energies
Article
A New Methodology for Determination of Layered Injection
Allocation in Highly Deviated Wells Drilled in
Low-Permeability Reservoirs
Mao Li 1,2, *, Zhan Qu 1,2 , Songfeng Ji 3 , Lei Bai 4 and Shasha Yang 5
Citation: Li, M.; Qu, Z.; Ji, S.; Bai, L.;
Yang, S. A New Methodology for
Determination of Layered Injection
Allocation in Highly Deviated Wells
Drilled in Low-Permeability
Reservoirs. Energies 2023, 16, 7764.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en16237764
Academic Editor: Pål
Østebø Andersen
Received: 25 October 2023
Revised: 17 November 2023
Accepted: 22 November 2023
Published: 24 November 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Energies 2023, 16, 7764. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16237764
1 School of Petroleum Engineering, Xi’an Shiyou University, Xi’an 710065, China; zhqu@xsyu.edu.cn
2 The Key Laboratory of Well Stability and Fluid & Rock Mechanics in Oil and Gas Reservoir of Shaanxi
Province, Xi’an Shiyou University, Xi’an 710065, China
3 Exploration and Development Research Institute, Changqing Oilfield Company, PetroChina,
Xi’an 710018, China; jsf11_cq@petrochina.com.cn
4 No.1 Oil Production Plant, Changqing Oilfield Company, PetroChina, Yan’an 716000, China;
bailei612_cq@petrochina.com.cn
5 School of Petroleum Engineering and Environmental Engineering, Yan’an University, Yan’an 716000, China;
sarayang@yau.edu.cn
* Correspondence: 19111010004@stumail.xsyu.edu.cn
Abstract: During the water injection development process of highly deviated wells in low-permeability
reservoirs, the water flooding distance between different layers of the same oil and water well is
different due to the deviation of the well. In addition, the heterogeneity of low-permeability reservoirs
is strong, and the water absorption capacity between layers is very different. This results in poor
effectiveness of commonly used layered injection methods. Some highly deviated wells have premature
water breakthroughs after layered water injection, which affects the development effect of the water
flooding reservoirs. Therefore, based on the analysis and research of the existing layered injection
allocation method and sand body connectivity evaluation method, considering the influence of sand
body connectivity, the real displacement distance of highly deviated wells, reservoir physical properties,
and other factors, a new methodology for determination of layered injection allocation in highly deviated
wells drilled in low-permeability reservoirs is proposed. In this method, the vertical superposition
and lateral contact relationship of a single sand body are determined using three methods: sand body
configuration identification, seepage unit identification, and single sand body boundary identification.
The connectivity coefficient, transition coefficient, and connectivity degree coefficient are introduced to
quantitatively evaluate the connectivity of sand bodies and judge the connectivity relationship between
single sand bodies. The correlation formula is obtained using the linear regression of the fracture length
and ground fluid volume, and the real displacement distance of each layer in highly deviated wells
is obtained. The calculation formula of the layered injection allocation is established by analyzing the
important factors affecting the layered injection allocation, and a reasonable layered injection allocation
is obtained. The calculation parameters of this method are fully considered, the required parameters
are easy to obtain, and the practicability is strong. It can provide a method reference for the policy
adjustment of layered water injection technology in similar water injection development reservoirs.
Keywords: highly deviated well; layered injection allocation; sand body connectivity; single sand
body; flow unit; low-permeability reservoir; Ordos Basin; Huaqing area
1. Introduction
In the process of water injection development in low-permeability reservoirs, the
water absorption capacity of different reservoirs is different due to the heterogeneity of
reservoirs. During general water injection, most of the injected water is absorbed by the
high-permeability reservoir, resulting in uneven water absorption in each reservoir, a
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Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 24

Energies 2023, 16, 7764 2 of 24

permeability reservoir, resulting in uneven water absorption in each reservoir, a low de-
gree of utilization in some reservoirs, and a low utilization rate of water injection. With
the
lowextension
degree ofof water injection
utilization in some time, reservoir
reservoirs, andheterogeneity becomes
a low utilization rate more serious,
of water and
injection.
a fingering flow is formed in high-permeability reservoirs (Figure 1),
With the extension of water injection time, reservoir heterogeneity becomes more serious, resulting in prema-
ture
and water breakthrough
a fingering and lowinultimate
flow is formed recovery. In reservoirs
high-permeability order to improve
(Figurethe1), current
resultingsitu-
in
ation of reservoir
premature water injection
water breakthrough anddevelopment, a layeredInwater
low ultimate recovery. orderinjection
to improve technology
the current is
proposed.
situation ofThis technology
reservoir wateruses a packer
injection to combinea layers
development, layered with similar
water reservoir
injection physical
technology is
properties
proposed. This and technology
development conditions
uses a packer into one layer
to combine for with
layers watersimilar
injection. The nozzle
reservoir of
physical
the water distributor
properties limits the
and development water injection
conditions into onevolume
layer forofwater
the layer with The
injection. a good develop-
nozzle of the
ment effect, improves the water injection
water distributor limits the water injection volume of volume of the layer with low-permeability
a good development or
poor
effect,development
improves theeffect, waterand improves
injection the uneven
volume distribution
of the layer of injected waterorinpoor
with low-permeability the
vertical direction
development [1].and
effect, Through layered
improves the water
uneven injection, high-permeability
distribution of injected waterreservoirs do not
in the vertical
form a single-layer
direction [1]. Through breakthrough,
layered water while low-permeability
injection, or poor
high-permeability development
reservoirs do noteffect
formina
asingle-layer breakthrough,
reservoir improves while low-permeability
the efficiency of water flooding, or poor development
to alleviate effect in
inter-layer a reservoir
interference,
improvesthe
increase theswept
efficiency
volumeof water flooding,
of water to alleviate
flooding, improveinter-layer
the effect interference, increase
of water injection the
devel-
swept volume
opment, of water
and achieve theflooding,
purpose improve
of long-termthe effect of water
high and stableinjection development,
production and enhanced and
achieve
oil the purpose of long-term high and stable production and enhanced oil recovery.
recovery.

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Displacement
Displacementdistance
distanceofofwater
waterinjection development
injection in vertical
development wells
in vertical (a) and
wells highly
(a) and de-
highly
viated wells (b).
deviated wells (b).

In
In the
the water
water injection
injection development
development reservoir,
reservoir, in
in the
the case
case of the injection–production
of the injection–production
balance
balance in
in the
thewell
wellgroup,
group,the water
the injection
water volume
injection volume is basically equal
is basically to the
equal to liquid pro-
the liquid
duction
production by the corresponding oil well. Therefore, the layered water injection volume of
by the corresponding oil well. Therefore, the layered water injection volume of
the
the corresponding
corresponding water
water injection
injection well
well can
can be
be quantitatively
quantitatively calculated
calculated using
using the
the layered
layered
liquid production of the oil well [2].
According to the basic formula of oil well production,
∆
𝑄 =2πkh∆P , (1)
Q=  , (1)
lnre
µo +S
rw
The production of oil wells is related to geological conditions (such as effective thick-
ness (ℎ),
The permeability
production of(𝑘),
oil and
wellscrude oil viscosity
is related (𝜇 )) and
to geological development
conditions (such asconditions
effective (such
thick-
as well
ness (h),spacing radius(k),
permeability (𝑟 ),and
wellbore
crude radius (𝑟 ), production
oil viscosity pressure difference
(µo )) and development (∆𝑃),(such
conditions and
transformation
as well spacing measures (𝑆)).
radius (re ), Effective
wellbore thickness
radius represents the
(rw ), production thickness
pressure of the connected
difference (∆P), and
sand body, andmeasures
transformation the well (S)).
spacing radius
Effective represents
thickness half of the
represents the thickness
distance between oil and
of the connected
water wells.and
sand body, In the well
calculation
spacingofradius
layered injectionhalf
represents allocation, these factors
of the distance between should bewater
oil and con-
sideredIncomprehensively
wells. the calculation oftolayered
divide injection
the waterallocation,
injection volume reasonably.
these factors should be considered
comprehensively to divide
The key to layered water theinjection
water injection volume reasonably.
is to determine a reasonable layered injection allo-
The
cation. key to layered
Research methods water injectionscholars’
of previous is to determine
reasonable a reasonable layered allocation
layered injection injection allo-
are
cation. Research
categorized methods ofincluding
and analyzed, previous18 scholars’
different reasonable
methodslayered injection
[3–15] (Table 1). allocation
Accordingare to
categorized and analyzed, including 18 different methods [3–15] (Table 1). According to the
number of parameters and analysis methods, the methods are divided into single parameter
Energies 2023, 16, 7764 3 of 24

methods [3,4], multiparameter methods [3–10], and mathematical model methods [11–15].
According to geological and development conditions, the methods are divided into geolog-
ical factors [3–5], development factors [3,4,6,11–14], comprehensive factors [2,7–10], and
economic factors [15], among which the comprehensive factors consider geological factors
and development factors. The single parameter method is commonly used in the early stage
of layered water injection research. Due to the single consideration, the effect is not ideal.
In recent years, the multiparameter method and mathematical model method have been
gradually formed, but these methods have certain limitations. Most of them have difficulty
in obtaining or quantifying parameters and do not consider the connectivity of sand bodies,
so they cannot be applied to reservoir water injection development and production.

Table 1. Determination method of the reasonable layered injection allocation and its limitations.

