Seeley’s

ESSENTIALS OF
Anatomy
&
Physiology
Tenth
Edition

Cinnamon
Vanputte Jennifer
See separate PowerPoint slides for all figures and

notes.
Regan
tables pre-inserted Andrew
into PowerPoint without

Russo
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill
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Chapter
4
Tissues
Lecture
Outline
© 2019 McGraw-Hill
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Tissu
e
A tissue is a group of cells with similar
structure and function, plus the extracellular
substance surrounding them.
Histology is the study of tissues.

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Types of Tissues
There are four tissue types in the human
body:
1. Epithelial – a covering or lining tissue
2. Connective – a diverse primary tissue type
that makes up part of every organ in the
body
3. Muscle – a tissue that contracts or
shortens, making movement possible
4. Nervous – responsible for coordinating
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Epithelial Tissues
Epithelium, or epithelial tissue, covers and
protects surfaces, both outside and inside the
body.
Included under the classification of epithelial
tissue are the exocrine and endocrine glands.

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Epithelial Tissue Characteristics

1. Mostly composed of cells
2. Covers body surfaces
3. Distinct cell surfaces
4. Cell and matrix
connections
5. Nonvascular
6. Capable of regeneration

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Characteristics of Epithelium

Figure
© 2019 McGraw-Hill 4.1
(top) ©Victor Eroschenko; (bottom) ©Ed Reschke/Photolibrary/Getty
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Functions of Epithelial Tissues

1. Protects underlying
structures
2. Acts as a barrier
3. Permits passage of
substances
4. Secretes substances
5. Absorption of substances

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Classification of Epithelia 1

Epithelial tissues are classified primarily

according to the number of cell layers and the
shape of the superficial cells.
The cell layers can be simple, stratified, or
pseudostratified.
The cell shapes can be squamous, cuboidal,
columnar, or a special transitional shape, that
varies with the degree of stretch.

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Classification of Epithelia 2

Simple epithelium consists of a single layer

of cells, with each cell extending from the
basement membrane to the free surface.
Stratified epithelium consists of more than
one layer of cells, but only the basal layer
attaches the deepest layer to the basement
membrane.

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Classification of Epithelia 3

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium is a

special type of simple epithelium, that appears
to be falsely stratified.
It consists of one layer of cells, with all the
cells attached to the basement membrane.
Due to variations in the shape of the cells,
the epithelia appears stratified.

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Classification of Epithelia 4

There are three types of epithelium based

on idealized shapes of the epithelial cells:
1. Squamous cells are flat or scalelike.
2. Cuboidal cells are cube-shaped—about
as wide as they are tall.
3. Columnar cells tend to be taller than they
are wide.

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Simple Squamous Epithelium 1

Simple squamous epithelium is a single layer

of thin, flat cells.
Some substances easily pass through this
thin layer of cells, but other substances do
not.
The lungs, simple squamous epithelium,
allows for gas exchange.
The kidneys, simple squamous epithelium,
helps filter wastes from the blood while
keeping blood cells inside the blood vessels.
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Simple Squamous Epithelium 2

Table
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©McGraw-Hill Education/Al
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Simple Cuboidal Epithelium 1

Simple cuboidal epithelium is a single layer

of cube-like cells that carry out active
transport, facilitated diffusion, or secretion.
They have a greater secretory capacity
than simple squamous epithelial cells.

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Simple Cuboidal Epithelium 2

Table
© 2019 McGraw-Hill 4.2b©Victor Eroschenko
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Simple Columnar Epithelium 1

Simple columnar epithelium is a single layer of

tall, thin cells.
The large size of these cells enables them to
perform complex functions, such as secretion.
The simple columnar epithelium of the small
intestine produces and secretes mucus and
digestive enzymes.

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Simple Columnar Epithelium 2

Table
© 2019 McGraw-Hill 4.2c©Victor Eroschenko
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Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium 1

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium secretes

mucus, which covers its free surface.
Cilia in the airways move the mucus and
accumulated debris toward the throat, where it
is swallowed.

