Chapter Two- Handout Five

Thermodynamic Processes in Buildings

Thermodynamics is the study of energy in its various forms and transportations of energy from one form to
another. In classical thermodynamics, one considers several forms energy. Three of these- kinetic, potential,
and internal- can be possessed by materials in building systems. Thermodynamics also considers two forms
of energy in transport: heat and work. These differ in that they only exist as they are transferred across
thermodynamic systems boundaries. Heat and work are not properties of a material.

In thermodynamics, one also studies the restrictions that nature places on the transformations of energy.
These restrictions are the first and the second laws of thermodynamic. In addition to these fundamental
universally applicable laws, we will use the thermodynamic properties of materials to analyze their behavior
in important thermodynamic processes.

Thermodynamics is important in the design and analysis of buildings since performance and efficiency of
cooling and heating systems for buildings are determined to a large part by the restrictions which
thermodynamics places of HVAC systems and equipment.

The thermodynamic state of a single-substance system- e.g., air in a building, steam in a boiler, water in a
chiller, or refrigerant in an air conditioner- is defined by specifying two independent intensive properties.
Intensive properties do not depend on the size or mass of the thermodynamic system (like pressure,
temperature, and specific volume), whereas extensive properties depend directly on the system size and
mass (like volume and mass).

There are eight properties needed in building and HVAC system design:

1. Pressure (P) force per unit area measured in kPa

𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴

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 The pressures of air and water are very important.

– Absolute pressure (Pabs): pressure exerted by fluid above zero pressure (vacuum)
– Gage pressure (Patm): pressure exerted by fluid above atmospheric pressure patm = 101 kPa at
sea level
– Vacuum pressure (Pvac): pressure exerted by fluid below atmospheric pressure patm

Pressure Effect on Properties

Figure: Pressure Effect on Properties

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 Figure: Atmospheric Layers

Note: Height of Mount Everest is 8.848 km

Unlike the Ocean, there is no definite boundary. The atmosphere gradually thins out as you get higher, at a
rate of roughly 1% per hundred meters for the first few thousand meters, more slowly after that. About
half the mass of the atmosphere is within the first 5.5 km, about three quarters within 11 km.

The atmosphere is breathable for people in normal health up to about 4 km, about the elevation of the
highest cities towns, for example Lhasa in Tibet at 3,656 m, after which it becomes difficult without
acclimatization. No doubt by coincidence, the Summit of Earth's highest Mountain, Everest, at 8.8 km,
seems to be pretty close to the boundary where a very fit person can survive without oxygen equipment,
at least for a short time.

Nearly all weather occurs in the lowest layer of the atmosphere, the troposphere, extending to about 12
km (higher at the equator, lower at the poles). Above that, there are several layers with their own distinct
properties.

The Kármán line, located at 100 km, considered to be the boundary of outer space, beyond which a
traveller is considered to be an astronaut. This isn't entirely arbitrary. It approximates the height beyond
which no aircraft flight would be possible because the atmosphere is too thin to provide aerodynamic lift
at a speed below orbital velocity.

Ratio of height of atmosphere to diameter of Earth

100 km
= = 0.0078 ‼!
12,742 km

Question: How long does it take to reach the end of the atmosphere?

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Answer: Assuming there were a direct road from the earth surface to the end of the atmosphere (Karman
line), and assuming you could drive upward at a constant speed of 100 km/h, it would take one hour!
Earth atmosphere is so thin and delicate.

Pabs = Patm + Pg
Pabs = Patm - Pvac

Atmospheric pressure can be calculated from the relationship as a function of height. This
relationship is shown in the graph below. Note pressure is almost zero above 6 km.

Patm = 101.325[1 − 2.2577 × 10−5 × H]5.256

Where H is elevation above sea level in m

120

100
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE (KPA)

80

60

40

20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
HEIGHT ABOVE SEA LEVEL (KM)

Figure: Relationship between Height and Atmospheric Pressure

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 Volume ratio = Molar ratio,
Components in dry air Molar Mass Molar mass in air
compared to dry air

[g/mol] [g/molair]
Name Formula [mol/molair] [vol %] [wt %]
[kg/kmol] [kg/kmolair]

