University of South Carolina

Scholar Commons

Senior Theses Honors College

Spring 2023

The Effect of the Degree of Authoritative Parenting on

Adolescents' Adjustment to College
Elizabeth Smith
University of South Carolina - Columbia

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Recommended Citation
Smith, Elizabeth, "The Effect of the Degree of Authoritative Parenting on Adolescents' Adjustment to
College" (2023). Senior Theses. 590.
https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/senior_theses/590

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Running head: THE EFFECT OF PARENTING ON ADJUSTMENT TO COLLEGE 1

THE EFFECT OF THE DEGREE OF AUTHORATATIVE PARENTING ON

ADOLESCENTS’ ADJUSTMENT TO COLLEGE

By

Elizabeth Smith

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for Graduation with Honors from the

South Carolina Honors College

Approved:

Dr. Allison Sweeney

Thesis Director

Dr. Robin Dawson

Second Reader

Steve Lynn, Dean

For South Carolina Honors College

Running head: THE EFFECT OF PARENTING ON ADJUSTMENT TO COLLEGE 2

Table of Contents

I. Acknowledgements……………………………………………………3

II. Thesis Summary………………………………………………………4

III. Abstract………………………………………………………………...5

IV. Introduction……………………………………………………………6

V. Methods………………………………………………………………..9

VI. Results………………………………………………………………...12

VII. Discussion/Conclusion……………………………………………….14

VIII. References……………………………………………………………18

IX. Tables………………………………………………………………...24

X. Appendix…………………………………………………………….28
Running head: THE EFFECT OF PARENTING ON ADJUSTMENT TO COLLEGE 3

Acknowledgments

I would like to express my deep appreciation for my thesis director, Dr. Allison Sweeney and my

second reader, Dr. Robin Dawson for their help throughout this process. I could not have

completed this senior thesis without their diligent will to help me with my ideas and countless

questions. I would also like to thank the Honors College for giving me an opportunity to write

this thesis. Lastly and most importantly, I would like to thank my family for always supporting

me through my studies and endeavors, I could not do any of it without your words of

encouragement.
Running head: THE EFFECT OF PARENTING ON ADJUSTMENT TO COLLEGE 4

Thesis Summary

This research aimed to explore how parenting style during one’s childhood and

adolescence relates to first-year college students’ adjustment to college, levels of anxiety, and

self-efficacy in terms of academics. I used an online survey consisting of measures of parenting

style, student adjustment to college, self-efficacy for academics, and anxiety, which was

distributed to Freshman Nursing students at the University of South Carolina during the first

month of the Fall 2022 semester. I found that that students with parents who promoted their

independence while also maintaining some degree of control (i.e. authoritative parenting) tended

to have a smoother overall adjustment to college.

Running head: THE EFFECT OF PARENTING ON ADJUSTMENT TO COLLEGE 5

Abstract

This research aimed to explore how parenting style relates to college students’ adjustment

in the first month of college. Authoritative parenting is marked by a standard of maintaining

some control, while also promoting children’s autonomy. Previous research has found that

authoritative parenting is positively associated with adolescent behavior that is more socially

responsible, self-reliant, cheerful, and cooperative. Furthermore, the more support and

independence that parents encourage, will in turn breed confidence and academic persistence in

adolescent years. I will expand on this research by evaluating whether parenting style also relates

to adjustment and mental health outcomes among first year college students. I hypothesized that

that first-year college students whose parents showed higher levels of authoritative parenting

would in turn have better adjustment to college, higher academic self-efficacy and less anxiety.