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Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium 2

Table
© 2019 McGraw-Hill 4.2d©Victor Eroschenko
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Stratified Squamous Epithelium 1

Stratified squamous epithelium forms a thick

epithelium because it consists of several layers
of cells.
Though the deepest cells are cuboidal or
columnar and are capable of dividing and
producing new cells, the naming is based on the
shape of the surface cells.
There are two types of stratified squamous
epithelia: keratinized stratified squamous
and nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelia.
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 Keratinized Stratified Squamous
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Epithelium
The outer layer of the skin is comprised of a
keratinized squamous epithelium.
The keratin reduces the loss of water from the
body.

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 Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous
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Epithelium
Stratified squamous epithelium of the mouth
is a moist nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium.
This nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium provides protection against
abrasion and acts as a mechanical barrier.
Water, however, can move across it more
readily than across the skin (keratinized
stratified squamous).
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Stratified Squamous Epithelium 2

Table
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©McGraw-Hill Education/Al
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Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

Stratified cuboidal epithelium consists of
more than one layer of cuboidal epithelial
cells.
This epithelial type is relatively rare and is
found in sweat gland ducts, ovarian follicular
cells, and the salivary glands.
It functions in absorption, secretion,
and protection.

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Stratified Columnar Epithelium

Stratified columnar epithelium consists of more
than one layer of epithelial cells; the surface
cells are columnar but the deeper cells are
irregular or cuboidal in shape.
Like stratified cuboidal epithelium, stratified
columnar epithelium is relatively rare, found in
the mammary gland ducts, the larynx, and a
portion of the male urethra.
This epithelium carries out secretion,
protection, and some absorption.
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Transitional
Epithelium 1

Transitional epithelium is a special type

of stratified epithelium that can be
greatly stretched.
The shape of the cells change as the
epithelium is stretched.
Transitional epithelium lines cavities that
can expand greatly, such as the urinary
bladder.
It also protects
urinary bladder,underlying structures,
from the caustic likeof
effects
the
urine.
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Transitional Epithelium 2

Table
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Free Cell Surfaces

Most epithelia have a free surface that is not
in contact with other cells and faces away
from underlying tissues.
The characteristics of the free surface reflect
its functions.
The free surface can be smooth or lined
with microvilli or cilia.
Cilia move materials over the top of the
cell. Microvilli increase surface area.
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Cell Connections 1

Cells have several structures that hold one cell

to one another or to the basement
membrane.
These structures do three things: mechanically
bind the cells together, help form a permeability
barrier, and provide a mechanism for intercellular
communication.
Desmosomes are mechanical links that bind
cells together.
Hemidesmosomes are half desmosomes
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Cell Connections 2

Tight junctions prevent the passage of

materials between epithelial cells because
they completely surround each cell, similar to
the way a belt surrounds the waist.
Materials that pass through the epithelial
layer must pass through the cells, so those
cells regulate what materials can cross.
Tight junctions are found in the lining of
the intestines.
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Cell Connections 3

Gap junctions are small channels that allow

small molecules and ions to pass from one
epithelial cell to an adjacent one.
Most epithelial cells are connected to one
another by gap junctions, and researchers
believe that molecules or ions moving through
the gap junctions act as communication signals
to coordinate the activities of the cells.

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Cell Connections 4

Figure
© 2019 McGraw-Hill 4.2
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Glands 1

Glands are secretory organs that secrete

substances onto a surface, into a cavity, or into
the bloodstream.
Glands are composed primarily of epithelium,
with a supporting network of connective tissue.
Glands with ducts are called exocrine glands.
Both the gland and its ducts is lined with
epithelium.
Endocrine glands are ductless glands; they
secrete their products (termed hormones) into
the bloodstream.
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Glands 2

Most exocrine glands are

multicellular, comprised of many
cells.
Some exocrine glands are composed of a
single cell, like goblet cells, that secrete
mucus.
Multicellular exocrine glands can be
classified according to the structure of their
ducts and secretory regions.
some have branched
ducts. glands have a single, non-branched
Simple
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Glands 3