Nitrogen N2 0.78084 78.084 28.013 21.873983 75.52

Oxygen O2 0.20946 20.946 31.999 6.702469 23.14

Argon Ar 0.00934 0.934 39.948 0.373114 1.29

Carbon dioxide CO2 0.00033 0.033 44.010 0.014677 0.051

Neon Ne 0.00001818 0.001818 20.180 0.000367 0.0013

Helium He 0.00000524 0.000524 4.003 0.000021 0.00007

Methane CH4 0.00000179 0.000179 16.042 0.000029 0.00010

Krypton Kr 0.0000010 0.0001 83.798 0.000084 0.00029

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 Volume ratio = Molar ratio,
Components in dry air Molar Mass Molar mass in air
compared to dry air

[g/mol] [g/molair]
Name Formula [mol/molair] [vol %] [wt %]
[kg/kmol] [kg/kmolair]

Hydrogen H2 0.0000005 0.00005 2.016 0.000001 0.000003

Xenon Xe 0.00000009 0.000009 131.293 0.000012 0.00004

Average molar mass of air 28.9647

Gibbs Dalton law

Mixture Pressure = Sum of the partial pressures of the constituents

𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝑛
For moist-air:
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑁2 + 𝑃𝑂2 + 𝑃𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑃𝐴𝑟𝑔𝑜𝑛+𝐾𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑛+𝑁𝑒𝑜𝑛 + 𝑃𝑤𝑣

All dry gases can be considered as one gas, then:

𝑃 = 𝑃𝑑𝑎 + 𝑃𝑤𝑣

2. Temperature (T): A measure of the thermal activity in a body

• Thermal activity depends on the velocity of the molecules and other particles of which a
matter is composed.
• Thermometer is used to measure temperature
– rely on the fact that most liquids expand and contract when their temperature is raised or
lowered
• Temperature scale: Fahrenheit (˚F) and Celsius (˚C), Rankine (˚R) and Kelvin

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 – Fahrenheit
• 0°F as the stabilized
temperature when equal
amount of ice, water, and salt
are mixed
– Celsius
• 0°C as melting point of ice
(water) and 100°C as boiling
point of water
• ˚ F = 1.8 ˚ C + 32
– Kelvin
• 0 K as absolute zero
• K = ˚ C + 273.15
– Rankine
• ˚ R = ˚ F + 459.67

a. Dry-bulb temperature (Td): The dry-bulb temperature (DBT) is the temperature of air measured
by a thermometer freely exposed to the air but shielded from radiation and moisture. DBT is the
temperature that is usually thought of as air temperature, and it is the true thermodynamic
temperature. It indicates the amount of heat in the air and is directly proportional to the mean
kinetic energy of the air molecules. Temperature is usually measured in degree Celsius (°C), Kelvin
(K), or Fahrenheit (°F) in IP units.

Unlike wet bulb temperature, dry bulb temperature does not indicate the amount of moisture in
the air. In construction, it is an important consideration when designing a building for a certain
climate. The DBT is the most important climate variable for human comfort and building energy
efficiency.

b. Wet-bulb temperature (Tw): The thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature is the lowest temperature
which may be achieved by evaporative cooling of a water-wetted (or even ice-covered), ventilated
surface.

c. Dew-point temperature (Tdew): the dew point is the temperature to which the ambient air must be
cooled to reach 100% relative humidity assuming there is no evaporation into the air; it is the point
where condensate (dew) and rain would form.

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 Figure(a) : Dry-bulb and Wet- Figure (b): Sling Psychrometer
bulb Temperatures

Water absorbs heat from the probe (bulb)-in fact from the air- as it evaporates. If the weather is dry, more
water evaporates and thus absorbs more heat from the bulb- then the temperature difference between
dry and wet becomes large. If the weather is wet, less water will evaporate and thus absorbs less heat from
the bulb- then the temperature difference between dry and wet becomes little. At 100% relative humidity,
the wet-bulb temperature equals the dry-bulb temperature.

In a weather station, the thermometer is usually housed in a Stevenson Screen. A Stevenson Screen is a
white boxed shelter that contains temperature and relative humidity equipment. It shields the instruments
from sunshine and precipitations and has louvered sides to permit the free movement of air. Ideally the
shelter is placed over grass, mounted at 1 meter above the ground and as far from any buildings as
circumstances permit.