A total of 23 freshman Nursing students between the ages of 18 and 20 participated in an online

study and completed a survey containing questions from the Authoritative Parenting Index(API),

Student Adjustment to College Questionnaire(SACQ), General Academic Self-Efficacy

Scale(GASE), and General Anxiety Disorder Measure(GAD). The results showed that, as

expected, authoritative parenting was positively associated with greater student adjustment to

college (r=0.60, p <0.05). Authoritative parenting was negatively associated with anxiety (r = -

0.25) but was not statistically significant. Furthermore, those with high (vs low) authoritative

parenting tended to report greater GAD, SACQ, and GASE scores, but these mean differences

were not statistically significant. Implications for the future include the importance of

encouraging children to be independent through the authoritative parenting approach so that they

will in turn be more successful in their lives, especially the first few weeks of college, which are

particularly difficult.
Running head: THE EFFECT OF PARENTING ON ADJUSTMENT TO COLLEGE 6

Introduction

Research by Baumrind (1967) identifies four different parenting styles: authoritative,

permissive, authoritarian, and uninvolved. Authoritative parenting is marked by a standard of

maintaining some control, while also promoting children’s autonomy; these parents provide high

support and warmth while simultaneously setting clear limits. Mensah proposes that an

authoritative parent will direct the child but will explain the reason behind the rules while

implementing emotional support and giving the child autonomy (Mensah & Kuranchie, 2013).

Alternatively, permissive parenting is described as overindulgent in satisfying the adolescents

desires. These parents tend to avoid consequences and rarely refuse their children in an effort to

avoid disappointment and rebellion from their child. Kopko explains the risks of this parenting

style in adolescent struggle with self-control and a tendency to be egocentric (Kopko, 2007).

Authoritarian parenting is characterized by high control and restrictiveness paired with lack of

communication and warmth with their adolescent. Research has shown that this parenting style

can result in rebellion or dependence in more submissive adolescents (Kopko, 2007). Finally,

uninvolved parents do not interact with their adolescents in a neglectful sense. Adolescents

raised in a way where their parents do not care about them are typically selfish or struggle with

impulsivity (Kopko, 2007).

Previous research has consistently shown that authoritative parenting is the most

supportive style for optimizing independence, academic success, and low levels of deviance.

Baumrind and Black’s research (Baumrind & Black, 1967) dates back to 1967, where they found

preschool children whose parents reported an authoritative parenting style to be socially

responsible, self-reliant, cheerful, and cooperative with others. Alternatively, children whose

parents were more authoritarian showed moody, annoyed, and unhappy behaviors and the
Running head: THE EFFECT OF PARENTING ON ADJUSTMENT TO COLLEGE 7

children of permissive parents were impulsive, aggressive, self-centered, and bossy. The worst

developmental outcomes in these preschools resulted from uninvolved and neglectful parents,

including behavioral problems and hostility. Research from Joseph and John (Joseph & John,

2008) explains that the authoritative parenting style is consistent with the more positive

developmental outcomes and the fewest problems for children. Specifically, these children tend

to score higher on scales of social development, competence, and self-perceptions and have less

struggles concerning mental health. Kauffman’s research explored student’s adjustment to fifth

grade which indicates foundational research on adjustment to new life situations as related to

parenting styles (Kauffman et al, 2000).

Furthermore, another study found that children raised by authoritative parents tended to

confide in their parents when negative events happened and were more socially and academically

competent (Mensah & Kuranchie, 2013). Mensah & Kuranchie’s research explained that these

children showed better conduct and less deviance at school which in turn led to more impactful

learning. Comparatively, children with parents who showed authoritarian, uninvolved, and

permissive parenting styles had worse performance academically than children who had

authoritative parents. Research by Nyarko (2011) found similar results, such that adolescents

raised by authoritarian parents tended to have lower levels of academic performance in high

school than adolescents with authoritative parents. Nyarko also recognizes that authoritative

parents are more inclined to encourage academic success in their children and be more involved

in the school atmosphere. This directly influences the child’s engagement in school activities and

their standards for success for themselves.

