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Seeley’s
ESSENTIALS OF
Anatomy &
Physiology Chapter 8
Tenth Edition
Cinnamon Vanputte
Nervous System Part 1
Jennifer Regan
Andrew Russo
Lecture Outline
See separate PowerPoint slides for all figures and tables
pre-inserted into PowerPoint without notes.
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Figure 8.1
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Multipolar neurons have many dendrites and a Pseudo-unipolar neurons have a single process
single axon. extending from the cell body, which divides into
two processes as short distance from the cell
Most of the neurons within the CNS and nearly
body.
all motor neurons are multipolar.
One process extends to the periphery, and the
Bipolar neurons have two processes: one
other extends to the CNS.
dendrite and one axon.
The two extensions function as a single axon
Bipolar neurons are located in some sensory
with small, dendrite-like sensory receptors at
organs, such as in the retina of the eye and in
the periphery.
the nasal cavity.
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Figure 8.5
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Myelin sheaths are specialized layers that wrap Gaps in the myelin sheath, called nodes of
around the axons of some neurons, those Ranvier, occur about every millimeter.
neurons are termed, myelinated.
Ion movement can occur at the nodes of
The sheaths are formed by oligodendrocytes in Ranvier.
the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS.
Myelination of an axon increases the speed and
Myelin is an excellent insulator that prevents efficiency of action potential generation along
almost all ion movement across the cell the axon.
membrane.
Multiple sclerosis is a disease of the myelin
sheath that causes loss of muscle function.
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Figure 8.6
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Nervous tissue exists as gray matter and white These potentials are mainly due to differences in
matter. concentrations of ions across the membrane,
membrane channels, and the sodium-potassium pump.
Gray matter consists of groups of neuron cell
bodies and their dendrites, where there is very Membrane channels include leak channels and gated
channels.
little myelin.
Leak channels are always open, whereas gated
White matter consists of bundles of parallel
channels are generally closed, but can be opened due
axons with their myelin sheaths, which are to voltage or chemicals.
whitish in color.
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The sodium-potassium pump compensates for the The resting membrane potential exists because of:
constant leakage of ions through leak channels.
• The concentration of K+ being higher on the inside of
The sodium-potassium pump is required to the cell membrane and the concentration of Na+ being
maintain the greater concentration of Na+ outside higher on the outside
the cell membrane and K+ inside. • The presence of many negatively charged molecules,
+
The pump actively transports K into the cell and such as proteins, inside the cell that are too large to
Na+ out of the cell. exit the cell
It is estimated that the sodium-potassium pump • The presence of leak protein channels in the
membrane that are more permeable to K+ than it is to
consumes 25% of all the ATP in a typical cell and
Na+
70% of the ATP in a neuron.
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Figure 8.7(1)
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Action potentials allow conductivity along nerve This movement of Na+, which is called a local current,
or muscle membrane, similar to electricity going causes the inside of the cell membrane to become
along an electrical wire. positive, a change called depolarization.
The channels responsible for the action potential If depolarization is not strong enough, the Na+ channels
close again, and the local potential disappears without
are voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels, which are
being conducted along the nerve cell membrane.
closed during rest (resting membrane potential).
If depolarization is large enough, Na+ enters the cell so
When a stimulus is applied to the nerve cell, that the local potential reaches a threshold value.
following neurotransmitter activation of
chemically gated channels, Na+ channels open This threshold depolarization causes voltage-gated Na+
channels to open, generally at the axon hillock.
very briefly, and Na+ diffuses quickly into the cell.
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The opening of these channels causes a massive, At the end of repolarization, the charge on the cell
600-fold increase in membrane permeability to Na+. membrane briefly becomes more negative than the
Voltage-gated K+ channels also begin to open. resting membrane potential; this condition is called
As more Na+ enters the cell, depolarization continues at hyperpolarization and occurs briefly.
a much faster pace, causing a brief reversal of charge – Action potentials occur in an all-or-none fashion
the inside of the cell membrane becomes positive
relative to the outside of the cell membrane. All-or-none refers to the fact that if threshold is
reached, an action potential occurs; if the threshold
The charge reversal causes Na+ channels to close and Na+
then stops entering the cell. is not reached, no action potential occurs.
During this time, more K+ channels are opening and K+ The sodium-potassium pump assists in restoring the
leaves the cell, resulting in repolarization. resting membrane potential.
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Synapse 1 Synapse 2
A neuroneuronal synapse is a junction where the An action potential reaching the presynaptic
axon of one neuron interacts with another terminal causes voltage-gated Ca2+ channels to
neuron. open, and Ca2+ moves into the cell.
The end of the axon forms a presynaptic terminal This influx of Ca2+ causes the release of
and the membrane of the next neuron forms the neurotransmitters by exocytosis from the
postsynaptic membrane, with a synaptic cleft presynaptic terminal.
between the two membranes.
The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic
Chemical substances called neurotransmitters cleft and bind to specific receptor molecules on
are stored in synaptic vesicles in the presynaptic the postsynaptic membrane.
terminal.
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Synapse 3 Synapse 4
The binding of neurotransmitters to these membrane If Na+ channels open, the postsynaptic cell
receptors causes chemically gated channels for Na+, becomes depolarized, and an action potential will
K+, or Cl− to open or close in the postsynaptic result if threshold is reached.
membrane.
If K+ or Cl− channels open, the inside of the
The specific channel type and whether or not the postsynaptic cell tends to become more negative,
channel opens or closes depend on the type of or hyperpolarized, and an action potential is
neurotransmitter in the presynaptic terminal and the
inhibited from occurring.
type of receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.
There are many neurotransmitters, with the best
The response may be either stimulation or inhibition
of an action potential in the postsynaptic cell. known being acetylcholine and norepinephrine.
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Figure 8.13
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Figure 8.14
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Summation 1 Summation 2
A single presynaptic action potential usually does not Spatial summation occurs when the local potentials
cause a sufficiently large postsynaptic local potential to originate from different locations on the postsynaptic
reach threshold and produce an action potential in the neuron—for example, from converging pathways.
target cell.
Temporal summation occurs when local potentials
Many presynaptic action potentials are needed in a overlap in time.
process called summation.
This can occur from a single input that fires rapidly,
Summation of signals in neuronal pathways allows which allows the resulting local potentials to overlap
integration of multiple subthreshold local potentials. briefly.
Summation of the local potentials can bring the
Spatial and temporal summation can lead to stimulation
membrane potential to threshold and trigger an action
or inhibition, depending on the type of signal.
potential.
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