Parametric Factor
Method Classification Method Characteristics Limitations
Classification Classification
The layered injection allocation is
Effective thickness determined with the ratio of the
method [3] oil-producing section to the total
oil-producing section.
Geological This method considers
factors The layered injection allocation is incomplete parameters.
Connected thickness determined with the ratio of the connected
method [4] thickness of the sand body to the thickness
of the oil well.
Single parameter
The layered injection allocation is
The injection–production ratio
Injection–production ascertained by dividing the injection
of each layer is difficult to
ratio method [3] production ratio of each individual layer by
obtain.
the total injection production ratio.
Development The layered injection allocation is
factors quantitatively analyzed through the The connectivity coefficient
Liquid production multiplication of three factors: the and water injection intensity
intensity method [4] perforation thickness, the connectivity data of each layer are difficult
coefficient, and the intensity of water to obtain.
injection in each layer.
Using the weighted formation coefficient,
Stratigraphic coefficient This method considers
the water injection splitting coefficient of
method [3] incomplete parameters.
each layer is obtained.
Sand body The sand body connectivity is divided into
connectivity evaluation three categories by sedimentary facies, and The reason for sand body
Stratigraphic coefficient the water injection is divided by combining connectivity is not sufficient.
method [5] the physical parameters.
Geological
factors The layered injection allocation is obtained
Remaining oil using the quantitative relationship between The water absorption data
distribution method [6] the recovery degree and the cumulative acquisition is difficult.
injection pore volume multiples.
Considering the injection–production
Multiparameter Revised coefficient balance, water cut rise rate, pump 1. This method considers
method [4] efficiency, and other factors, the empirical many parameters and it is
formula is obtained. difficult to obtain some data.
According to geological conditions, oil 2. There are many artificial
displacement conditions, and mining coefficients, which easily cause
Splitting coefficient errors.
conditions of the reservoir, the water
method [2]
injection volume is allocated according to
Comprehensive the weight of the relevant parameters.
factors
1. It is difficult to obtain
Considering the physical properties and
layered recovery degree data.
Balanced displacement utilization status of each layer, the layered
2. The connectivity of sand
method injection allocation relationship is
bodies in each layer is not
established [7].
considered.
Energies 2023, 16, 7764 4 of 24

Table 1. Cont.

Parametric Factor
Method Classification Method Characteristics Limitations
Classification Classification
1. This method requires a lot
The layered injection allocation is obtained of experimental support,
using the quantitative relationship between which cannot be replicated.
the recovery degree and the injection pore 2. The connectivity of sand
Balanced displacement volume multiples [8]. bodies in each layer is not
method considered.
Comprehensive
factors The layered injection allocation is obtained
using the idea of displacement flux
equalization [9]. This method does not
consider the connectivity of
The vertical splitting coefficient of water
Seepage resistance sand bodies in each layer.
injection well is determined using seepage
coefficient method [10]
resistance coefficient.
A multiple sequence regression model is
formulated, drawing from the dynamic
Multiple regression
production data of both the central water
method [11]
injection well and the surrounding
These methods are aimed at
production wells within the well group.
the optimization of well
The relationship model between liquid group injection allocation
Development Neural network method production and water injection is and cannot realize the
factors [12] established using neural network optimization of layered
Mathematical technology. injection allocation.
model The connectivity of the unit is
Conductivity method
characterized by its electrical conductivity
[13]
and connected volume.
This method considers many
The formula for estimating water flooding
Capacitance–resistance parameters, and it is difficult
in layered reservoirs is derived from the
method [14] to obtain oil production and
capacitance–resistance model equation.
water injection of each layer.
The water injection cycle, injection volume, This method from the
Net present value and production should be adjusted based economic evaluation does
Economic factors
method [15] on the maximum net present value of not consider formation and
production. development factors.

Conventional vertical well development is generally single-layer development. The

development of reservoirs in highly deviated wells can achieve the multilayer development
of one well, maximize the reservoir drainage area, improve the single-well productivity and
ultimate recovery, and reduce the number of drilling wells and development costs [16–19].
It is widely used to increase and stabilize production in old oilfields, offshore oilfields, and
low-permeability oilfields.
In conventional vertical well water injection development, oil and water wells are all
vertical wells, and the displacement distance between the connected sand bodies is the
distance between the oil and water wells (Figure 1a). However, in water injection develop-
ment of highly deviated wells, due to the different perforation points of different layers,
the water flooding distance between the same water injection well and different layers of
highly deviated wells is different, and the water flooding distance between different water
injection wells and the same layer of highly deviated wells is also different (Figure 1b),
which makes it difficult to determine the reasonable layered water injection policy. Un-
reasonable layered water injection can easily lead to premature water breakthroughs in
highly deviated wells, reduce the final recovery rate, and affect the development effect of
the reservoir.
Scholars’ research on highly deviated wells mostly focuses on drilling [20], logging [21–24],
fracturing [25,26], productivity evaluation [27,28], seepage law research [29–31], etc. However,
no relevant reports on the study of reasonable layered injection allocation in highly deviated
wells have been found.
Energies 2023, 16, 7764 5 of 24

Through the influencing factors of layered injection allocation, it can be known that
permeability, crude oil viscosity, wellbore radius, production pressure difference, and
transformation parameters are easy to obtain, but sand body connectivity data need to be
determined after the evaluation of sand body connectivity, and the water drive distance
between different layers of highly deviated wells needs to be calculated. Therefore, a new
methodology for determination of layered injection allocation in highly deviated wells
drilled in low-permeability reservoirs is established. This method is based on the evaluation
of sand body connectivity and clarifies the connectivity and water flooding distance of each
sand body between highly deviated wells and water injection wells, to reasonably split the
layered water injection volume of water injection wells.

2. Geological Background
Water injection development of highly deviated wells in low-permeability reservoirs in
China is mainly concentrated in the Yanchang Formation reservoir in the Ordos Basin. No-
tably, the highly deviated wells water injection development of low-permeability reservoirs
in the Huaqing area of the Ordos Basin has been scaled up, and the well network is perfect.
Therefore, the Ordos Basin’s Huaqing area serves as a model for similar developments in
the basin, so the Chang 63 reservoir in the Huaqing area is selected as the target area for
research.
The Ordos Basin is a large oil- and gas-bearing basin in central China. It separated
from the North China Plate in the Late Triassic and has evolved independently to this
day. It belongs to a multicycle cratonic basin [32] and is currently constructed as a gentle
westward dipping monocline with a slope of less than 1◦ [33]. Based on the history of
the basin’s structural evolution and current structural development characteristics, the
Ordos Basin is divided into six primary structural units (Figure 2a): Yimeng Uplift, Western
Edge Thrust Belt, Tianhuan Depression, Yishan Slope, Western Shanxi Folding Belt, and
Weibei Uplift [34]. The Mesozoic oil resources in the Ordos Basin are vast, with the Triassic
Yanchang Formation being one of the main exploration and development target layers in
the basin. It belongs to lacustrine basin sedimentation, deltaic sedimentation, and deep-
water gravity flow sedimentation, which are widely developed [35,36]. The Yanchang
Formation is divided into 10 oil layers from Chang 10 to Chang 1, from bottom to top [37],
which has experienced a complete sedimentary cycle of river–delta–lake–delta–river.
Huaqing area is located in the southwest of Yishan Slope (Figure 2a). The research
target interval is the Chang 63 oil layer group, with an average formation thickness of 45 m.
The sedimentary system is turbidite sedimentation, which belongs to a type of deep-water
gravity flow sedimentary system. It is further divided into turbidite channel, side-turbidite
channel, and inter-turbidite channel microfacies. The turbidite channel and side-turbidite
channel microfacies constitute the sand body sedimentary skeleton, which is the main oil
and gas reservoir (Figure 2b). The average permeability of the Chang 63 reservoir group is
0.28 mD, which indicates a typical low-permeability lithologic reservoir.
Energies 2023, 16,
Energies 2023, 16, 7764
x FOR PEER REVIEW 66of
of 24

GR/API RT/Ω·m
a Yinshan Mountain N b Stratigraphy 50
SP/mV
230 Depth Lithology 15 60
AC/μs·m–1
Sedimentary environment

Age/Formation/Member /m
25 40 200 280 Microfacies Subfacies Facies
Baotou

2065 Inter-turbidite channel

ain

Wuhai Ordos C631-1

ount

Side-turbidite channel
Yimeng Uplift 2070
n M
Hela

Inter-turbidite channel
2075

Yinchuan Yuli C631-2

n

Western Shanxi Folding Belt

Yishan Slope 2080
Thrust Belt

sion

Lvliang Mountain
Turbidite channel
Tianhuan Depres

Jingbiian

Submarine fan
Upper Triassic
Dingbian C632-1 2085

Middle fan
Yan chang
Western Edge

Inter-turbidite channel
0
Wuqi 2090
Yan'an Turbidite channel

Huachi C632-2
2095
Qingcheng Inter-turbidite channel
Liup

Guyuan
Qingyang
2100
n Ma

Huangling C633-1
o un

ain
nt
Tongchuan ou 2105
tain

ft M
Upli iao
b ei gt Turbidite channel
Wei on
Zh
2110
C633-2

Qinling Mountain Ordos Basin

0 100 200km 2115

River Face Shallow Ordos Tecyonic Research City Mudstone Silty Siltstone Silty fine Fine Natural Natural Acoustic time Resistivity
Lake boundary boundary area mudstone sandstone sandstone potential gamma difference

Figure 2. Ordos Basin tectonic

tectonic unit
unit and
and Yanchang
Yanchang Formation
Formation comprehensive
comprehensive histogram. (a) Ordos
Basin structure and the location of the study area. (b) Comprehensive
Basin structure and the location of the study area. (b) Comprehensive histogram of the
histogram Chang
of the 63 oil-
Chang 63
bearing formation in the Huaqing area, Ordos Basin. In the figure, SP, GR, RT, and AC represent
oil-bearing formation in the Huaqing area, Ordos Basin. In the figure, SP, GR, RT, and AC represent
natural potential, natural gamma, resistivity and acoustic time difference, respectively.
natural potential, natural gamma, resistivity and acoustic time difference, respectively.

