. These
students demonstrate a subaverage rate of learning and tend to have
great difficulty generalizing skills learned in one setting to another, simi-
lar setting.
Mentally retarded students can be classified in several ways. Given
that there exists a continuum of retardation, one must remember that not
all mentally retarded students are the same. The mentally retarded are a
heterogeneous population.
Emotional Disturbance
The definition of emotional disturbance incorporated into Public Law
94-142 (Federal Register, 1977) is as follows:
The term means a condition exhibiting one or more of the following charac-
teristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree, which adversely
affects educational performance; a) an inability to learn which cannot be ex-
plained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors; b) an inability to build or
maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers; c)
inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances; d)
a general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or e) a tendency to
develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school
problems .... The term includes children who are schizophrenic or autistic.
The term does not include children who are socially maladjusted, unless it is
determined that they are seriously emotionally disturbed. (Section 12la.S, p.
42,478)
Among students with disabilities, emotionally disturbed students are

at a particular disadvantage in regard to securing and maintaining long-
term employment. It has been said that individuals lose their jobs not be-
cause of technical incompetence, but because of skill deficiencies within
the affective and social domain (Hooper, 1980). Because emotionally dis-
turbed students by definition lack "an ability to build or maintain satis-

factory interpersonal relationships," display "inappropriate types of be-
havior or feelings under normal circumstances," and display "a general
pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression," their chance of main-
taining employment once it is secured is greatly diminished. The stigma
associated with the label"seriously emotionally disturbed" may in and
of itself be as much of a disability as the condition to which the label ap-
plies. Regardless of the healthy adjustment an emotionally disturbed stu-
dent may have made as a result of treatment, potential employers may
think twice about employing a student who has been so labeled. Data in-
dicate that these students experience elevated dropout rates and employ-
ment rates of between 40 and 50 percent (Gajar, Goodman, and McAfee,
1993; Wehman, 1992).
Just as the identification of learning disabled students has been
plagued by definitional and measurement problems, so too has the iden-
tification of emotional disturbed students. Hollingsworth (1982) has sug-
gested that emotionally disturbed students are students who demon-
strate behavioral or emotional disorders such as noninvolvement or
withdrawal, hyperactivity, emotional outbursts, excessive aggressive-
ness, low frustration tolerance, temper tantrums, and unpredictability. As
Tellefsen (1982) has noted, it is the frequency, intensity, and duration of
those behaviors that set the emotionally disturbed student apart from his
or her peers. Previous research has indicated that emotionally disturbed
students demonstrate delayed vocational development and lower voca-
tional aspirations than do their non-emotionally disturbed peers (Gold-
berg, 1981; Plata, 1981). Though it is clear that these students are in need
of services designed to facilitate transition from school to work, it is
equally clear that priority must often be given first to eliminating the
emotional and behavioral difficulties these students demonstrate.
Though little attention has been focused in the professional literature on
the vocational or transition needs of these students, Levinson (1985) has
described a model that attempts to deal with the emotional, behavioral,
and vocational needs of these students and that can be used by profes-
sionals developing transition programs for emotionally disturbed stu-
dents. The model incorporates a behavioral incentive system, academic
training, vocational training, work adjustment, and counseling. For a
more thorough discussion of the transition needs of seriously emotion-
ally disturbed students, readers are referred to Brandt (1995).
Physically Impaired
Of all the disabilities discussed in this chapter, physical impairment is
probably the most diverse and varied. Members of this group of students
are variously referred to as physically handicapped, physically impaired,