Figure: Measuring Dry- and Wet- Bulb Temperatures in Weather Stations

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3. Humidity

a. Humidity Ratio (W)

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 (𝑚𝑤𝑣 )

𝑊= 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 − 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 − 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝑚𝑑𝑎 )

Units: dimensionless
gwv/gda
gwv/kgda

b. Relative Humidity (φ)

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 (𝑚𝑤𝑣 )

∅= × 100 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑇, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚𝑤𝑣,𝑠𝑎𝑡 )

Units: percentage (%)

Question: What is the difference between humidity ratio and relative humidity and why do we use
relative humidity in weather forecast not humidity ratio?
Answer: Conduct the experiment: bring four different sizes of bakers and record both W and ∅ in the
table below:

Take the humidity ratio (W)for the room as 8 gwv/kgda

Humidity Ratio (W) 8 gwv/kgda 8 gwv/kgda 8 gwv/kgda 8 gwv/kgda 8 gwv/kgda

Relative Humidity (∅) 100% (rest is rain) 100% 50% 30% 10%

Heating

Cooling

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 Figure: Relationship between Temperature and Relative Humidity During the Day

Relative humidity (∅) is inversely proportional to the air temperature .i.e. if temperature increases, the
relative humidity decreases and vice versa.

Figure: Effect of Relative Humidity

Room humidity can have a major impact on the quality of the living environment. A relative humidity (∅) of
40-60% is generally considered to be optimal for a comfortable and healthy home. Too much moisture can

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lead to mold and overheating. Too little causes dry eyes, chapped lips and
an environment in which bacteria and viruses can thrive.

4. Specific volume (ʋ) (which is the reciprocal of density) measured in Meaning of Specific
m3/kg
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 "𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒"
1 "𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒"
ʋ= =
𝜌 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density – mass/volume (used for solids and liquids)


air =1.2 kg/m3, water = 1000 kg/m3 Ratio= 833

Changes slightly with temperature, why? Because of volume change

5. Specific Heat (c)

 Amount of heat that is required to change the temperature of 1 kg of the substance 1 °C.
 Units (J/kg-°C)
 Without phase change!!
 Property of material which changes slightly with temperature
 Specific heat for water is 4.186 kJ/(kg-K)
 Specific heat for air is 1.005 kJ/(kg-K)

6. Specific internal energy (μ) measured in kJ/kg

• Internal energy (U): microscopic energy possessed by a system caused by the motion/vibration
of the molecules and/or intermolecular forces- The motion/vibration increases with
temperature
• Internal energy is thus often measured by the body’s temperature (this is not true when the
body is a liquid or a solid (such as ice) which is changing phase!)-

Important: a body does not contain heat; it contains thermal energy

7. Specific Enthalpy (h) measured in kJ/kg

Can be defined as the energy per unit mass a fluid transports across a system boundary.
– A property of a body that measures its heat content
– Enthalpy includes: (i) Internal energy U and
(ii) pv or energy due to flow work
Which is internal energy + work needed to move a mass of fluid across a system boundary.
– Enthalpy is a combined property which is widely used in thermal analysis
– When T, p or V changes, H changes

specific enthalpy h = u + p.v in kJ/kg (v is specific volume=1/density)

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 h =μ+P×ʋ

where:

h= specific enthalpy (kJ/kg)

μ= internal energy (kJ/kg)
P = pressure, kPa
ʋ= specific volume, m3/kg

Instead of sensible or latent heat equations, enthalpy equation is widely used since one does not have to
worry about state of fluid.

Enthalpy is the total energy (sensible + latent)

𝑄̇ = 𝑚̇ × (ℎ𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 ) (later derived in this handout)

8. Specific entropy (s). “Not needed in this course”.

Specific entropy s is another important property which cannot be directly measured (such as internal energy
or enthalpy). Entropy is defined from the second law of thermodynamics as the ratio of heat change to the
temperature at which the heat change takes place:

𝑑𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝑑𝑠 =
𝑇
Units of specific entropy are kJ/(kg.K)

Entropy is a measure of the energy that is not available for work during a thermodynamic process due to
the fact that natural processes tend not to be reversible. For example, thermal energy always flows
spontaneously as heat from regions of higher temperature to regions of lower temperature. Such processes
reduces the state of order of the initial system by homogenization, and therefore entropy is an expression
of the degree of disorder or chaos at the microscopic level within the system. So, entropy is:

a. A measure of order or disorder.

b. A measure of unavailable energy of a system.