Huaqing
3. Sand area is locatedEvaluation
Body Connectivity in the southwest of Yishan Slope (Figure 2a). The research
targetThe
interval is the Chang 6 3 oil layer group, with an average formation thickness of 45
evaluation of reservoir connectivity is divided into three types: inter-sand body
m. The sedimentary
connectivity, sand body system is turbidite
and well sedimentation,
connectivity, which
and inter-well belongs toThe
connectivity. a type of deep-
connectivity
water gravity
between sand flow
bodiessedimentary
can be describedsystem. as It
theis ratio
further divided
of the volume intoofturbidite
connected channel, side-
sand bodies
to the total volume or as the average contact percentage of sand bodies. Sand bodyside-
turbidite channel, and inter-turbidite channel microfacies. The turbidite channel and and
turbidite
well channelismicrofacies
connectivity the ratio ofconstitute
the volume theofsand body sedimentary
the drilled reservoir to the skeleton, which of
total volume is the
the
main oil and
reservoir. gas reservoir
Inter-well (Figurecan
connectivity 2b).be The average
defined aspermeability
the proportion of the Chang
of sand 63 reservoir
bodies drilled
group
by twoisadjacent
0.28 mD,wellswhich inindicates
the whole a typical
reservoirlow-permeability
[38]. Scholars lithologic
mostly focus reservoir.
on inter-well
connectivity and inter-sand body connectivity in reservoir connectivity evaluation [39,40],
3. Sand
and Body Connectivity
inter-well connectivity Evaluation
[41–44] is mostly studied by means of dynamic monitoring
data.The
Theevaluation
connectivity of reservoirsand
between bodies isismostly
connectivity divided studied by outcrop
into three [41], seismbody
types: inter-sand [42],
sedimentary
connectivity,characteristics
sand body and [43],
wellandconnectivity,
sand body configuration
and inter-well [44], but there areThe
connectivity. limitations.
connec-
Inter-well connectivity
tivity between reliescan
sand bodies toobemuch on dynamic
described as themonitoring
ratio of thedata, andofit connected
volume is impossible to
sand
judge
bodiesinter-well
to the total connectivity
volume orwithout dynamic
as the average monitoring
contact data. of
percentage There
sandare various
bodies. methods
Sand body
for
andevaluating the connectivity
well connectivity is the ratiobetween
of the volumesand of bodies, but none
the drilled of them
reservoir can
to the clarify
total volumethe
connectivity between different sand bodies (Table 2).
of the reservoir. Inter-well connectivity can be defined as the proportion of sand bodies
The
drilled byconnectivity
two adjacent evaluation
wells in the of awhole
waterreservoir
injection[38].
development reservoir
Scholars mostly refers
focus on to the
inter-
analysis of sand body connectivity. Judging the vertical and lateral
well connectivity and inter-sand body connectivity in reservoir connectivity evaluation connectivity of sand
bodies
[39,40], is
andtheinter-well
premise connectivity
of studying [41–44]
sand body connectivity.
is mostly studied by In means
the absence of dynamic
of dynamic moni-
monitoring data and seismic data, it is necessary to clarify the connectivity
toring data. The connectivity between sand bodies is mostly studied by outcrop [41], seism between each
sand body.
[42], sedimentary characteristics [43], and sand body configuration [44], but there are lim-
itations. Inter-well connectivity relies too much on dynamic monitoring data, and it is im-
Energies 2023, 16, 7764 7 of 24

Table 2. Reservoir connectivity evaluation method and its limitations.

Evaluation Type Evaluation Method Method Characteristics Limitations

The connectivity between oil and
Dynamic monitoring This method cannot judge the
Inter-well connectivity water wells is judged using dynamic
method inter-well connectivity without
monitoring data [39,40].
dynamic monitoring data or seismic
Based on seismic data, the
data interpretation.
Seismic method connectivity of the sand body is
analyzed [41].
The connectivity of sand body is
Sand–ground ratio judged using the sedimentary 1. The accuracy of this method is low;
method structure model of sand body 2. The method cannot effectively
described by outcrop [42]. identify the sedimentary interface;
inter-sand body
connectivity Through the identification of sand 3. The method cannot clarify the
Sandstone mud facies, the degree of sandstone connectivity between different
amalgamation amalgamation is described. The sand bodies.
method higher the amalgamation rate, the
better the connectivity [43].
This method cannot clarify the
By analyzing the contact relationship
Sand body connectivity and degree of
of sand bodies, the connectivity of
configuration method connectivity between different sand
sand bodies is determined [44].
bodies.

The core of sand body connectivity evaluation is how to evaluate the connectivity
and connectivity degree of sand bodies. Previous scholars only studied the connectivity
relationship, and the research on the connectivity relationship was mostly in the stage of
sedimentary interface and sand body configuration identification, without considering the
seepage characteristics of sand bodies, resulting in low accuracy of sand body connectivity
identification. Notably, research on the connectivity degree of sand bodies has not been
reported, but the connectivity degree of a sand body is the key to judge the connectivity of
sand bodies. Therefore, a single sand body is introduced, and the connectivity evaluation
between sand bodies is realized by combining sand body configuration identification, flow
unit division, and sand body connectivity quantitative analysis. Sand body configuration
reflects the geological sedimentary period and the evolution process of the basin. It is
the spatial distribution direction, size, and mutual superposition relationship of each
configuration unit. The flow unit is based on the reservoir lithology, physical properties,
sedimentation, pore throat, and fluid characteristics to divide the reservoir into different
seepage units, mainly reflecting seepage characteristics. Although sand body configuration
identification [45–47] and flow unit division [48,49] have been studied by predecessors,
how to combine the two methods to correct sand body connectivity has not been reported.
After the combination of the two methods, boundary identification of single sand bodies
is carried out, which corrects the deficiency of a single sand body identification with the
sand body configuration and realizes an accurate evaluation of connectivity between sand
bodies.
The specific implementation methods are as follows: (1) sand body configuration
identification: identify the vertical stacking pattern and lateral contact relationship of
sand bodies; (2) seepage unit identification: through the division of flow units, different
seepage units are classified; (3) single sand body boundary identification: combined with
the research results of (1) and (2), the quantitative prediction model of a single sand body is
established using the width–thickness ratio of the sand body, and the identification results
of (1) and (2) single sand body are corrected. Through comprehensive analysis and mutual
correction of the above three steps, the connectivity between different reservoir sand bodies
can be determined.
 units are classified; (3) single sand body boundary identification: combined with the re-
search results of (1) and (2), the quantitative prediction model of a single sand body is
established using the width–thickness ratio of the sand body, and the identification results
of (1) and (2) single sand body are corrected. Through comprehensive analysis and mutual
Energies 2023, 16, 7764 correction of the above three steps, the connectivity between different reservoir sand8bod-
of 24
ies can be determined.

3.1. Identification of a Single Sand Body

3.1. Identification of a Single Sand Body
A single
A singlesand
sandbody
bodyisisdefined
definedasas a geological
a geological unit
unit thatthat is continuous
is continuous in vertical
in the the vertical
and
and horizontal
horizontal directions
directions but separated
but separated fromfrom the upper
the upper and lower
and lower sandsand bodies
bodies by mud-
by mudstone
stone
or or impermeable
impermeable interlayers
interlayers [50]. Single
[50]. Single sandidentification
sand body body identification
mainlymainly
studiesstudies its
its spatial
spatial distribution scale and superposition
distribution scale and superposition relationship. relationship.

3.1.1. Vertical Interface Characteristics and and Stacking

Stacking Patterns
Patterns of Single Sand Body Body
Different single
Different single sand
sandbodies
bodiesformformdifferent
differentsuperposition
superposition patterns
patternsin the vertical
in the di-
vertical
rection due to the differences in sedimentary periods,
direction due to the differences in sedimentary periods, sedimentarysedimentary environments, and
sedimentary processes.
sedimentary processes. Through
Through the the lithology
lithology electrical
electrical calibration
calibration in
in coring
coring wells and the
analysis of
analysis ofsand
sandbodybody configuration
configuration usingusing high-resolution
high-resolution sequence
sequence stratigraphy,
stratigraphy, it is
it is found
found
that thethat the logging
logging curves ofcurves of different
different single sandsingle sand
bodies bodies
have have completely
completely different
different amplitude
amplitude
and and morphological
morphological characteristics,
characteristics, andstacking
and the vertical the vertical stacking
patterns of fourpatterns
types ofofsingle
four
sand
typesbodies in Chang
of single 63 oil in
sand bodies layer group
Chang arelayer
63 oil summarized
group are (Figure 3).
summarized (Figure 3).