motorically impaired, and orthopedically handicapped. Sometimes these
students are classified as multiply handicapped as well, because motor
impairments rarely occur in isolation from other disabilities (Chris-
tensen, 1990). Concurrent language and communication problems, sen-
sory difficulties, convulsive disorders, and cognitive deficits are fre-
quently present in students with physical disabilities.
Bettmann (1978) defines orthopedic handicaps as comprising "all
anatomical and functional abnormalities of the musculoskeletal system,
either manifest at birth, or developing during the growth period (ages 1
to 18), or during the active vocational life (ages 19 to 70)" (p. 503). This
population includes those with rheumatoid arthritis, cerebral palsy, mus-
cular dystrophy, spinal cord injuries, and spina bifida.
Visually Impaired
Visually impaired students are those whose visual impairments, even
with correction, adversely affect their educational performance. The term
includes both partially sighted and blind students. A legally blind stu-
dent is one who has a central vision acuity of 20/200 or less in the better
eye after correction, while a partially sighted student is one who has vi-
sual acuity greater than 20/200 but not greater than 20/70 in the better
eye with correction (Kirk, 1982).
The visually impaired often have vocational aspirations and expecta-
tions that are different from those of people who are not visually im-
paired. Often, visually impaired students do not learn important life
skills due to a lack of community life experiences (such as part-time
work). This has a detrimental impact on their overall vocational function-
ing (Scholl, 1973; Brolin and Gysbers, 1979). Kirchner and Peterson (1979)
have suggested that visually impaired individuals suffer from poor labor
market participation as a result of receiving discouragement from par-
ents, teachers, and counselors, who similarly hold low vocational expec-
tations for those students. Traditionally, guidance programs have sought
to place visually impaired students in low-level and stereotypical occu-
pations (Sinick, 1979; White et al., 1979).
Hearing Impaired
Students whose hearing loss in their better ear exceeds 70 decibels are
classified as deaf, whereas those whose hearing loss ranges from 35 to 70
decibels in their better ear are classified as hearing impaired or hard of
hearing (Vess and Douglas, 1990). Deaf and hearing impaired individuals
have traditionally worked in menial, low-paying jobs, that have little re-
lationship to the training they received, often because both they and oth-
ers underestimate their true vocational potential (Blevins, 1982; Scorzelli
and Scorzelli, 1982). Data indicate that many deaf workers have histori-
cally been employed in printing, baking, dry cleaning, tailoring, and
shoemaking (Blevins, 1982; Scorzelli and Scorzelli, 1982).
Because of their hearing impairment, these students often do not de-
velop language, communication, social, and academic skills at the same
rate as their non-hearing impaired peers. However, hearing impaired
and deaf students enter postsecondary education at about the same rate
as hearing students, and 65 percent of the graduates of Gallaudet College
attend graduate schools with hearing students (Moores, 1987). Vocational
development of these students also lags in comparison to that of the
non-hearing impaired. As Blevins (1982) has suggested, deaf and hearing
impaired students frequently lose jobs because they have problems with
interpersonal relationships, not because they lack specific work skills.
Historical Trends of Individuals with Disabilities:

Unemployment and Underemployment
In an effort to facilitate successful transition from school to work and
community living for individuals with disabilities, federal and state gov-
ernments are making the issue of transition a priority for all individuals
with disabilities. Unfortunately, evidence suggests that until recently, lit-
tle effort has gone into postschool planning for students with disabilities.
As Halloran (1989) has said:
Some students reach the end of their public school experience poorly pre-
pared for competitive employment or independent living. As students ap-
proach the end of their formal schooling we frequently ask what they will be
doing after school ends. Unfortunately, when we look back to determine
what preparations have been made for students to live and work in our
communities we often see a series of disjointed efforts lacking a focus on
skills necessary to confront the new expectations of adult life (p. xiii).
The school experience assumes an important role in determining the