The specific entropy of an ideal gas (relative to the reference state To, νo, and so) can be found from
𝑇 𝑣
𝑠 − 𝑠𝑜 = 𝑐𝑣 ln + 𝑅 ln
𝑇𝑜 𝑣𝑜

Two other properties are needed:

Specific heat is defined as energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by
one degree. This energy depends on how the process is executed (refer to figure below). Two kinds of
specific heats are available:

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 1. Specific heat at constant volume (cv)

∆𝑢
𝑐𝑣 =
∆𝑇

2. Specific heat at constant pressure (cp)

∆ℎ
𝑐𝑝 =
∆𝑇

Note that cp is greater than cv because some of the energy absorbed will be consumed in doing work
against the surrounding and the rest will raise the internal energy. In c v, however, no work is done.

Cp of air = 1.006 kJ/(kg.k)

Cp, water = 4.186 kJ/(kg.K)

There are two sources to obtain properties of air:

1. Simple equations such as the ideal gas law (for air, or moist air).
2. Tables computed from complex equations (for water and refrigerants).

Sensible Heat versus Latent Heat

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Note to consider from the chart

1. Since the air is a mixture of dry gases and water vapor, the water vapor carries the latent heat,
while the dry gases carries the sensible heat.

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 2. Sensible heat is a function of temperature f(T) (no phase change), while latent heat is a function
of humidity ratio f(W) (phase change).
3. The total enthalpy of the moist-air (hT) = enthalpy of dry-air (hda)+ enthalpy of water vapor (hwv).
4. To convert 1 pound (0.45 kg) of water from solid to liquid you need 144 Btu (152 kJ). But to
convert the same amount from liquid to gas you need 970 Btu (1023 kJ). That is 6.7 times
(970/144). What does this mean?

Question: Suppose that you kept the humidifier to operate and produce steam in a closed room. The dry-
bulb temperature (Td) initially was 22oC. Will the dry-bulb temperature change in the room after operating
the humidifier? How about the wet-bulb temperature (Tw)? Why?
Answer:

Types of Gases
• Real gases: whose molecules occupy space and have inter-molecular attractions.
• Ideal gases: those that contain molecules which can be considered to be point masses and have no
attractive forces.

Ideal Gas Law

The ratio of pressure P times molar volume ʋ divided by the absolute temperature T is observed to
approach a constant value, when the pressure is allowed to approach zero.

P×ʋ
lim ( ) = 𝑅𝑈
p→0 T

Where RU is the universal gas constant = 8314.41 J/(kg.mol.K)

𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 8314.41

𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 =
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠
For example the air gas constant is

8314.41 𝐽
𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑟 = = 287
28.97 (𝑘𝑔. 𝐾)

Mole: the standard unit to measure the amount of a substance.

Avogadro’s principle: Equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same
number of molecules (6.023 *1023 molecules). That is, one mole of a substance contains 6.023 *1023
molecules.

A gas is a perfect ideal gas when it obeys the ideal gas law.

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 𝑃𝜈 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
𝑚
𝑃 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑉
𝑃×𝑉 = 𝑚×𝑅×𝑇

Also, since,
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑚) = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝑛) × 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑀)

Then, 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑀𝑅𝑇
Or, 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑈 𝑇

Forms of the Ideal Gas Law:

P  R air T

PV  mR air T

PV  nRT (not used in HVAC)

Where;
P= pressure, Pa
ʋ= specific volume, m3/kg (this is the reciprocal of density ρ)
Rair= gas constant of air = 287 J/(kg.K)
T = absolute temperature, K
V = volume, m3 (note the difference between capital letter V (for volume) and small Greek letter
ʋ (for specific volume)
m = mass, kg

Relationship between Humidity ratio and Pressure:

From above, since PV  mR air T

𝑃𝑤𝑣 𝑉 𝑃𝑤𝑣
𝑚𝑤𝑣 𝑅𝑤𝑣 𝑇 𝑅𝑤𝑣 𝑅𝑑𝑎 𝑃𝑤𝑣
𝑊= = = = ×
𝑚𝑑𝑎 𝑃𝑑𝑎 𝑉 𝑃𝑑𝑎 𝑅𝑤𝑣 𝑃𝑑𝑎
𝑅𝑑𝑎 𝑇 𝑅𝑑𝑎

Since Rgas= universal gas constant (R)/ molecular weight (Mgas), and Patm= Pda + Pwv