Compound exocrine glands have

multiple, branched ducts.
Glands with secretory regions shaped as
tubules (small tubes) are called tubular,
whereas those shaped in saclike structures are
called acinar or alveolar.
Tubular glands can be straight or coiled.
Glands with a combination of the two are
called
tubuloacinar or
tubuloalveolar.
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Exocrine Gland Structures

Figure
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Glands 4

Exocrine glands can also be classified

according to how products leave the cell.
Merocrine secretion involves the release
of secretory products by exocytosis.
Apocrine secretion involves the release of
secretory products as pinched-off fragments
of the gland cells.
Holocrine secretion involves the shedding
of entire cells.
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Exocrine Glands and Secretion Types

Figure
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Connective Tissue
Connective tissue is a diverse primary tissue
type that makes up part of every organ in the
body.
Connective tissue differs from the other three
tissue types in that it consists of cells separated
from each other by abundant extracellular
matrix.
Connective tissue is diverse in both structure
and function.
Connective tissue is comprised of cells,
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Functions of Connective Tissue

1. Enclose and separate other tissues
2. Connecting tissues to one another
3. Supporting and moving parts of the
body
4. Storing compounds
5. Cushioning and insulating
6. Transporting
7. Protecting
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Connective Tissue
Cells
1

The specialized cells of the various

connective tissues produce the extracellular
matrix.
The name of the cell identifies the cell
functions.
Osteoblasts form bone, osteocytes maintain
it, and osteoclasts break it down.
Fibroblasts are cells that form fibrous
connective tissue, and fibrocytes maintain
it.
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Connective Tissue
Cells
2

Found in connective tissue are cells

associated with the immune system, such as
white blood cells.
Macrophages are large cells that are capable
of moving about and ingesting foreign
substances, including microorganisms in the
connective tissue.
Mast cells are nonmotile cells that
release chemicals, such as histamine, that
promote inflammation.
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Extracellular Matrix
The extracellular matrix of connective tissue
has three major components: protein fibers,
ground substance, and fluid.
Ground substance consists of non-
fibrous protein and other molecules.
The structure of the matrix is responsible for
the functional characteristics of connective
tissues— for example, they enable bones and
cartilage to bear weight.
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Matrix Protein Fibers

Three types of protein fibers—collagen,
reticular, and elastic—help form most
connective tissues.
Collagen fibers, which resemble
microscopic ropes, are very flexible but
resist stretching.
Reticular fibers are very fine, short collagen
fibers that branch to form a supporting
network.
Elastic fibers have the ability to return to
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Matrix Ground Substance

The ground substance consists of non-
fibrous molecules and is shapeless. .
It consists of proteoglycans, which are
large molecules that consist of a protein
core attached to many long
polysaccharides.
Proteoglycans trap large quantities of
water between the polysaccharides, which
allows them to return to their original
shape when compressed or deformed.
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Types of Connective
Tissues1

The two main types of connective tissue

are
embryonic and adult connective tissue.
By eight weeks of development, most of
the embryonic connective tissue has
become specialized to form the types of
connective tissue seen in adults.

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Types of Connective
Tissues2

Loose connective tissue consists of relatively

few protein fibers that form a lacy network,
with numerous spaces filled with ground
substance and fluid.
Three subdivisions of loose connective tissue
are areolar, adipose, and reticular.
Areolar connective tissue primarily consists
of collagen fibers and a few elastic fibers.
The most common cells in loose
connective tissue are the fibroblasts.
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Types of Connective
Tissues3

Adipose tissue consists of adipocytes, or fat

cells, which contain large amounts of lipid
for energy storage.
Adipose tissue pads and protects parts of
the body and acts as a thermal insulator.
Reticular tissue forms the framework of
lymphatic tissue, such as in the spleen and
lymph nodes, as well as in bone marrow and
the liver.
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Areolar Connective Tissue

Table
© 2019 McGraw-Hill 4.5a ©Ed Reschke
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Adipose Tissue

Table
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Types of Connective
Tissues4

Dense connective tissue has a relatively large

number of protein fibers that form thick
bundles and fill nearly all of the extracellular
space.
There are two major subcategories of
dense connective tissue: collagenous and
elastic.
Dense collagenous connective tissue has an
extracellular matrix consisting mostly of
collagen fibers.
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Types of Connective
Tissues5

Dense collagenous connective tissue has an

extracellular matrix consisting mostly of
collagen fibers.
Dense collagenous connective tissue having
the collagen fibers oriented in the same
direction is termed dense regular.
Examples of dense regular are tendons
and ligaments.