extent to which individuals acquire the skills necessary to make a posi-
tive adjustment to work. Is Halloran (1989) correct, though, when he in-
fers that historically, students have left school unprepared to live and
work in our communities? Have schools historically done an inadequate
job of providing students with the skills they need to secure and main-
tain satisfying and productive employment and to function indepen-
dently in the community once they leave the school environment? Data
gathered during the last fifteen to twenty years suggest that the answer
to those questions is, unfortunately, yes.
Chapman and Katz (1983) found that the majority of the students they
surveyed believed that their high school vocational planning assistance
was inadequate. Similarly, Johnson, Baughman, and O'Malley (1982)
found that two-thirds of the high school seniors surveyed reported that
they wanted more vocational planning assistance than had been pro-
vided. Similar attitudes have been expressed by parents. A 1976 Gallup
poll (Gallup, 1976) found that 80 percent of adults surveyed believed that
high schools should place greater emphasis on vocational planning, and
52 percent of those surveyed believed that more vocational and career as-
sistance should be provided to students in elementary school.
Among the school-age population, students with disabilities are at a
particular disadvantage in terms of securing and maintaining satisfying
and productive employment following the completion of school. Histori-
cally, individuals with disabilities have been overrepresented in this
country's unemployment and underemployment rates (Bell and
Burgdorf, 1983; Bowe, 1980). Stark et al. (1982) cite U.S. Department of
Labor statistics that indicate that 87 percent of the approximately 6 mil-
lion mentally retarded individuals in this country have the potential to
be employed in the competitive job market; however, the percentage of
mentally retarded individuals who are actually employed is considerably
lower. Levitan and Taggart (1977) noted that 40 percent of all adults with
disabilities are employed, compared with 74 percent of the nondisabled
population.
Additional published reports offer similar statistics. Batsche (1982) es-
timated that only two-fifths of adults with mental and physical disabili-
ties are employed during a typical year as compared with three-fourths
of persons without disabilities and that out of every hundred individuals
with disabilities, only twenty-five are fully employed, while forty are un-
employed, twenty-five are on welfare, and ten are institutionalized or are
idle. Poplin (1981) noted that out of the 30 million people with disabilities
in this country, only 4.1 million are employed, and that 85 percent of em-
ployed disabled individuals earn less than $7,000 per year, with 52 per-
cent of the same population earning less than $2,000 per year. Crites,
Smull, and Sachs (1984) surveyed 1,469 mentally retarded persons living
in locations other than community group homes or state institutions and
found a 77 percent unemployment rate. The President's Committee on
the Employment of the Handicapped reports that only 21 percent of
handicapped persons become fully employed, while 40 percent remain
underemployed and at the poverty level, and 26 percent go on welfare
(Pennsylvania Transition from School to the Workplace, 1986). Rusch and
Phelps (1987) have reported that 67 percent of Americans with disabili-
ties between the ages of sixteen and sixty-four are not working. Of those
persons with disabilities who are working, 75 percent are employed on a
part-time basis, and of those who are not employed, 67 percent indicate
that they would like to be employed.
Numerous statewide surveys have also been undertaken to assess the
employment status of young people with disabilities who are no longer in
school. Studies in Florida (Fardig et al., 1985), Washington (Edgar, 1987),
Colorado (Mithaug, Horiuchi, and Fanning, 1985), Vermont (Hasazi, Gor-
don, and Roe, 1985), and Nebraska (Schalock and Lilley, 1986) have indi-
cated that the employment rate for individuals with disabilities is higher
for females than for males and ranges between 45 percent and 70 percent,
depending upon the severity of the disability and geographical location.
Evidence also suggests that a large number of those disabled individuals
who are employed are employed on a part-time basis, and some studies in-
dicate that many of those employed are earning minimum wage or less.
Similarly, Brodsky (1983) reported that of the students with disabilities she
surveyed, 56 percent had never received any community-based vocational
training during their school years, and only 6 percent were involved in
community employment (57 percent were employed in work activity cen-
ters). Furthermore, 60 percent of those surveyed reported earning less than
$1,000 per year, and 16 percent reported earning no income. In addition to
the high unemployment and underemployment rates of persons with dis-
abilities, those individuals also drop out of school at a higher rate than do
students without disabilities. Edgar (1987) reported that 42 percent of stu-
dents with learning and behavioral disabilities leave school before gradu-
ating and that 18 percent of mentally retarded students do the same. Rusch
and Phelps (1987) cited a survey reported on by Owing and Stocking in
1985 in which 30,000 sophomores and 28,000 seniors, including those self-