In summary, past research has provided strong support that an authoritative parenting

style is associated with better developmental outcomes in children, including socially and
Running head: THE EFFECT OF PARENTING ON ADJUSTMENT TO COLLEGE 8

academically. However, relatively less research has focused on the long-term impacts of

parenting style in the later years of adolescence, such as the transition to college. The adjustment

to college has been shown to be a difficult transition for all college-age children (Venezia &

Jaeger, 2013). This transition from living dependently on parents to living independently

demonstrates difficulties associated with social adjustment, mental health, and ability to show

self-efficacy. Hickman and Crossland (2004) describe how the experience of adjustment to

college is an extremely formative period of adolescence. I propose that parenting style may

impact the ease of adjusting to new environments, specifically the transition to starting college as

a freshman student. Importantly, research from Joseph and John (2008) explains that mental

health issues in adolescents often stem from parenting style related issues. Research has shown

that the more support and independence that parents encourage, will in turn breed confidence and

academic persistence in adolescent years (Turner et al, 2009), which likely also has implications

for adjusting to college, as this is a highly stressful time. Thus, given that previous studies have

shown the importance of authoritative parenting for developing self-efficacy, mental well-being,

and academic performance in childhood, I propose that the positive effects of authoritative

parenting likely extend to college adjustment.

In my thesis I also aim to explore whether birth status (e.g., pre-mature vs full term)

relates to differences in parenting styles, and in turn, academic adjustment during freshman year.

Premature children are those born before 37 weeks gestation (Quinn et al, 2016). Past research

has found that children who are born prematurely may be raised with a compensatory parenting

style(Miles and Holditch-Davis, 1997). Specifically, one study found that among parents whose

children were born pre-maturely, there is a tendency to perceive their children being “miracle

children”, which, in turn, causes parents to have adjustments in protection, stimulation, attention,
Running head: THE EFFECT OF PARENTING ON ADJUSTMENT TO COLLEGE 9

and limit setting (Miles and Holditch-Davis, 1997). Research by Eiser (2005), found that parents

of pre-term infants experience more difficulties caring for the child relating to anxieties of health

of the pre-term child. Furthermore, research from Chapieski and Evankovich (1997) found that

pre-term infants as compared to full-term infants are more likely to have symptoms of ADHD

and lower social competence. Thus, in my thesis, as an exploratory question, I aimed to evaluate

whether being born pre-maturely is associated with lower authoritative parenting.

Using a cross-sectional quantitative study delivered during the first month of college, this

thesis aims to test whether authoritative parenting relates to better adjustment to college,

including socially, in terms of academic independence, self-efficacy, and levels of anxiety. I

hypothesized that being raised with a more authoritative parenting style in one’s childhood and

adolescence would relate to higher scores of social adjustment to college and generalized

academic self-efficacy, and lower scores of anxiety. Additionally, as an exploratory aim, I also

investigated whether birth status is associated with parenting style. This research will provide

preliminary support for understanding the long-term impacts of parenting style and may be

informative for helping to identify reasons for why some Freshman college students have a

harder time adjusting to college than their peers.

Methods

Participants Intended participants of this study were freshman students in their first

month of school at the University of South Carolina Columbia Campus in Fall of 2022.

Recruitment Participants were recruited through emails from professors of Nursing

classes including chemistry and honors nursing research. The survey was open from September

to October to get accurate responses reflecting Freshman’s adjustment after the first month of

college.
Running head: THE EFFECT OF PARENTING ON ADJUSTMENT TO COLLEGE 10

Procedures The survey was administered to participants using Google Forms (See

Appendix A). The survey included questions from the Authoritative Parenting Index (API;

Jackson et al, 1998), Student Adjustment to College Questionnaire(SACQ; Dahmus et al, 1992),

General Academic Self-Efficacy Scale (GASE; Schwarzer, 2012), and the General Anxiety

Disorder Measure (GAD; Spitzer et al, 2006). The survey also included an item that asked

whether the student was born prematurely for an exploratory analysis. Finally, the survey

included demographic questions. The survey took about 5 minutes to complete.