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Types of Connective
Tissues6

Dense collagenous connective tissue having the

collagen fibers oriented in the multiple
directions is termed dense irregular.
Examples of dense irregular are in the dermis
of the skin and in organ capsules.

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 Dense Regular Collagenous
55

Connective Tissue

Table
© 2019 McGraw-Hill 4.6a
©Victor Eroschenko, ©Ed Reschke/Photolibrary/Getty
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Types of Connective
Tissues7

Dense elastic connective tissue has

abundant elastic fibers among its collagen
fibers.
The elastic fibers allow the tissue to stretch
and recoil.
Examples include the dense elastic
connective tissue in the vocal cords.
A genetic condition called Marfan
syndrome results from, in part the
inability to properly maintain and form
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 Dense Regular Elastic Connective
57

Tissue

Table
© 2019 McGraw-Hill 4.6b©Victor Eroschenko
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Cartilage 1

Cartilage is composed of chondrocytes,

located in spaces called lacunae within an
extensive matrix.
Collagen in the matrix gives cartilage
flexibility and strength.
Cartilage is resilient because the
proteoglycans of the matrix trap water.
Cartilage provides support, but if bent or
slightly compressed, it resumes its original
shape.
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Cartilage 2

There are three types of cartilage:

hyaline, fibrocartilage, and elastic
cartilage.
Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant type of
cartilage and has many functions, such as
covering the ends of bones, where they form
joints.
Fibrocartilage has more collagen than does
hyaline cartilage and is able to withstand
compression and resist tearing or pulling.
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Hyaline Cartilage

Table
© 2019 McGraw-Hill 4.7a©Victor Eroschenko
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Cartilage 3

Fibrocartilage has more collagen than

does hyaline cartilage and is able to
withstand compression and resist tearing
or pulling.
Fibrocartilage is found in the disks between the
vertebrae (bones of the back) and in some
joints, such as the knee and
temporomandibular (jaw) joints.

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Cartilage 4

Elastic cartilage contains elastic fibers in

addition to collagen and proteoglycans.
The elastic fibers appear as coiled fibers
among bundles of collagen fibers.
Elastic cartilage is able to recoil to its
original shape when bent.
The external ear, epiglottis, and auditory
tube contain elastic cartilage.

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Fibrocartilage and Elastic Cartilages

Table
© 2019 McGraw-Hill 4.7b,c
©Victor Eroschenko
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Bone 1

Bone is a hard connective tissue that consists

of living cells and a mineralized matrix.
Osteocytes are located within lacunae.
The strength and rigidity of the mineralized
matrix enables bones to support and
protect other tissues and organs.
Two types of bone tissue exist: spongy bone
and compact bone.

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Bone 2

Spongy bone has spaces between trabeculae

or plates, of bone and therefore resembles a
sponge.
Compact bone is more solid, with almost no
space between many thin layers of mineralized
matrix.

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Bone 3

Table
© 2019 McGraw-Hill 4.8 ©Trent
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Blood 1

Blood is a liquid connective tissue

It contains a liquid matrix, termed the
plasma, along with formed elements.
The formed elements are
erythrocytes, leukocytes, and
platelets.
It functions in transport of food, oxygen,
waste, hormones, and other substances.

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Blood 2

Table
© 2019 McGraw-Hill 4.9
©Ed Reschke/Photolibrary/Getty
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Muscle 1

The main function of muscle tissue is

to contract, or shorten, making
movement possible.
Muscle contraction results from
contractile proteins located within the
muscle cells.
The three types of muscle tissue are
skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.

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Muscle 2

Skeletal muscle attaches to the skeleton and

enables the body to move.
Skeletal muscle cells are striated, or banded,
because of the arrangement of contractile
proteins within the cells.