identified as disabled, were studied on a longitudinal basis. The investiga-
tors reported that 22 percent of the 1980 sophomores with disabilities had
dropped out of school between their sophomore and senior years as com-
pared with 12 percent of students without disabilities.
More recently, the Twelfth Annual Report to Congress on the Implementa-
tion of the Education of the Handicapped Act (U.S. Department of Education,
Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, 1990) indicated
that 47 percent of all students with disabilities do not graduate from high
school with either a diploma or a certificate of completion. That data is
corroborated by data gathered by Wagner and Shaver (1989), who found
that 44 percent of students with disabilities failed to graduate from high
school, and 36 percent of the students with disabilities dropped out of
school. As Ysseldyke, Algozzine, and Thurlow (1992) reported, studies
that have compared special education dropout rates with control group
dropout rates or normative data have consistently shown that students
with disabilities leave school more often than students without disabili-
ties. This clearly has a detrimental impact on their employability.
More recent data corroborate those findings but suggest some encour-
aging trends as well. In a longitudinal study that included a nationally
representative sample of youth with disabilities who had been out of
school at least one month and no more than two years, D'Amico and
Marder (1991) reported that 52 percent of youth with disabilities were
employed in 1987. However, that employment rate increased to 67 per-
cent in 1989. Employment rates increased in almost all disability cate-
gories, but rates varied by category. Although 67 percent of learning dis-
abled individuals were employed in 1989, only 48 percent of emotionally
disturbed, 56 percent of mildly and moderately retarded individuals, and
10 percent of multiply handicapped youth were reported to be employed
(Marder & D'Amico, 1992). In all disability categories other than learning
disability and speech impaired, the employment rates of youth with dis-
abilities were significantly lower than the employment rate of non-dis-
abled youth (Marder and D'Amico, 1992).
What are the costs associated with the high underemployment and un-
employment rates among the disabled population? Poplin (1982) estimated
the cost of supporting unemployed and disabled individuals to be approxi-
mately $114 billion per year and suggested that that figure was increasing
annually. Batsche (1982) agreed and further estimated that the cost of main-
taining an unemployed individual with a disability in an institution in Illi-
nois exceeded the cost of educating a person at Harvard. The U.S. Depart-
ment of Education's Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services
(1990) reported that of the 16 million noninstitutionalized persons with dis-
abilities of working age, as many as 15 million were potentially employable
at an approximate cost savings of $144 billion per year (Will, 1984).
The social, physical, and emotional benefits that individuals with dis-
abilities can derive from successful adjustment to work and community
living are important; we should not slight those benefits by looking only
at the economic benefits to society. Just as successful adjustment to work
is likely to be accompanied by increased feelings of self-worth, greater
overall life satisfaction, and a higher quality of life among the nondis-
abled population, so too are those benefits likely to be derived by indi-
viduals with disabilities. In fact, Bolton (1982) summarized several stud-
ies suggesting that individuals with disabilities may place greater value
on work than do individuals without disabilities and, given similar
work-related situations, may experience a higher level of overall job sat-
isfaction. Hence, it is not enough that transition efforts result in some
type of employment for students. Transition efforts need to result in em-
ployment that is personally rewarding and satisfying for those students.
Little doubt is possible that given the high unemployment and under-
employment rates that exist among individuals with disabilities, the high
percentage of those individuals who continue to live at home following
the completion of school, and the elevated dropout rate that exists among
students with disabilities, efforts in the area of special education have not
resulted in successful integration of those individuals into society. That
history has led to the enactment of legislation that now makes transition
a national priority for students with disabilities. The following section
briefly reviews some of that legislation.
Legislative Initiatives
Legislation designed to assist individuals with disabilities in making a
successful transition to postschoollife can be found in a variety of fields,
including special education, vocational education, and vocational reha-
bilitation. The legislation has generally focused upon providing those in-
dividuals with adequate assessment, counseling, training, and placement
services, in addition to whatever related social service or community
agency support those students might need to make a successful transi-
tion. Some of the more significant legislation is briefly summarized in the
following sections.
The Education for All Handicapped Children Act