Measures

Parenting Style. I measured the parenting style of the adolescent’s parents by use of the

API. This scale tests for one’s perception of both responsiveness and demandingness of their

parental figures, including parental warmth, acceptance, involvement, intrusiveness, parental

supervision, assertive control, monitoring, and permissiveness (Jackson et al, 1998). A total of 16

items were included and answered on a 4-point scale to indicate the extent to which the

statements were similar to their parent(1 = not like, 4 = just like). Some of the questions that are

a part of this scale include: “She is always telling me what to do,” “She is pleased with how I

behave,” “She makes sure I tell her where I am going,” and “She checks to see if I do my

homework” (Jackson et al, 1998). Rather than keeping these questions in the present form, I put

them in the past tense for an adolescent to recall how their parents treated them when they still

lived with them full time. These questions are also asked with a maternal point of view. I

changed “she” to “they” in my own survey so that the scale applied to both the adolescents’

mother and/or father. High scores according to this scale indicate a high level of authoritative

parenting behavior.
Running head: THE EFFECT OF PARENTING ON ADJUSTMENT TO COLLEGE 11

Social Adjustment. I measured social adjustment by using the SACQ. This self-report

scale for analyzing students’ adjustment to college was designed by Baker and Siryk (1984).

This scale has four subscales measuring academic adjustment, social adjustment, personal-

emotional adjustment, and institutional attachment. Rather than use the entire 67-item scale, I

included only the social adjustment subscale which consists of 11-items relating to the social

adjustment to college. Some examples of the questions include: “I am very involved with social

activities in college,” “I am meeting as many people and making as many friends as I would like

at the University of South Carolina,” and “I am adjusting well to college” (Baker and Siryk,

1984). Participants responded using a 5-point scale, ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 =

strongly agree). High scores on this scale indicate good social adjustment (note that two

questions were reverse-coded).

Self-Efficacy for Academics. I analyzed self-efficacy for academic performance by

using the GASE. This scale includes 5 items and uses a 5-point scale, where 1 = strongly

disagree and 5=strongly agree. Total AGSE score, which is calculated by adding all the items,

ranges from 5 to 25. The higher the score, the more self-efficacy one is said to have. Example

questions are as followed: “I generally manage to solve difficult academic problems if I try hard

enough,” “I know I can stick to my aims and accomplish my goals in my field of study,” and “I

will remain calm in my exam because I know I will have the knowledge to solve the problems”

(Schwarzer, 2012).

Mental Health (Anxiety). I analyzed mental health in terms of anxiety by the GAD. The

questions ask about the past two weeks considering how often individuals felt certain feelings.

This measure includes 7-items and is answered on a 4-point scale from 0= not at all to 3 = nearly

every day. Example questions include: “Feeling nervous, anxious, or on edge,” “Not being able
Running head: THE EFFECT OF PARENTING ON ADJUSTMENT TO COLLEGE 12

to stop or control worrying,” and “Become easily annoyed or irritable” (Sapra et al, 2020). The

total score of GAD-7 can range from 0 to 21 and can also be used to categorize individuals as

having mild, moderate, or severe anxiety. The score of 5/21 refers to mild anxiety, 10/21 to

moderate anxiety, and 15/21 to severe anxiety.

Demographics: The demographics sections asked about sex, age, race, major, year in

school, and birth status.

Analysis Plan

Bivariate correlations were used to evaluate the associations between levels of

authoritative parenting, anxiety, self-efficacy for academic, and adjustment to college.

Additionally, independent sample t-tests (two-tailed) were also used to compare students with

high vs low scores on the API using a median split, with an alpha of 0.05.

Results

Table 1 describes the demographics of the sample which includes 23 total participants.

100% of the participants were female college freshman that are Nursing majors. The majority of

the sample size was white (91.3%) with 4.3% Native American and 4.3% Multiracial. The

majority of the students were 18 years old (78.3%) with 4.3% being 20 years old and 17.4%

being 19 years old.

After calculating overall scores for each scale, bivariate correlations were used to

evaluate the associations between Authoritative Parenting Index, Student Adjustment to College

Questionnaire, General Academic Self-Efficacy Scale, and the General Anxiety Disorder

Measure. As shown in Table 2, authoritative parenting was positively associated with greater

student adjustment to college (r = 0.597, p < 0.05). Additionally, authoritative parenting was

negatively associated with anxiety (r = -0.25) but was not statistically significant. Authoritative
Running head: THE EFFECT OF PARENTING ON ADJUSTMENT TO COLLEGE 13

parenting was positively associated with academic self efficacy (r = 0.160), but was not

statistically significant.