GR/API RT/Ω·m GR/API RT/Ω·m

70 210 20 45 SH/% PERM/mD 60 210 20 100 SH/% PERM/mD
Stratum Depth Stratum Depth
SP/mV AC/μs·m–1 0 100 0.1 0.4 SP/mV AC/μs·m–1 0 100 0.1 0.4
/m /m
45 75 200 300 38 55 220 280

C631-1 1935
C631-1
2080

1940

C631-2
2085
C631-2
1945

(a) (b)
GR/API RT/Ω·m GR/API RT/Ω·m
50 100 20 150 SH/% PERM/mD 65 150 20 70 SH/% PERM/mD
Stratum Depth Stratum Depth
SP/mV AC/μs·m–1 0 100 0.1 0.4 SP/mV AC/μs·m–1 0 100 0.1 0.5
/m /m
50 65 200 270 50 65 220 250

1960
C631-1
2060 C632-1

1965
C631-2
2065
C632-2
1970

Argillaceous Layered Natural Natural Acoustic time

Sand body Permeability potential gamma Resistivity
content line difference

(c) (d)
Figure 3.3. Vertical
Vertical stacking
stacking pattern
pattern and
and logging
logging curve
curve identification
identification of
of the
the Chang
Chang 663 reservoir group
Figure 3 reservoir group
in the Huaqing area. In the figure, SH and PERM represent argillaceous content and permeability.
in the Huaqing area. In the figure, SH and PERM represent argillaceous content and permeability.
(a) Isolated vertical interface characteristics of the L419-9 well, (b) separated vertical interface char-
(a) Isolated vertical interface characteristics of the L419-9 well, (b) separated vertical interface charac-
acteristics of the B185-117 well, (c) superimposed vertical interface characteristics of the B179-113
teristics
well, (d)of the
cut B185-117
and stackedwell, (c) superimposed
vertical vertical interface
interface characteristics characteristics
of the B185-109 well. of the B179-113 well,
(d) cut and stacked vertical interface characteristics of the B185-109 well.

(1) Single-period
(1) Single-period channel
channel vertical
vertical isolated
isolated type
type
This kind of sand body is formed by single-period turbidite channel sand body sed-
imentation. The core physical property experiments show that the permeability at the
bottom of the sand layer is the highest, and the physical property at the top is poor, showing
the characteristics of positive rhythm. The logging curve of this kind of single sand body
shows that the gamma ray is mostly box-shaped, and the top and bottom reenter obviously,
which is close to the mudstone baseline; the natural potential and resistivity are mostly
high-amplitude box- or bell-shaped. The sand body is separated by a thick argillaceous
Energies 2023, 16, 7764 9 of 24

interlayer, and no other sand bodies appear in the layer (Figure 3a). Due to the development
of sand bodies in the Chang 63 oil layer group, there are few vertical isolated single sand
bodies, which are mainly distributed in the inter-turbidite channels microfacies, with a
frequency of 8%.
(2) Multiperiod channel vertical separation type
The turbidite channel sand body of the next period is gradually developed, and the
argillaceous sediments of the previous period are continuously eroded, but it has not yet
eroded to the top of the sedimentary sand body. At this time, there is a stable argillaceous
interlayer distribution between the sand bodies. The argillaceous content of the interlayer
is more than 50%, and the argillaceous content mirror curve intersects (Figure 3b). The
logging curve of this kind of single sand body shows obvious reentrant characteristics of
gamma ray and resistivity. The vertical separated single sand body is mainly distributed in
the side-turbidite channel microfacies, with a frequency of 18%.
(3) Multiperiod channel vertical superposition type
Due to the difference between the sedimentation rate and the sediment recharge rate,
the spatial position relationship of the turbidite channel sand body changes. If the sand
body formed in the next period is strong enough to erode the sand body of the previous
period, the mudstone or impermeable interlayer between the two sand bodies is completely
washed away, and the next sand body is finally placed on top of the sand body of the
previous period. The physical properties between the next period and the previous sand
bodies become worse, and fine-grained sediments are developed. The argillaceous content
of the sand body increases and is generally 10–30%. The mirror curve of the shale content
does not intersect (Figure 3c). The superposition relationship of single sand bodies can be
quickly judged using the characteristics of the mirror curve of the argillaceous content. The
logging curve of this kind of single sand body shows reentrant characteristics of gamma
ray and resistivity, but the reentrant amplitude is less than that of the vertical separation.
The vertical superimposed single sand body is mainly distributed in the turbidite channel
microfacies, with a frequency of 26%.
(4) Multiperiod channel cutting and stacking type
Due to the erosion and vertical erosion of the channel in the next period, the fine-
grained sedimentary sand bodies in the upper part of the channel in the previous period
are eroded, transported, and deposited, so that the coarse-grained material of the channel
in the previous period is directly in contact with the retention deposits at the bottom of
the channel in the next period. The sand bodies in the two periods are obviously cut
and stacked, the physical properties are similar, and the argillaceous content is almost
unchanged (Figure 3d). The logging curve of this kind of single sand body shows slight
reentrant characteristics of gamma ray and resistivity. Due to the fast sedimentation rate
and sediment supply rate of the turbidite sedimentary system, the channel sand bodies in
the previous period are mostly cut by the next period. The multiperiod channel cutting and
stacking type is the most developed, mainly distributed in the turbidite channel microfacies,
with a frequency of 48%.

3.1.2. Lateral Contact Relationship and Identification Mark of a Single Sand Body
Lateral contact is the positional relationship of different single sand bodies on the
plane. Generally, the top surface of the sedimentary sand body in the same period has
a similar height. Sedimentary sand bodies in different periods often form terraces with
obvious elevation differences due to different erosion times, and the lateral contact of
different single sand bodies will form different cutting patterns. On the basis of the single
well identification of each genetic sand body type, five types of lateral contact patterns of
the single sand body in the Chang 63 oil layer group are summarized.
Energies 2023, 16, 7764 10 of 24
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 24

(1) Inter-bay contact

contact with each other, and connectivity is weak or discontinuous, so they cannot be used
as a Inter-bay
channel for contact
oil andmeans that the(Figure
gas seepage two adjacent
4e). sand bodies are separated by the inter-
turbidite
There channel andspecial
is another do notcase
contact directly,
of docking whichThe
contact. indicates the termination
elevation, oflogging
thickness, and lateral
erosion of the turbidite channel. The two sand bodies are filled with muddy
curve shape of the two sand bodies are similar. Through the analysis of sand body config-sediments, so
they are not
uration, it isconnected,
consideredand each
to be thehas an sand
same independent seepage system.
body. However, The inter-turbidite
in the dynamic verification
channels’ logging curve
of water injection shows awater
development, low amplitude
injection isand
notrelatively
effective, flat
andstate, andunit
the flow the is
physical
not the
properties
same period aresand
poor.body,
It cannot beisused
which as a channel
the docking for oil
contact andtwo
of the gassand
seepage andFor
bodies. canexample,
be used
as a basis
there is a for single
single sandsand body
body identification
boundary between(Figure 4a).
well B175-109 and well B175-108X (Figure 4f).

230m SE 310m

B190-111X B191-111 B200-109X

GR/API RT/Ω·m GR/API RT/Ω·m GR/API RT/Ω·m
55 110 30 60 50 150 20 40 60 130 50 150
Stratum Depth Depth Depth
SP/mV /m AC/μs·m–1 SP/mV /m AC/μs·m–1 SP/mV /m AC/μs·m–1
75 90 200 230 50 70 220 240 50 75 190 240

C632-1 1990
1935 2085

(a)
230m SW 230m

B181-106X B181-105 B101-104X

GR/API RT/Ω·m GR/API RT/Ω·m GR/API RT/Ω·m
55 140 40 60 60 150 20 80 50 140 30 60
Stratum Depth Depth Depth
SP/mV /m AC/μs·m–1 SP/mV /m AC/μs·m–1 SP/mV /m AC/μs·m–1
60 90 180 240 80 90 210 240 65 85 180 240

C632-1
2050 2055
2055

(b)
230m SE 230m

B202-99X B203-99 B204-99X

GR/API RT/Ω·m GR/API RT/Ω·m GR/API RT/Ω·m
50 140 50 100 70 140 20 80 70 140 90 250
Stratum Depth Depth Depth
SP/mV /m AC/μs·m–1 SP/mV /m AC/μs·m–1 SP/mV /m AC/μs·m–1
70 90 200 230 85 100 220 250 70 120 180 240

2015 2105
2105
C631-2

2020 2110

(c)
230m SE 230m

B188-103X B187-103 B186-103X

GR/API RT/Ω·m GR/API RT/Ω·m GR/API RT/Ω·m
50 130 30 60 55 125 20 50 70 140 20 30
Stratum Depth Depth Depth
SP/mV /m AC/μs·m–1 SP/mV /m AC/μs·m–1 SP/mV /m AC/μs·m–1
65 90 220 235 85 110 190 260 45 60 210 240

2085

C631-2

2135 2135

(d)

Figure 4. Cont.
Energies 2023,16,
Energies2023, 16,7764
x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 24
12 24

230m SE 230m

B184-115X B185-115 B186-115X

GR/API RT/Ω·m GR/API RT/Ω·m GR/API RT/Ω·m
60 110 30 55 50 100 25 50 60 110 25 45
Stratum Depth Depth Depth
SP/mV AC/μs·m–1 SP/mV AC/μs·m–1 SP/mV AC/μs·m–1
/m /m /m
60 80 210 240 40 65 200 240 45 70 210 245