(Public Law 94-142)
An important piece of special education legislation that has had an im-
pact on the educational opportunities afforded students with disabilities
is the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (Public Law
94-142). That bill mandated that a free appropriate public education be
provided to all students between the ages of three and twenty-two who
are identified as "handicapped" according to criteria set forth in the leg-
islation. The bill also called for "organized educational programs which
are directly related to the preparation of individuals for paid or unpaid
employment, or for additional preparation for a career requiring other
than a baccalaureate or advanced degree." In 1983, Public Law 94-142
was amended by Public Law 98-199, which increased the vocational op-
portunities afforded students with disabilities by initiating state demon-
stration grants designed to improve secondary education programs, cre-
ate incentives for employers to hire individuals with disabilities, increase
educational opportunities for those students at the secondary school
level, increase supported work opportunities, and make better use of job
placement services for those students.
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

(Public Law 101-476)
In October 1990, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA)
was amended and retitled the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
(IDEA). From the standpoint of transition, this legislation is perhaps the

most significant and far-reaching of any ever passed and undoubtedly will
have the most impact on the transition services afforded individuals with
disabilities. In addition to reauthorizing and expanding many of the provi-
sions of EHA, several new provisions were added, including programs on
transition, a new program to improve services for youth with severe emo-
tional disturbance, and a research and information dissemination program
on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Additionally, the law
includes transition services as a special education issue that must be ad-
dressed in a student's IEP. Under the law, plans for a student's transition
from school to work and community living must be included in the stu-
dent's IEP by the time the student reaches age sixteen. Recent reauthoriza-
tion of the legislation lowered that age to fourteen. Additionally, the ser-
vices and rights addressed by this law are expanded to more fully include
children with autism and traumatic brain injury.
The Rehabilitation Act

The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 is vocational rehabilitation legislation that
provides federal support for the training of individuals with both physical
and mental disabilities. It authorizes the awarding of grants to vocational
rehabilitation agencies for counseling, training, and other vocational ser-
vices and requires that priority be given to those individuals with severe
disabilities. This law requires that a counselor, the disabled individual, and
the individual's parent or guardian participate in developing an Individu-
alized Written Rehabilitation Plan (IWRP) that incorporates a description
of the services to be provided to the disabled individual and identifies
what agency or agencies are responsible for providing each of the services
identified. This legislation was amended in 1978 by Public Law 95--602,
which encourages the development of joint cooperative relationships
among professionals in the fields of special education, vocational educa-
tion, and vocational rehabilitation and emphasizes the provision of inde-
pendent living arrangements for individuals with disabilities.
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, often considered the bill
of rights for individuals with disabilities, prohibits discrimination on the
basis of disability in any program that receives federal funds. The Reha-
bilitation Act also calls for providing services to individuals with disabil-
ities in the least restrictive environment and requires that vocational
counseling and guidance and placement services be provided to students
with disabilities on a nondiscriminatory basis.
The Vocational Education Act

The Vocational Education Act of 1963 (Public Law 88-210) provides fed-
eral grants to states to improve and maintain quality vocational educa-
tion programs. This legislation was also designed to encourage the devel-
opment of new vocational education programs and to provide part-time
employment to individuals while they receive vocational training. The
legislation also allows funds to be used for the vocational training of in-
dividuals with disabilities. Public Law 88-210 was amended in 1968
(Public Law 90-576) and 1976 (Public Law 94-486) to provide federal
support for persons with disabilities who had not been given access to
vocational education programs. Those amendments call upon states to
develop plans that create an interface between special and vocational ed-
ucation, insure that secondary school students with disabilities receive
the vocational services they need, and facilitate the mainstreaming of stu-
dents with disabilities into classes with their nondisabled peers.
The Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act

The Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act (Public Law 98-524) was
passed in 1984, amending the Vocational Education Act of 1963. This legis-
lation mandated increased services for both disabled and disadvantaged
individuals. The act requires that information about vocational education
opportunities be provided to parents and students no later than the begin-
ning of the ninth grade or at least one year before the student enters the
grade in which vocational education is offered. The act also required that
information about eligibility requirements for enrolling in vocational edu-
cation programs be provided to parents and students and that once en-
rolled in vocational education, students receive the following: an assess-
ment of interests, abilities, and special needs; special services including
adaptation of curriculum, instruction, equipment, and facilities; guidance,
counseling, and career development activities conducted by a profession-
ally trained counselor; and special counseling services designed to facili-
tate transition from school to postschool employment or training.
Summary
Transition is a term that means different things to different people. For
the purposes of this book, the term transition is used solely to describe the
process of facilitating the postschool adjustment of students, particularly
students with disabilities. Postschool adjustment is broadly defined to in-
clude adjustment to work, leisure, and independent functioning in the
community. Transition planning, although legally within the purview of
educators as a result of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act,
must include professionals from the fields of education, mental health,
social services, and vocational rehabilitation if it is to be successful. Thus,
transition planning is typically considered to be "transdisciplinary" in
nature.
Until recently, little attention was paid to vocational or transition plan-

ning of individuals with disabilities. As a result, those individuals have
experienced elevated school dropout and unemployment rates. Addi-
tionally, those individuals have often left school without the skills neces-
sary to live or function independently in the community. Unfortunately,
this state of affairs has been expensive from both a financial and a per-
sonal standpoint. Society as a whole has been forced to provide for those
individuals via costly dependency programs like welfare and social secu-
rity, and the individuals themselves have been deprived of the satisfac-
tion derived from work and self-support.
The federal legislation summarized in this chapter has attempted tore-
dress the aforementioned problems by requiring schools to address the
issue of transition for all students with disabilities. Specifically, plans that
identify the services needed by a student to make a successful transition
from school to work and community living must be addressed in each
disabled student's Individual Education Plan no later than age fourteen
and earlier if possible. It is hoped that the initiation of such services sev-
eral years before a student is eligible to leave school will increase the like-
lihood that the student will be able to secure and maintain employment,
function independently in the community, and ultimately become a satis-
fied and productive member of society.
The transdisciplinary transition model that I advocate consists of the
following phases: assessment, planning, training, placement, and follow-
up. The phases are interactive and consist of processes that occur repeat-
edly during a student's educational career. The transition process is con-
ceptualized to be part of the broader process of career development.
Hence, transition planning is considered to be an ongoing process, inex-
tricably linked to career developmental objectives and career education.
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Assessing Individual Student Needs 63
sition team members collect similar information about a student using

different assessment techniques and strategies. Such an approach mini-
mizes inaccurate and inappropriate interpretations of assessment data.
Similarly, one can reduce errors in assessment by recognizing assump-
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Transition Planning 79
experience in available occupational and job-training activities, he or she

is armed with knowledge that will help in making the kinds of decisions
that transition planning entails. Without such experiences, students are
unlikely to develop the requisite skills for active participation in transi-
tion planning. Hence, it is critical that transition planning be conceptual-
ized as a component of a broader K-12 career development/ career edu-
cation program and that career development activities be an integral part
of all transition programs (Levinson and Brandt, 1997; Szymanski, 1994).
Summary
The development of a systemwide plan for the provision of transition ser-
vices should precede any individual transition planning for students. Sys-
temwide planning involves three phases: planning and development,
implementation, and evaluation. Planning and development involve devel-
oping a task force, conducting a needs assessment, developing a program
model and establishing objectives, developing local interagency agree-
ments and action plans, and identifying funding requirements and sources.
The implementation phase involves hiring a transition program coordina-
tor, developing a procedures manual, selecting materials and equipment,
training personnel, conducting in-service workshops, pilot testing the pro-
gram, and revising and implementing the program. The evaluation phase
involves identifying aspects of the program in need of evaluation, identify-
ing standards for evaluation, identifying a program evaluator, conducting
the evaluation, and planning and implementing program improvements.
Several important decisions need to be made relative to program de-
velopment, including the following: whether the program is to be a local,
district-based program or a regional program, how personnel time, costs,
and responsibilities will be dealt with, and the age at which to begin ser-
vices. The demographic characteristics of the local area influence many of
those decisions.
Individual transition planning should be conducted by Individual
Transition Planning Teams and should focus upon the areas of student
need identified in the transdisciplinary vocational assessment. Planning
should be ongoing, initiated early in a student's educational career,
guided by vocational and career development theory, and integrated into
an overall K-12 career education program.
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110 Training
Instruction of skills should incorporate a functional approach, in which