𝑅
𝑀𝑑𝑎 𝑃𝑤𝑣 𝑀 𝑃𝑤𝑣 18.015 𝑃𝑤𝑣 𝑃𝑤𝑣
Then, 𝑊 = 𝑅 ×𝑃 = 𝑀𝑑𝑎 × 𝑃 = 28.965 × 𝑃 = 0.622 × 𝑃
𝑎𝑡𝑚−𝑃𝑤𝑣 𝑤𝑣 𝑎𝑡𝑚−𝑃𝑤𝑣 𝑎𝑡𝑚−𝑃𝑤𝑣 𝑎𝑡𝑚 −𝑃𝑤𝑣
𝑀𝑤𝑣

𝑃𝑤𝑣
W = 0.622 ×
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃𝑤𝑣

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Example One

The dimensions of your classroom (Bahrain, Patm= 101.325 kPa) is 12 m × 6 m × 3 m. If the temperature
(Td) is 22oC, and the humidity ratio is 10 gwv/kgda, answer the following questions.

1. Use the ideal gas law to calculate the density (ρ) of air in the classroom.

𝑃 101.325𝑘 𝑘𝑔𝑑𝑎
𝜌= = = 1.2 (Always remember this value of density at sea level, Bahrain
𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑟 ×𝑇 287×(22+273) 𝑚3
as an example)

2. Calculate the mass of water vapor and the mass of dry air in the classroom.

First find Pwv and Pda and then use the ideal gas law equation:
Note that volume and temperature of both dry air and water vapor is the same.

From above relationship:

𝑊 × 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 0.01 × 101.325

𝑃𝑤𝑣 = = = 1.6 𝑘𝑃𝑎
0.622 + 𝑊 0.622 + 0.01

Then, Pda= Patm -Pwv=101.3-1.6=99.7 kPa

𝑃𝑤𝑣 𝑉 1.6𝑘 × (12 × 6 × 3)

𝑚𝑤𝑣 = = = 2.54 𝑘𝑔𝑤𝑣
𝑅𝑤𝑣 𝑇 461.5 × (22 + 273)

𝑃𝑑𝑎 𝑉 99.7𝑘 × (12 × 6 × 3)

𝑚𝑑𝑎 = = = 254 𝑘𝑔𝑑𝑎
𝑅𝑑𝑎 𝑇 287 × (22 + 273)

Note that Rair =287.05 J/(kg.K)

And Rwv= 461.52 J/(kg.K)

Difference between Closed and Open systems in Thermodynamics

Figure: Open, Closed, and Isolated Systems

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Laws of Thermodynamics
In simplest terms, the Laws of Thermodynamics dictate the specifics for the movement of heat and work.
Basically:
The First Law is a statement of the conservation of energy.
The Second Law is a statement capturing facts that:
a. certain forms of energy are of higher quality than others.
b. only certain directions of energy transfer are allowed.
The Third Law is a statement about reaching Absolute Zero (0 K).
However, since their conception, these laws have become some of the most important laws of all science
and are often associated with concepts far beyond what is directly stated in the wording.

 Heat is the lowest form of energy

 Work (from which electricity is produced) is a higher form
 One unit of thermal energy at a high temperature is more VALUABLE than the same amount of
energy at a lower temperature

1. Closed-system First Law of Thermodynamics

A closed thermodynamic system is one in which mass neither enters nor leaves the system during the
process under analysis. An example is the combustion of fuel and air confined in a cylinder of an internal
combustion engine.
In equation form, the first law can be written as:

∆U = Q − W

ΔU = change in internal energy of the system

Q = heat, positive if added to the system, will increase the system’s internal energy
And negative if removed from system, will decrease system’s internal energy
W = work positive if performed by the system, will decrease system’s internal energy
And negative if performed on the system, will increase system’s internal energy

Figure: Schematic Diagram of a Closed System Consisting of Gas Expanding in a piston-cylinder

assembly with work output/input and heat input/output

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Example One

Calculate the change in internal energy if system absorbs 300 J od heat and performs 500 J of work

∆U = Q − W = 300 − 500 = −200 J

Example Two

Calculate the change in internal energy if system absorbs 720 J and surroundings performs 300 J on the
system.
∆U = Q − W = 720 − (−300) = 1,020 J

Example Three

Calculate the change in internal energy if system loses 225 J and surroundings performs 400 J on the system.