2140 2130

C631-2

2075

(e)
230m SW 230m

B175-109 B175-108X B175-107

GR/API RT/Ω·m GR/API RT/Ω·m GR/API RT/Ω·m
70 130 30 45 55 125 20 50 70 140 20 30
Stratum Depth Depth Depth
SP/mV AC/μs·m–1 SP/mV AC/μs·m–1 SP/mV AC/μs·m–1
/m /m /m
50 70 220 235 85 110 190 260 45 60 210 240
2165

2180
2110
C632-1

2170
Turbidite channel Side-turbidite channel Inter-turbidite channel I type of flow unit II type of flow unit III type of flow unit Water injection well Oil well

Natural potential Natural gamma Acoustic time difference Resistivity Inter-well distance SW Southwest SE Southeast

(f)
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Lateral
Lateral contact
contact pattern
pattern and
and logging
logging curve
curve identification
identificationof
ofthe
theChang
Chang663 reservoir
reservoir group
group in
in
3
the Huaqing area. (a) Inter-bay contact, (b) levee contact, (c) side-cut contact, (d) substitutive contact,
the Huaqing area. (a) Inter-bay contact, (b) levee contact, (c) side-cut contact, (d) substitutive contact,
(e) class I docking contact, (f) class II docking contact.
(e) class I docking contact, (f) class II docking contact.
3.2. Single
(2) LeveeSandcontactBody Division Method
3.2.1. Flow Unit Division of Single Sand Body
Levee contact refers to gradual thinning of the thickness of the middle connection
betweenThetwoconcept
periods of aofflow
sand unit is defined
bodies and theasdeterioration
the volume of of the total reservoir
physical properties, rock within
reflecting
which
the the geological
process of sedimentaryand petrophysical properties
microfacies’ change, that affect
marking the fluid of
the emergence flowtheare internally
sedimentary
consistentof
boundary andthedifferent from the
single-period properties
turbidite of other
channel, whichrock
can volumes.
be used Within each for
as the basis flow unit,
single
the geological parameters affecting the fluid flow are similar,
sand body identification. The two sand bodies are connected by sand bodies similar to while the differences in li-
thology and rock physical properties are shown between each
levees, and the connectivity is weak or discontinuous, meaning that they cannot be used as flow unit [48] . The flow
aunit is controlled
channel for oil and bygas
macro-sedimentation
seepage. The gamma and raymicrophysical
and resistivityproperties,
curves of the which
levee aresand
not
always
body areconsistent
finger-shaped with (Figure
geological 4b).lithofacies. The reservoir can be divided into different
types of reservoir rocks by flow unit [51].
(3) Side-cut contact
The flow unit division parameters are divided into the following four types: the first
Due
is the to the migration
parameters reflectingof the
the mainstream
macroscopicline of the channel,
reservoir the sedimentary
characteristics (porosity channels
and per-
in different periods often have characteristics of cutting and filling
meability), the second is the parameters reflecting the sedimentary environment (effective each other, resulting
in lateral superposition
thickness, median grain size, of theandsedimentary
argillaceouschannels
content), in thethe two
third periods,
is the marking
parameters the
reflect-
development of the channels in different periods, which can be
ing the microscopic pore structure (pore throat radius and flow zone index [52]), and the used as an identification
mark
fourthofisa the
single sand body.
parameters There is the
reflecting a large
fluidamount of contact(oil
characteristics between the two
saturation, sand bodies,
irreducible wa-
indicating that they have good connectivity and can be used as
ter saturation, viscosity, density, volume coefficient, etc.). Considering the difficulty of a channel for oil and gas
seepage. Because it is a different sand body, the logging curve shape is different (Figure 4c).
parameter acquisition and the coverage of parameters, five parameters are selected to
(4)
carrySubstitutive
out the flowcontactunit division, among which are the porosity parameter, characterizing
the reservoir storage
There is an elevation capacity; the permeability
difference between the parameter,
two sandcharacterizing
bodies. Strong theerosion
seepageand ca-
pacity; the argillaceous content parameter, characterizing the
undercutting of the channel in the next period make the sand body partially eroded in thesedimentary environment;
the flow zone
previous period, index
andparameter,
the complete characterizing
shape cannot thebepore throat structure;
retained. The two periods’and the channel
oil satu-
ration parameter, characterizing the fluid characteristics.
sand bodies are vertically cut and stacked into a false continuous shape, and even the
Using IBM
phenomenon SPSS statistics
of mutual version
substitution 19 software,
between the fiveoccurs.
sand bodies most representative
In the two periods parame- of
ters of 4790 sand bodies in Chang 6 3 reservoir are clustered and
sand body cutting and folding parts, the gamma ray and resistivity curves are obviously divided into three types.
The discriminant
reentrant (Figure 4d).coincidence
The tworate sandis bodies
greater are
than in95%, which
contact with meets
eachthe accuracy
other require-
and generally
ments
have of cluster
good analysis.
connectivity, The results
meaning that theyshowcanthat thereasare
be used 2520 single
a channel sand
for oil andbodies in the
gas seepage.
Energies 2023, 16, 7764 12 of 24

(5) Docking contact

The elevation and thickness of the two sand bodies are basically the same, but the
logging curve shape is obviously different, which shows that the lithofacies combination
and sedimentary rhythm of different sand bodies are significantly different, indicating that
the sedimentary environment of the two sand bodies is different, which can be used as the
identification mark of a single sand body. For example, the sand body of well B185-115 has
reverse rhythm, and the sand body of well B186-115X has positive rhythm, which belong to
different genetic types of sand bodies. The two sand bodies are almost not in contact with
each other, and connectivity is weak or discontinuous, so they cannot be used as a channel
for oil and gas seepage (Figure 4e).
There is another special case of docking contact. The elevation, thickness, and logging
curve shape of the two sand bodies are similar. Through the analysis of sand body config-
uration, it is considered to be the same sand body. However, in the dynamic verification
of water injection development, water injection is not effective, and the flow unit is not
the same period sand body, which is the docking contact of the two sand bodies. For
example, there is a single sand body boundary between well B175-109 and well B175-108X
(Figure 4f).