To further explore these findings, I compared differences in GAD, SACQ, and GASE

scores depending on whether participants scored high or low on the API. A median split was

used to categorize participants as high or low on the API, and independent samples t-tests were

used to compare the means. As shown in Table 3, those with high authoritative parenting tended

to have greater GAD scores (M =11.0, SD = 4.24) than those with lower authoritative parenting

(M = 9.83, SD = 4.49), but this difference was not significantly different, t(1,21) = 0.641, p >

0.05). Those with high authoritative parenting tended to have greater SACQ scores (M = 58.00,

SD = 7.27) than those with lower authoritative parenting (M = 52.67, SD = 6.55), with this

difference approaching significance (t(1,21) = 1.955, p = .064). Surprisingly, those with high

authoritative parenting tended to have higher GASE scores (M = 25.09, SD = 4.36) than those

with lower authoritative parenting (M = 24.83, SD = 4.79), but this difference was not

significantly different (t(1,21) = 0.1422, p > .05).

Finally, I did an exploratory analysis to compare parenting scores among those who

reported being born pre-maturely vs those who were not. As shown in Table 4, pre-term born

children reported similar levels of authoritative parenting (n = 6, M = 50.333, SD = 6.967)

compared to full-term born children (n = 15, M = 50.667, SD = 6.172). Individuals who reported

they were unsure if they were born prematurely (n = 2) tended to have somewhat lower

authoritative parenting scores (M = 43.5, SD = 0.707) than both prematurely born children and

full-term children.
Running head: THE EFFECT OF PARENTING ON ADJUSTMENT TO COLLEGE 14

Discussion/Conclusion

I hypothesized that among college Freshman students, authoritative parenting index

would be positively associated with greater adjustment to college and general academic self-

efficacy, and lower levels of anxiety. My hypothesis was partially supported by the results of my

study because I found that authoritative parenting was positively and significantly associated

with greater student adjustment to college. However, authoritative parenting was not

significantly associated with general academic self-efficacy scale or anxiety. Similarly, when I

compared high vs low values on the API, I found that participants with high API scores tended to

have a higher student adjustment to college, with this difference approaching significance.

Finally, I also explored if birth status related to parenting style. Although the sample size was

small, I found preliminary evidence that API scores were similar between those born pre-

maturely and full-term.

Prior research has shown that authoritative parenting promotes confidence and academic

persistence in adolescent years (Turner et al, 2009). This thesis supports this information as

students who had parents that were more authoritative tended to self-report better adjustment to

college. This could be dependent on their confidence in themselves, ability to be independent,

and academic involvement that was fostered during than childhood by their parents. Mensah &

Kuranchie’s (2013) research supports this conclusion; they found that children raised in

authoritative environments tended to be more socially and academically competent. This

academic and social advantage could account for the greater success in adjustment to college of

students with authoritative parents. Steinberg, Elmen, and Mounts (1989) attribute academic

success in adolescents raised authoritatively to the development of their autonomy and

Running head: THE EFFECT OF PARENTING ON ADJUSTMENT TO COLLEGE 15

motivation to work. This research shows that academic success is fostered in authoritative home

environments and continues to thrive through adolescence (Steinberg et al, 1992).

While my thesis, which was limited by a small sample size, revealed that the correlation

between parenting style and anxiety was not significant, other studies with college students have

found significant associations between parenting style experienced during childhood, motivation,

and anxiety (Silva et al., 2007). Specifically, this research found that college students raised in

authoritative environments reported lower levels of anxiety whereas college students who were

raised in authoritarian environments reported higher levels of anxiety (Silva et al., 2007). This

research also indicated a positive correlation between academic success and authoritative

parenting; college students raised by authoritative parents had higher grade point average than

those raised by authoritarian parents. Research by Yaffe (2021) also supports this conclusion,

which found that children with anxiety disorders are more likely to be raised by non-authoritative

parents (i.e. authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved).