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Skeletal Muscle

Table
© 2019 McGraw-Hill 4.10a ©Ed Reschke
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Muscle 3

Cardiac muscle is the muscle of the heart; it

is responsible for pumping blood.
Cardiac muscle cells are cylindrical but much
shorter than skeletal muscle cells.
Cardiac muscle cells are striated and usually
have one nucleus per cell.
They are often branched and connected to
one another by intercalated disks.

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Cardiac Muscle

Table
© 2019 McGraw-Hill 4.10b ©Ed Reschke
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Muscle 4

Smooth muscle forms the walls of hollow

organs; it is also found in the skin and the
eyes.
Smooth muscle is responsible for a number
of functions, such as moving food through the
digestive tract and emptying the urinary
bladder.
Smooth muscle cells are tapered at each
end, have a single nucleus, and are not
striated.
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Smooth Muscle

Table
© 2019 McGraw-Hill 4.10c
©McGraw-Hill Education/Dennis
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Nervous
Tissue 1
Nervous tissue forms the brain, spinal cord,
and nerves.
It is responsible for coordinating and
controlling many body activities.
Nervous tissue consists of neurons and
support cells, termed glial cells.
The neuron is responsible for conducting
action potentials.
It is composed of three parts: a cell body,
dendrites, and an axon.
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Nervous
Tissue
2

Table
© 2019 McGraw-Hill 4.11 ©Trent
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Tissue
Membranes 1

A tissue membrane is a thin sheet or layer

of tissue that covers a structure or lines a
cavity.
Most membranes consist of epithelium and the
connective tissue on which the epithelium
rests.
There are four tissue membranes in the
body: cutaneous, mucous, serous, and
synovial.
The skin, termed the cutaneous membrane,
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Tissue
Membranes 2

The mucous membranes line cavities that open

to the outside of the body, such as the
digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts.
Mucous membranes consist of epithelial cells,
their basement membrane, and a thick layer of
loose connective tissue.
Many, but not all, mucous membranes
secrete mucus.
The functions of mucous membranes
include protection, absorption, and
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Tissue
Membranes 3
Serous membranes line cavities that do not open
to the exterior of the body, such as the
pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal cavities.
Serous membranes consist of three components:
a layer of simple squamous epithelium, its
basement membrane, and a delicate layer of
loose connective tissue.
Serous membranes do not contain glands, but
they secrete a small amount of fluid called
serous fluid, which lubricates the surface of the
membranes.
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Tissue
Membranes 4

Synovial membranes line the cavities of

freely movable joints.
They are made up of only connective tissue
and consist of modified connective tissue cells.
Synovial membranes produce synovial fluid,
which makes the joint very slippery,
thereby reducing friction and allowing
smooth movement within the joint.

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Internal Membranes

Figure
© 2019 McGraw-Hill 4.5
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Tissue Inflammation 1

Inflammation is usually a beneficial

process occurring when tissues are
damaged.
When viruses infect epithelial cells of the upper
respiratory tract, inflammation and the
symptoms of the common cold are produced.
The inflammatory process occurs in stages.

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Tissue Inflammation 2

Inflammation mobilizes the body’s defenses and

isolates and destroys microorganisms, foreign
materials, and damaged cells so that tissue
repair can proceed.
Inflammation produces five major symptoms:
redness, heat, swelling, pain, and disturbance
of function.

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Inflammation

Figure
© 2019 McGraw-Hill 4.6
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Tissue
Repair 1
Tissue repair involves substitution of dead cells
for viable cells.
Tissue repair can occur by regeneration or
by fibrosis.
In regeneration, the new cells are the same type
as those that were destroyed, and normal
function is usually restored.
In fibrosis, or replacement, a new type of tissue
develops that eventually causes scar production
and the loss of some tissue function.
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Tissue
Repair 2

Regeneration can completely repair some tissues,

such as the skin and the mucous membrane of
the intestine. In these cases, regeneration is
accomplished primarily by stem cells.
Stem cells are self-renewing,
undifferentiated cells that continue to
divide throughout life.
Tissue repair occurs in sequential steps.

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Tissue
Repair 3

Figure
© 2019 McGraw-Hill 4.7