3.2. Single Sand Body Division Method

3.2.1. Flow Unit Division of Single Sand Body
The concept of a flow unit is defined as the volume of the total reservoir rock within
which the geological and petrophysical properties that affect the fluid flow are internally
consistent and different from the properties of other rock volumes. Within each flow
unit, the geological parameters affecting the fluid flow are similar, while the differences in
lithology and rock physical properties are shown between each flow unit [48]. The flow
unit is controlled by macro-sedimentation and microphysical properties, which are not
always consistent with geological lithofacies. The reservoir can be divided into different
types of reservoir rocks by flow unit [51].
The flow unit division parameters are divided Into the following four types: the
first is the parameters reflecting the macroscopic reservoir characteristics (porosity and
permeability), the second is the parameters reflecting the sedimentary environment (ef-
fective thickness, median grain size, and argillaceous content), the third is the parameters
reflecting the microscopic pore structure (pore throat radius and flow zone index [52]), and
the fourth is the parameters reflecting the fluid characteristics (oil saturation, irreducible
water saturation, viscosity, density, volume coefficient, etc.). Considering the difficulty of
parameter acquisition and the coverage of parameters, five parameters are selected to carry
out the flow unit division, among which are the porosity parameter, characterizing the
reservoir storage capacity; the permeability parameter, characterizing the seepage capac-
ity; the argillaceous content parameter, characterizing the sedimentary environment; the
flow zone index parameter, characterizing the pore throat structure; and the oil saturation
parameter, characterizing the fluid characteristics.
Using IBM SPSS statistics version 19 software, the five most representative parameters
of 4790 sand bodies in Chang 63 reservoir are clustered and divided into three types. The
discriminant coincidence rate is greater than 95%, which meets the accuracy requirements
of cluster analysis. The results show that there are 2520 single sand bodies in the type I
flow unit, 787 single sand bodies in the type II flow unit, and 1483 single sand bodies in
the type III flow unit (Figure 5). Type I represents the strong reservoir seepage capacity
of sand bodies, mainly located in turbidite channels, with weak heterogeneity and high
oil saturation. Type II represents the slightly poor reservoir seepage capacity of sand
bodies, mainly located on the side-turbidite channels, with medium heterogeneity and oil
saturation. Type III represents the worst reservoir seepage capacity of sand bodies, mainly
located in inter-turbidite channels, with strong heterogeneity and the lowest oil saturation.
 ofinsand
the type III flow
bodies, unitlocated
mainly (Figurein
5).turbidite
Type I represents
channels,the strong
with weakreservoir seepage
heterogeneity capacity
and high
of saturation.
oil sand bodies,Typemainly located in
II represents theturbidite channels,
slightly poor withseepage
reservoir weak heterogeneity andbod-
capacity of sand high
oil saturation. Type II represents the slightly poor reservoir seepage capacity of
ies, mainly located on the side-turbidite channels, with medium heterogeneity and oil sat- sand bod-
ies, mainly
uration. Typelocated on the side-turbidite
III represents channels,
the worst reservoir with medium
seepage capacityheterogeneity
of sand bodies,andmainly
oil sat-
uration.inType
located III represents
inter-turbidite the worst
channels, withreservoir seepage capacity
strong heterogeneity and of
thesand bodies,
lowest mainly
oil satura-
Energies 2023, 16, 7764 located in inter-turbidite channels, with strong heterogeneity and the lowest oil satura-
tion. 13 of 24
tion.
70.0 0.40
Type I(2520) 0.36
70.0 Type 0.40
TypeII(787)
I(2520) 57.7 0.360.33
60.0
Type
TypeIII(1483)
II(787) 51.4 0.33
60.0 57.7 0.30
50.0 Type III(1483) 51.446.3 0.26
0.30
50.0 46.3 0.26
40.0 0.20
40.0 0.20
0.20
30.0 25.5 0.20
0.13
30.0 0.11
20.0 16.6 25.5 0.13
15.4 0.10 0.11
20.0 10.5 9.3 9.1 16.6
15.4 0.10
10.0 10.5 9.3 9.1
10.0
0.0 0.00
0.0 Porosity(%) Oil saturation(%) Shale content(%) 0.00 Permeability(mD) Flow zone index
Porosity(%) Oil saturation(%) Shale content(%) Permeability(mD) Flow zone index
Figure 5. Flow unit division of the Chang 63 reservoir in the Huaqing area.
5. Flow unit division of the Chang 6633 reservoir in the Huaqing area.
Figure 5.
3.2.2. Quantitative Prediction of a Single Sand Body Boundary
3.2.2.
3.2.2. Quantitative
Quantitative Prediction
Prediction of
of aabody
Single
Single Sand
Sand Body
Body Boundary
Boundary
Based on the results of sand configuration and flow unit division, by counting
Based
Basedand
the width on the
on the results of
results data
thickness sand
of sand body configuration
body configuration
of different sedimentary and flow
flow unit
unit division,
andmicrofacies division,
sand bodiesby
by counting
counting
in the
the width
the width and thickness
and thickness data of different
data of different sedimentary microfacies
sedimentary microfacies sand bodies in the Chang
Chang 63 reservoir, it is determined that the width–thickness ratio of thesand
singlebodies in the
sand body
63 reservoir, it is determined that the width–thickness ratioratio
of the
of single sand body of
ofChang 63 reservoir,
the turbidite channelit is microfacies
determined isthat the width–thickness
50~120, and the width–thickness theratio
single sand
of the body
single
the turbidite
of thebody
turbidite channel microfacies is 50~120, and the width–thickness ratio of the single
sand of thechannel microfacies
side-turbidite channel is 50~120, and the
microfacies is width–thickness
70~120. The empirical ratio of the single
formula of
sand
sand body of the side-turbidite
body of the side-turbidite channel
channel microfacies
microfacies is 70~120.
is 70~120. The empirical formula
the width–thickness ratio of a single sand body is obtained using The empirical
multiple formula
regression (Fig-of
of the width–thickness ratio of a single sand. body is obtained using multiple regression
the6):
ure width–thickness
the turbidite channelratio of is 𝑊 = 239.97𝑒
a single sand body is,obtained using multiplechannel
and the side-turbidite
0.097h
regressionis 𝑊 =
(Fig-
(Figure 6): the turbidite channel is W = 239.97e . , and the side-turbidite channel is
141.52𝑒 .
ure 6): the turbidite
Under channel
.0.248h is 𝑊 =
the condition that 239.97𝑒
the thickness , and
of athe side-turbidite
single sand bodychannel
is known, is 𝑊 the=
W = 141.52e . Under the condition that the thickness of a single sand body is known,
141.52𝑒 .formula
empirical . Undercan the condition
be used that the extension
to clarify thickness of a single
width of a sand
singlebody
sandisbody
known, the
in dif-
the empirical formula can be used to clarify the extension width of a single sand body in
empirical formula can be used to clarify the extension width
ferent sedimentary microfacies and to correct the sand body configuration and flow unit of a single sand body in dif-
different sedimentary microfacies and to correct the sand body configuration and flow unit
ferent sedimentary
division results. microfacies and to correct the sand body configuration and flow unit
division results.
division results.

Figure 6. Regression curve of the width–thickness ratio of a turbidite channel and a single sand body
Figure 6. Regression curve of the width–thickness ratio of a turbidite channel and a single sand
on the side-turbidite channel of the Chang 63 oil layer in the Huaqing area.
Figure
body on 6.
theRegression curve
side-turbidite of theof
channel width –thickness
the Chang 63 oilratio
layerof
inathe
turbidite
Huaqingchannel
area. and a single sand
body on the side-turbidite channel of the Chang 6 3 oil layer in the Huaqing area.
3.2.3. Example of the Flow Unit Correction and Single Sand Body Contact Relationship
Under the identification of sand body configuration, the logging curve shape, top
elevation, and thickness of the No.2 and No.3 sand bodies of Well A and Well B are similar,
and they are considered to be the same sand body and can be directly connected (Figure 7a).
With the verification of flow units, it can be seen that the sand bodies of No.2 and No.3 in
the two wells are different flow units, and the sand bodies are laterally cut and stacked.
Due to the existence of seepage barriers, it can be seen from logging interpretation that
No.2 and No.3 in Well A are water layers, and the No.2 and No.3 sand bodies in Well B are
oil layers, which are different sedimentary sand bodies (Figure 7b). The flow unit is used to
identify the single sand body configuration and improve the accuracy of single sand body
division.
 7a). With the verification of flow units, it can be seen that the sand bodies of No.2 and No.3
in the two wells are different flow units, and the sand bodies are laterally cut and stacked.
Due to the existence of seepage barriers, it can be seen from logging interpretation that
No.2 and No.3 in Well A are water layers, and the No.2 and No.3 sand bodies in Well B
are oil layers, which are different sedimentary sand bodies (Figure 7b). The flow unit is
Energies 2023, 16, 7764 used to identify the single sand body configuration and improve the accuracy of single 14 of 24
sand body division.

230m SE 230m SE

B203-101 B203-100X B203-101 B203-100X

GR/API RT/Ω·m GR/API RT/Ω·m GR/API RT/Ω·m GR/API RT/Ω·m
70 130 30 45 55 125 20 50 70 130 Depth Interpretation 30 45 55 125 Depth Interpretation 20 50
Stratum Depth Depth Stratum
SP/mV AC/μs·m–1 SP/mV AC/μs·m–1 SP/mV /m conclusion AC/μs·m–1 SP/mV /m conclusion AC/μs·m–1
/m /m
50 70 220 235 85 110 190 260 50 70 220 235 85 110 190 260
2165 2165
① ①
2110 ② C631-2 2110 ② ②
C631-2
③ ③ ③
2170 2170

Turbidite channel I type of flow unit II type of flow unit III type of flow unit Water layer Oil layer Water injection well Oil well
Natural potential Natural gamma Acoustic time difference Resistivity SE Southeast Inter-well distance

(a) (b)

Figure 7.
Figure 7. The
The flow
flow unit
unit corrects
correctsthe
thecontact
contactrelationship of of
relationship a single sand
a single body
sand identified
body withwith
identified sandsand
body configuration. (a) Sand body configuration identification of the single sand body connectivity
body configuration. (a) Sand body configuration identification of the single sand body connectivity
relationship. (b) Flow unit correction and single sand body connectivity relationship. In the figure,
relationship. (b) Flow
the circled numbers unit
1, 2, andcorrection and
3 represent single sand
different sandbody
bodynumbers.
connectivity relationship. In the figure,
the circled numbers 1, 2, and 3 represent different sand body numbers.
3.3. Quantitative Evaluation of the Sand Body Connectivity
3.3. Quantitative Evaluation of the Sand Body Connectivity
The quantitative evaluation of sand body connectivity is very important for water
The quantitative evaluation of sand body connectivity is very important for water
injection development reservoirs. Therefore, based on the identification results of sand
injection development reservoirs. Therefore, based on the identification results of sand
body connectivity, three indexes of the connectivity coefficient (𝛿), transition coefficient
body connectivity, three indexes of the connectivity coefficient (δ), transition coefficient (β),
(𝛽), and connectivity degree coefficient (𝜑) are proposed to quantitatively evaluate sand
and connectivity degree coefficient (ϕ) are proposed to quantitatively evaluate sand body
body connectivity. The connectivity coefficient represents the connectivity ratio of the
connectivity.
sand body, the The connectivity
transition coefficient
coefficient represents
represents the connectivity
the connectivity ratioof
strength ofthe
thesand
sandbody,
body, the
transition coefficient represents the connectivity strength of the sand body, and
and the connectivity degree coefficient is the product of the connectivity coefficient and the connectivity
degree coefficient
the transition is the product
coefficient, that is, of
𝜑 the
= 𝛿connectivity coefficientthe
∗ 𝛽, which represents and theconnectivity
real transition coefficient,
of the
that is, ϕ
sand body. = δ ∗ β, which represents the real connectivity of the sand body.
(1)
(1) Connectivity coefficient
Connectivity coefficient
The
The connectivity coefficient(𝛿)
connectivity coefficient (δ)isisthe
theratio
ratioofof the
the thickness
thickness of the
of the inter-well
inter-well effectively
effectively
connected
connected sand
sand body (𝐻
(Hc))to
tothe
thetotal
totalsand
sandbody
body thickness
thickness (𝐻(H ). The
). tThe calculation
calculation formula
formula is is
as
asfollows:
follows:
n
Hc = ∑i=1 hi , (2)
𝐻 = ∑ ℎ, (2)