only those skills necessary and relevant to individual students should be
taught. Should this not be done, students, particularly those with disabil-
ities, may be at high risk of dropping out of school. Vocational training
should ensure that students with disabilities are provided with the skills
necessary for jobs available in their local communities. Moreover, the vo-
cational curriculum should ensure continuity of instruction from one
school to another within the same program of study.
Though many of us develop basic life skills naturally, those skills often
need to be taught to individuals with disabilities. Hence, life skills in-
struction should focus upon the development of skills in the following
areas: domestic/home living skills, community living skills, social/inter-
personal skills, and leisure skills. Students also need to be provided with
activities designed to increase their career maturity and should be pro-
vided with experiences that are designed to increase their self-awareness,
occupational awareness, and decisionmaking skills. This can be done
within the context of a K-12 career education program that focuses upon
awareness, orientation, exploration, and preparation.
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134 Placement
Summary
This chapter has discussed employment, residential living, and postsec-
ondary training options that may be considered for individuals with dis-
abilities. Additionally, it has discussed the placement process in each of
those three areas. In each case, it is important to ensure that a particular
individual is matched to a particular placement. That is, a viable place-
ment option is one in which the requirements and demands placed upon
the individual match (to the maximum extent possible) the skills and abil-
ities of the individual. Hence, priorto placement, extensive evaluation of
both the individual and the placement options available is necessary.
Often, it is necessary to generate placement options for individuals
with disabilities and to create opportunities for them to function along-
side individuals without disabilities. To the maximum extent possible, in-
dividuals with disabilities should be placed in the least restrictive envi-
ronment and in settings that facilitate the normalization process.
Transition personnel should attempt to ensure that a full range of place-
ment options exist for the individuals with whom they work. This often
necessitates that transition personnel market individuals with disabilities
to employers, neighbors, or admission personnel and conduct public re-
lations campaigns on behalf of their clients. Because many people have
unrealistic and faulty expectations and perceptions of individuals with
disabilities, transition personnel also have to educate the public about
disability issues and have to work hard to overcome the public resistance
that so often accompanies the placement of those individuals in occupa-
tional, residential, and educational settings.
References
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personnel to provide assistance to college students with learning disabilities.
Teacher Education and Special Education, 9, 77-81.
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162 Roles for Professionals, Families, and Agencies
postschoollife. Hence, it is critical that redefinition and extension of roles