∆U = Q − W = −225 − (−400) = 175 J

Buildings are open systems. Both energy and mass can be exchanged with
the environment.

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2. Open-system First Law of Thermodynamics

.  V2  . .  V2  . Important Note
m i  g  z i  i  hi   Q  m o  g  z o  o  ho   W
 2   2  𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴(𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖 )
   
Is heat gain to air
Where 𝑸 = 𝒎 ×̇ 𝒄𝒑 × (𝑻𝒐 − 𝑻𝒊 )
Is heat removal from air
mi and mo are the inlet and outlet mass flow rates, kg/s UA is equivalent to m-dot cp
zi and zo are the system port elevations, m
vi and vo are the inlet and outlet average fluid velocities, m/s
hi and ho are the inlet and outlet specific enthalpies, kJ/kg

In case of a building and air, the state-state conservation of mass ensures that mi = mo, potential and kinetic
energies are negligible, and work equals to zero. Then the equation becomes

𝑄̇ = 𝑚̇ × (ℎ𝑜 − ℎ𝑖 )
And since Δh = cp,air ΔT, then:

𝑄̇ = 𝑚̇ × 𝑐𝑝,𝑎𝑖𝑟 × (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖 )

Some important processes as they relate to HVAC equipment are shown in table 12.2, where 1 and 2
designate the inlet and outlet state points.

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Example Two

Air enters an auditorium (Bahrain Patm =101.325 kPa, ρ=1.2 kg/m3) through the diffusers (air outlets) of an
HVAC system at a temperature of 12oC at a volumetric flow rate of 0.5 m3/s. The air collects the heat and
leaves through the air inlets (called return grills) at the set-point temperature of the space at T=24oC.
Calculate the mass flow rate entering the auditorium. How much heat is removed from the auditorium?

12oC 24oC

Solution

Mass flow rate of air entering the auditorium = volume flow rate × density

̇ ̇ 𝑚3 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑚 = 𝑉 × 𝜌 = 0.5 × 1.2 3 = 0.6
𝑠 𝑚 𝑠

The amount of heat removed from the air in the auditorium can be calculated as follows:

𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 𝑚̇ × 𝑐𝑝 × (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖 ) = 0.6 × 1.006 × (24 − 12)𝐾 = 7.24 = 7.24 𝑘𝑊
𝑠 (𝑘𝑔. 𝐾) 𝑠

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Example Three

In a windy day at sea level (Bahrain, Patm =101.325 kPa), air leaks to a building at a rate of 1 air change per
hour. All air in the building is exchanged with fresh air every one hour “once each hour”. It occurs through
cracks, around windows, through loose fittings building materials, open doors, etc… This is called infiltration
(hot air infiltrates to the building). Take the outdoor temperature (To) is 39oC and the area of the building is
150 m2, with an average height of 7 m and answer the following questions:

1. Calculate the volumetric flow rate (Vinf) of this infiltrating air.

𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑉)̇

𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 (𝐴𝐶𝐻) =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

Then, infiltration volumetric flow rate = Air change per hour × Volume of building
= 1/hour × (150 ×7) m3 × 1 hour/3600 s =0.29 m3/s (watch your units!)
2. Calculate the mass flow rate (minf) of this infiltrating air

Mass flow rate (mdot) = Volumetric flow rate (Vdot) × density

= 0.29 m3/s × 1.2 kg/m3 = 0.35 kg/s (note: this infiltrating air has temperature of 39oC)

3. How much heat must the cooling system of the building remove from this infiltrating air to keep
the building at its set-point indoor temperature (Ti) of 22oC.

(Qdot) = mdot × Δh = mdot × cp × (T0 – Ti)= 0.35 kg/s × 1.006 kJ/(kg.K) × (39-22)K = 6 kW

Which means this air carries 6000 J/s with it as it infiltrates through the building!

4. How many refrigeration tons does this heat equal to? Comment on the answer and draw a
conclusion.

1 refrigeration ton = 3.517 kW (from the Conversion sheets)

Then, the tonnage = 6kW/3.517 (kW/ton) = 1.7 tons. The load is instantaneous.

Comments

What is the effect of infiltration on the cooling load?

Shall the designer construct buildings in hot climates (like Bahrain) to be loose or air tight?
How about cold climates?
How about temperate climates?

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