δ𝛿=
=H𝐻c /H
/𝐻 t. . (3) (3)
In the
In formula, n𝑛 represents
the formula, representsthe
thenumber
number ofof connected single
single sand
sandbodies, and ℎhi is the
bodies,and
the effective thickness of the 𝑖-th connected single sand body between single
effective thickness of the i-th connected single sand body between single wells. wells.
(2) Transition
(2) Transition coefficient
coefficient
The transition
The transitioncoefficient
coefficientis the characterization
is the of sand
characterization body connectivity
of sand under dif-
body connectivity under
ferent single
different sand
single body
sand bodycontact relationships.
contact There
relationships. are are
There differences in lithology,
differences physical
in lithology, physical
properties,heterogeneity,
properties, heterogeneity,and
andseepage
seepagecharacteristics
characteristicsofof different
different types
types of single
of single sandsand
bodies.
There are seepage barriers between sand bodies under different contact relationships, and
the strength of the connectivity is also different. According to the different single sand
body contact modes and production performance verification results of several similar
low-permeability reservoirs, the empirical values of transition coefficients under different
contact modes are set, and the single sand body transition coefficients under different
contact relations are classified and described from the vertical and lateral angles.
The lateral contact relationship of connected sand bodies is divided into seven types,
and the transition coefficients are divided into six types, which are perfect, good, medium-
good, medium, medium-poor, and poor, respectively. The corresponding transition coeffi-
cients are 1.0, 0.9, 0.8, 0.6, 0.4, and 0.2, respectively. The vertical superposition relationship
of connected sand bodies is divided into three types, and the transition coefficients are
also divided into three types, which are good, medium, and poor, respectively. The corre-
sponding transition coefficients are 1.0, 0.6, and 0.4, respectively. With the identification of
a single sand body, the contact relationship between connected sand bodies is evaluated,
and the transition coefficient between sand bodies is determined (Table 3).
 similarand
ships, low-permeability
the strength of reservoirs,
the the empirical
connectivity is also values of
different. transitiontocoefficients
According the different under
sin-
gle sandlow-permeability
different
similar body
contact contact
modesmodes
are and
set, andproduction
reservoirs, the
thesingle performance
sand
empirical ofverification
body transition
values results
coefficients
transition coefficients of several
under dif-
under
different
gle sand contact
body modesmodes
contact are set,and
andproduction
the single sand body transition
performance coefficients under dif-
similar
ferent
different low-permeability
contact
contactrelations
modes arereservoirs,
are classified
set, and the empirical
andsingle
the described
sand values
from
body ofverification
the transition results
coefficients
verticalcoefficients
transition and of
lateralunderseveral
under
angles. dif-
ferent contact
similar relations arereservoirs,
low-permeability classified theandempirical
describedvaluesfrom the of vertical and
transition lateral angles.
coefficients under
different
ferent The contact
lateral
contact modes relationship
contact
relations are classified
are set, and the
ofand single
connected sand
described body
sand
from transition
bodies
the coefficients
is divided
vertical and into under
seven
lateral dif-
types,
angles.
The lateral
different contact contact
modes relationship
are set, and of connected
the single sand sand
body bodies is divided
transition into seven
coefficients under types,
dif-
ferent
and the contact
The transition
lateralrelations
contact are
coefficients classified
are divided
relationship and
of described
into six types,
connected from
sand the vertical
which
bodies and into
aredivided
is perfect, lateral
good, angles.
medium-
seven types,
and the
ferent transition
contact coefficients are divided into six types, which are perfect, good, medium-
good,
and theThe lateralrelations
medium,
transition contact are
medium-poor,
coefficients
classified
relationship
areand ofand
poor,
divided
described
connected sand
respectively.
into six types,
fromThethe
bodies
which
vertical
isare
corresponding and lateral
divided
perfect,into sevenangles.
transition
good, types,
coef-
medium-
good, medium,
The lateral medium-poor,
contact relationshipand poor,
of respectively.
connected sand The
bodiescorresponding
is divided transition
into seven coef-
types,
and the
ficients transition
are 1.0, 0.9,
good, medium, coefficients are
0.8, 0.6, 0.4, and
medium-poor, divided
andpoor, into six
0.2, respectively. types,
respectively.The which
Theverticalare perfect, good,
superposition
corresponding medium-
relation-
transition coef-
ficients
and the are 1.0, 0.9,
transition 0.8, 0.6, 0.4,
coefficients are and 0.2, respectively.
divided into six types, The vertical
which are superposition
perfect, good, relation-
medium-
good,
ship
ficientsmedium,
of connected medium-poor,
sand
are 1.0, 0.9,sand bodies
0.8, 0.6, and
is poor,
divided
0.4,isand respectively.
into three
0.2, respectively. The
types, corresponding
and
The vertical the transitiontransition
superposition coefficientscoef-
relation-
ship
good, of connected
medium, bodies
medium-poor, anddivided
poor, into three
respectively. types, and
Thevertical the transition
corresponding coefficients
transition coef-
ficients
are also
shipalso are 1.0,
divided
of connected 0.9, 0.8,
into
sand 0.6,
three
bodies0.4,
types,and 0.2,
which
is divided respectively.
are good,
intogood, The
medium,
threemedium,
types, and and superposition
poor,
thepoor, relation-
respectively.
transition coefficients The
Energies 2023, 16, 7764 are
ficients divided
are into three
1.0, transition
0.9, 0.8, 0.6, types,
0.4,isandwhich
0.2, are and respectively. The 15 of 24
ship of connected
corresponding
are also divided sand
into bodies types,divided
coefficients
three are respectively.
which into
1.0,
are three
0.6, Therespectively.
types,
andmedium,
good, 0.4, vertical
and and
superposition
thepoor,
transition
With relation-
thecoefficients
identifica-
respectively. The
corresponding
shipalso
ofaconnected transition
sand coefficients
bodies are
is divided 1.0, 0.6,
intogood,and
three 0.4, respectively.
types, connected
and thepoor,With
transition the identifica-
coefficients
are
tion of
correspondingdivided
single sandinto three
body,
transition types,
the which
contact
coefficients are
relationship
are 1.0, 0.6, and medium,
between and
0.4, respectively. respectively.
sand bodies
With bodies is The
eval-
the identifica-
tion
are of a divided
also single sand intobody,
three the contact
types, which relationship
are0.6,
good, between
medium, connected
and poor, sand
respectively. is eval-
The
corresponding
uated, and
tion of and the
a single transition coefficients
coefficient
sand body,coefficient
the contact are
between1.0, sand
relationship and 0.4,
bodies
between respectively.
is determined With the
(Table identifica-
3).
uated,
corresponding the transition
transition between sand bodies is connected
determined sand bodies
(Table
the 3).
is eval-
tion
uated,of aandsingle
the sand body,coefficients
transition
are
the contactbetween
coefficient
1.0, 0.6,
relationship and 0.4, respectively.
sand between
bodies isconnected
determined
With
sand bodies
(Table
identifica-
3). is eval-
tion of3.and
Table
uated, aEvaluation
single sand body,coefficient
of single
the transition the contact
sand relationship
body between
connectivity. sand between
bodies is connected
determined sand
(Tablebodies
3). is eval-
Table 3. Evaluation of single sand body connectivity.
Table 3. EvaluationFlow
ofElevation
single
uated,
Table 3.andsand body
the transition
Evaluation connectivity.
of singlecoefficient
sand body between
connectivity.sand bodies is determined (Table 3).
Contact Contact Re- Flow Elevation
Table 3. Evaluation of single sand body connectivity. Transition
Unit Difference
Contact Contact Re- Flow Table 3. Evaluation of single sandContact
Elevation Mode
body connectivity. Connectivity Transition
Type Contact
Contact lationship Unit Difference
Re- Type Contact Mode Connectivity Coefficient
Transition
Type lationship Flow (Yes/No)
Elevation Coefficient
Contact Contact Re-Elevation
Type lationship Flow
Unit Difference
Type (Yes/No) Contact Mode Connectivity Transition
Contact Contact Contact Contact Re- Unit
Type Elevation
Difference
(Yes/No) Contact Mode Connectivity Coefficient
Transition Transition
Energies 2023,
Energies 2023, 16,
16, xx FOR
FOR PEER Flow Unit
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW TypeType
lationship Difference
Unit Difference Contact Mode
Contact Mode Connectivity
Connectivity Coefficient 16 of
16 of 25
25
Type Relationship lationship Type (Yes/No)
Type Connection Coefficient Coefficient
Connection (Yes/No)
Type (Yes/No)
Same
(same sand Same
Connection No Oil
Well
Water
Well Perfect 1.0
kind
(same sand Same No Oil
Well
Water
Well Perfect 1.0
body)
Connection
(same kind
sand Same No Oil Water
Perfect 1.0
Connection body) Well Well