be accompanied by personnel training that clearly defines the need for
such redefinition and extension and provides individuals with the skills
they need to take on their newly defined roles. Moreover, professionals
must be provided with adequate resources and support to perform their
roles within transition programs. Hence, administrator involvement and
support for role definition is critical to the success of transition programs.
Additionally, this chapter reviewed issues associated with parent-
professional collaboration and identified factors that inhibit parental in-
volvement in the transition process. Just as professionals may need to be
trained to adequately perform their roles within transition programs, so
too must professionals be trained to actively involve parents and stu-
dents in the transition planning process. Though parental involvement is
critical to the success of transition services, parents are often uninvolved
in the transition planning process. Often they feel unprepared to assist in
planning or are subtly discouraged from participating by professionals.
Parents should be provided with a description of their rights and respon-
sibilities in the transition process, be convinced of the importance of their
involvement in the process, and be involved early, often, and on an ongo-
ing basis as their children participate in career development activities
throughout their educational experience. Relatedly, students should be
encouraged to develop a sense of independence, autonomy, self-advo-
cacy, and self-determination and should be involved in transition plan-
ning to the maximum extent possible.
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Model Transition Programs 183
lated work experience and garners information about the student's work
habits, preferences, and interests (Maddy-Bernstein, 1993).
Another important characteristic of TVS is the Transition Lab. This ex-
perience provides the student with an opportunity to learn proper work
behaviors and perspectives over the course of nine to eighteen weeks of
structured, supervised employment training. Remediation of potentially
problematic behaviors or attitudes is accomplished by means of counsel-
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mensurate with their performance in the training position (Maddy-Bern-
stein, 1993).
Summary
This chapter has presented characteristics of successful transition pro-
grams, gleaned from a review and synthesis of the literature on transi-
tion. That review has suggested that successful transition programs are
characterized by a comprehensive transdisciplinary assessment of a stu-
dent's skills and needs; the development of an Individual Transition Plan
based upon the results of the assessment; involvement of parents in the
transition planning process; involvement of the private sector and local
businesspeople in the transition process; involvement of community
agencies and the development of interagency agreements; integration of
academic, vocational, interpersonal, and career development skills into
the curriculum; on-the-job training of students; follow-up services to stu-
dents placed in jobs; and an evaluation of the effectiveness of the pro-
gram. Additionally, this chapter summarized several model transition
programs that have been described in the literature. Both "generic" pro-
grams, those that provide a basic structure for transition and emphasize
certain program elements, and model programs, those that have been de-
veloped and implemented in different parts of the country and that were
developed with local needs in mind, were described.
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2 Assessing Individual Student Needs 35

Structuring Assessments for Transition Planning, 60

6 Roles for Professionals, Families, and Agencies 136

7 Model Transition Programs 165

viduals with disabilities," a review of the unemployment and underem-

Vocational transition is a carefully planned process, which may be initiated

This definition clearly suggests that transition efforts must involve a

More recently, the following definition of transition was proposed by

Transition refers to a change in status from behaving primarily as a student to

In October 1990, Congress enacted the Education of the Handicapped

a coordinated set of activities for a student, designed within an outcome-

Public Law 101--476 requires that a student's Individual Education

(D) a statement of needed transition services for students beginning no later

• "Related services" were added to the list of required transition

The latter change is primarily a function of the high dropout rate

What Is Meant by "Post-School Activities"?

Clearly, then, transition is meant to address not just employment needs,

What Is Meant by "Coordinated Set of Activities"?

What Is Meant by "Outcome-Oriented Process"?

What Activities Are to Be Considered Part of Transition?

When Must Services Be Provided?

Who Determines What Services Are Needed?

How Does the Team Detennine What Services Are Needed?

• What competencies and knowledge does the student need to

Who Provides the Services?

Where Are Transition Services Provided?

ning must include professionals from agencies outside of the schools

Transdisciplinary Transition Model

Table 1.1 Components of Transition Planning

Physical/ Occupational/ Students

Although all the phases will be discussed in more detail in subsequent

1: Assessment: An initial first step in transition planning is an assess-

Table 1.1 (continued)

discussed more fully in Chapter 2. The roles of individual team members

4: Placement: Once instruction and training have been completed, the

move successfully from the school environment to the community at large

Career Development Theory

composed of several substages, and each stage is associated with several

1. People differ in abilities, interests, and personalities.

8. The process of vocational development is essentially that of

Applying Career Development Theory to

FIGURE 1.2 Phases of Career Education

more frequently if conditions warrant. Purposes of the reevaluation in-

Who Are "Individuals with Disabilities"?

a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in

The National Joint Committee for Learning Disabilities (Hammill et al.,

a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in

As the definitions suggest, learning disabled students generally possess

(1987) have suggested that learning disabilities have a negative impact

Among students with disabilities, emotionally disturbed students are

turbed students by definition lack "an ability to build or maintain satis-

are variously referred to as physically handicapped, physically impaired,

Historical Trends of Individuals with Disabilities:

The school experience assumes an important role in determining the

The Education for All Handicapped Children Act

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act