Recognizing that this thesis only consisted of participants who were Nursing students is

important to address because of the impacts that are possible on the results of the study due to the

specificity of the college experience of a Nursing student. Prior research has found that nursing

students struggle with challenges of psychological distress and have a more difficult adjustment

to college (Warbah et al, 2006). Warbah and colleagues (2006) attribute some of this stress

related to college due to the tendency of Nursing students and medical students to show

personality traits of introversion and neuroticism. Park & Hong (2021), who also analyzed first-

year Nursing students only, found that confidence in academics, fulfillment from major, personal

relationships, and social pride directly impact first-year college students adjustment to college.

My thesis offers further support that parenting style contributes to how first-year college students
Running head: THE EFFECT OF PARENTING ON ADJUSTMENT TO COLLEGE 16

adjust to the challenges of college by showing that first-year Nursing students raised by

authoritative parents tended to have a better adjustment to college.

The strengths of this study include the collection of the data during the critical period that

is the first two months of Freshman year. Another strength is the use of validated measures for

surveying participants, including adjustment to college, academic self-efficacy, and anxiety.

These measures have shown strong reliability and validity in previous studies, which strengthens

the conclusions I can draw for this thesis (Gravini et al, 2021; Jackson et al, 1998; Nielson et al,

2018; Zhang et al, 2021). For example, one study found that the API had strong reliability (α =

.85), and found consistency in the values between elementary, middle, and high-school students

(Jackson et al, 1998).

The limitations of this study include the lack of generalizability, given that the study

included only females, Nursing majors, and University of South Carolina students. Another

limitation of this thesis is the small sample size, which makes this research highly preliminary.

Future research may want to explore if other factors like birth order, being the first in the family

to go to college, and the proximity of college to their home, impact the relationship between

parenting style and adjustment to college. Additionally, while my thesis focused on freshmen

students, future research is also needed to examine how parenting style relates to long-term

academic performance and academic and social success across the full four years of

undergraduate studies.

In conclusion, in my thesis I found that students who grew up with more authoritative

parents tend to have an easier adjustment to college. Students who were born prematurely were

found to have very similar scores on the authoritative parenting index. In future research, it

would be important to see if teaching this parenting style to parents of teens would help with the
Running head: THE EFFECT OF PARENTING ON ADJUSTMENT TO COLLEGE 17

difficult transition from living away from their families at college. I hope this research will

implicate the importance of good parenting and highlight the difficulty of the first few months of

college as a freshman and the factors related to this difficulty.

Running head: THE EFFECT OF PARENTING ON ADJUSTMENT TO COLLEGE 18

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Table 1: Demographics of Survey Sample

Variable Total Sample (%)
Age, n 23
Mean age 18.3
% 18 years old 78.3%
% 19 years old 17.4%
% 20 years old 4.3%
Gender, n 23
% Female 100
Ethnicity, n 23
% Native American or Alaskan Native 4.3
% White or Caucasian 91.3
% Multiracial/Biracial 4.3
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Table 2. Bivariate Correlations between the Authoritative Parenting Index (API), Student
Adjustment to College Questionnaire (SACQ), General Academic Self Efficacy Scale
(GASE), & General Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD)
SACQ GASE GAD
API 0.597* 0.160 -0.254
SACQ - 0.274 -0.275
GASE - - -0.332
Note * = p < 0.05
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Table 3. Means and Standard Deviations for Student Adjustment to College Questionnaire,
General Academic Self Efficacy Scale, & General Anxiety Disorder Measure Scores
Compared by Authoritative Parenting Index Levels (High vs Low)
GAD SACQ GASE
M SD M SD M SD
Low API (n = 12) 9.833 4.041 52.667 6.548 24.833 4.788
High API (n = 11) 11 4.240 58 7.270 25.091 4.357
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Table 4: Authoritative Parenting Index Mean (M) Scores Comparing Pre-Mature and Full-
Term Born Students
Mean Standard Deviation
Pre-Mature (n = 6) 50.33 4.97
Unsure (n = 2) 43.50 0.707
Full-term (n=15) 50.67 6.170
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Appendix A

Survey via Google Forms:

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