Connection
(same kind
sand Same No Oil Water
Perfect 1.0
body) Well Well

(same sand Same kind (same sand kind

body) No No Oil
Well
Water
Well Perfect Perfect
1.0 1.0
kind
body)
body)
Lateral
No Oil
Well
Water
Well Good 0.9
No Oil
Well
Water
Well Good 0.9
No Oil
Well
Water
Well Good 0.9
Lateral cut No
No No
Same
Oil
Oil
Oil
Well
Well
Well
No Oil
Well
Water
Water
Water
Water
Well
Well
Well
Well Good Medium-poor
Medium-poor
Good0.9 0.4
0.90.4
type or SameLateral
kind Same
kind
No Oil
Well
Water
Well Good 0.9
Lateral Same
Lateral Lateral cut kind
substitution Lateral cut
Lateral type or sub-
Same
kind
Lateral
type cut
or sub- Same
kind
type Class
Class II Lateral stitution
Lateral
type type
cut
or sub- kind Yes
Oil
Well
Oil
Water
Well
Water Medium-good 0.8
stitution type Yes Well Well
Medium-good 0.8
(different Lateral
stitution cut
(different
type or sub-
type Yes Yes
Oil
Well
Water
Well
Medium-good 0.8
Medium-good 0.8
sand body)
and III
and III (different
type
sand or sub-
body)
stitution type
(different Yes
Oil
Well
Water
Well
Medium-good 0.8
sand
stitutionbody)
type Yes
Oil
Well
Water
Well
Medium-good 0.8
(different
sand body)
(different
sand body) Class I
sand body) Class and Oil
II
I
Class I and II Class III
Oil
Oil Water
Water
Water
Yes
Yes andWell
Class
and
Well
Well
or III Yes Oil
Well
Water
Well
Oil
Well
Well
Well
Well Water
Well Medium 0.6 Poor
Poor 0.2
0.2
or or
YesI
Class Yes Oil
Well
Water
Well
Oil
Well
Water
Well Medium 0.6
Medium 0.6
Class
andor IIII Yes Oil Water Oil Water
Medium 0.6
Class II Well Well Well Well

Class II and III and

and
Class
and
II
orIIIII
III
Yes Oil
Well
Water
Well
Oil
Well
Water
Well Medium 0.6
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER or
Class REVIEW
and III II Yes Oil
Well
Water
Well
Oil
Well
Water
Well Medium 0.6 of 25
16
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER
Class
and REVIEW
II 16 of 25
Lateral
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR ClassIII
cut PEER I
REVIEW 16 of 25
Class Energies
I and2023,IILateral
16, x cut PEER
FOR ClassREVIEW
and IIII 16 of 25
type or sub-
Lateral cut and III
Class
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER
type or sub- and II REVIEW 16 of 25
Lateral cut Oil Water Oil Water

or
Lateral stitution
Lateral
type
Lateral stitution
type
cut Class
or sub- Yes
or
and
or III
type Class
I Yes
Yes
Well
Oil
Well
Well
Water
Well
Well
Oil
Well
Well
Water
Well
Medium-poor
Medium-poor
Medium-poor
0.4
0.4
0.4
Lateral
(different
type cut
type Class
or sub- andor IIII
Water

type or
Oil Oil Water

Lateral Class IILateral

and stitution
III(different
type
sand or sub-
body)
Class
and
and
II
II
III
Yes Well

Oil
Well

Water
Well

Oil
Well

Water
Medium-poor 0.4
Lateral stitution type
(different or
Class II Yes Well Well Well Well
Medium-poor 0.4
substitutionSame sand body) andorIII No Oil Water Oil Water
Medium-poor 0.4
Same
Oil Water
Lateral stitution
(different
sand type Class
body) and IIOil
III Oil
Oil
Yes Well Well Well
Water
Water
Well Well
Oil
Oil
Well
Medium-poor 0.4
type (different
sand body) Class
and IIIII
Well
Well
Well
No
No
Oil
Well
Oil
Water
Well
Well
Well
Water
Well
Water
Oil
Well
Well
Well
Medium-poor
Medium-poor
0.4
0.4 Good
Good 1.0
1.0
(different Kind
Kind
Well Well

sand body) and III No Oil

Well
Water
Well Medium-poor 0.4
Class I
No No
ClassIIII
Oil
Well
Water
Well Medium-poor 0.4
Medium-poor 0.4
sand body) Class I and III and
Class I
and III
and IIIII
Class
Class
and III Yes
Oil
Well
Water
Well
Poor 0.2
and III Oil Water
Yes Well
Oil
Well
Water
Poor 0.2
Yes Poor 0.2
Class II Well Well

Class Yes Yes Yes

Oil
Well
Oil
Water
Well
Water Poor Poor0.2
0.2 0.2
Well Well
Poor
and II
and II
Cut and
Cut and Oil
Oil Water
Water Oil
Oil Oil
Oil Water
Water Oil
Oil
Vertical
Vertical or
or
Oil
Well
Well
Well
Water
Well
Well
Well
Oil
Well
Well
Well
Oil
Well
Well
Well
Water
Well
Well
Well
Oil
Well
Well
Well Medium
Medium 0.6
0.6
stack type
stack type Same Oil
Well
Water
Well
Oil
Well Good 1.0
Class II
Class II Same
Kind
Same
Oil
Well
Water
Well
Oil
Well Good 1.0
Kind Oil Water Oil
Good
Same Kind Same
Kind
Well Well Well
Good1.0 1.0
and
Cut and stack III
and III Same
Kind
Oil
Well
Oil
Water
Well
Water
Oil
Well
Oil
Good
Good
1.0
1.0
Vertical type Kind
Well Well Well

Class I
Class
and III
and II Cut and
Class IVertical Class I
and
or II
Oil Water Oil Oil Water Oil
Medium 0.6
Cut and Class
and IIII
Well Well Well Well Well Well

Vertical stack type Water Water

or Cut and Class

or II
Class
Oil
Well Well
Oil
Well
Oil
Well Well
Oil
Well Medium 0.6
Medium 0.6
Vertical stack type and II
or II
Oil
Well
Water
Well
Oil
Well
Oil
Well
Water
Well
Oil
Well Medium 0.6
Cut and and
Class II
Class I
Class I Class IIVertical
and III
Vertical stack
Cut type
and
stack type
andorIII
Class IIOil
Oil
Oil
Oil
Well
Water
Well
Water Water
Water
Oil
Well
Oil
Well
Water
Well
Water Oil
Oil
Oil
Well Medium 0.6
Poor 0.4
Oil Oil Oil Oil
andor III Water Oil Medium 0.6
Poor 0.4
Well Well Well Well Well Well
Well
Well Well
Well Well
Well
stack type Class
and IIIII
Well Well Well

and III
and III Class
and III
II
and III
Class I Oil Water Oil

Class I and III ClassIIII

and
Well

Oil
Well

Water
Well

Oil
Poor Poor0.4 0.4
Class I Well Well Well Poor 0.4
and III Oil
Well
Water
Well
Oil
Well Poor 0.4
ClassIIII
and Oil Water Oil
Class I Well Well
Water
Well Poor 0.4
and III Oil
Well Well
Oil
Well Poor 0.4
and III
Sand body
Sand body II type
type of
of flow
flow unit
unit II type
II
Sand body type of
of flow
flow
I type unit
unit
of flow unit III type
III type of
II type of flow unit of flow
flow unit
unit
III type of flow unit Natural
Natural Acoustic time
gamma Acoustic time difference
gamma
Natural gamma Acoustic time difference
difference
Sand body I type of flow unit II type of flow unit III type of flow unit Natural gamma Acoustic time difference
Sand body I type of flow unit II type of flow unit III type of flow unit Natural gamma Acoustic time difference
Sand body I type of flow unit II type of flow unit III type of flow unit Natural gamma Acoustic time difference
Sand body I type of flow unit II type of flow unit III type of flow unit Natural gamma Acoustic time difference
4. Calculation of Real Displacement Distance
4. Calculation of Real Displacement Distance
The water of
4. Displacement
Calculation injection development reservoir
Real Displacement Distanceof highly deviated wells is a multilayer devel-
4.4.
4.Calculation
Calculationofof
Calculation ofReal
Real
Real4. Displacement
Displacement
The water
Calculation
opment. injection
of Distance
Distance
Distance
development
Real Displacement reservoir
Distance of highly deviated wells is a multilayer devel-
4. The The
water
Calculation
displacement
injection
of Real
distance
development
Displacement
from the multilayer
reservoir
Distance of highly perforation
deviated wells position to the water
is a multilayer devel-in-
opment.
jection The
well displacement
isdisplacement
different,
injectionbut distance
the from
displacement the multilayer perforation position to thetowater in-
The water injection
opment.The water
development
The development
reservoir
distance from thedistance
reservoir
of from
of highly
highly
multilayer the perforation
deviated
perforation wells
deviated is aposition
position multilayer
to thewells the
water wa-
devel-
is a multilayer
in-
The water
The water injection
injection
jection development
The
ter injection
opment.
jection
water
development
well is
Theiswell
well
injection
different,
cannotbut
displacement
different,
but reservoir
development
reservoir
the
represent displacement
distance
the thefrom
displacementreal the of
reservoir
of highly
of highly
highly
distance
displacement
multilayer
distance
from
from
deviated
deviated
deviated
the
distance wells
perforation
perforation
the between is
position
perforation
a wells
multilayer
wells
position
oil and
position
to
water
to the isthewells.
is the
water
to aawa-
devel-
wa-multilayer
multilayer
in- devel-
devel-
opment. The displacement distance from the multilayer perforation position to the water in-
development.
opment. The
opment. The displacement
The displacement
ter
ter
injection
Theinjection
real
jection
displacement
jection
The real
well
well
well
displacement
is
distance
well
is
distance
cannot
different,
distance cannot
different,
displacement
represent
distance
but
butfrom
from
represent
distancethe
refers from
the
the displacement
the
the
the
displacement
refers
real
to the
to
the
displacement
shortest
distance
multilayer
multilayer
real displacement
the distance
shortest
multilayer
distance
displacement
from
from
between
perforation
distance
the
displacement
between
perforation
perforation
distance
the perforation
perforation
distance
oil
oil
and
between
position
and
water
tothe
position
position
position
between
water
to
the
the
the
wells.
frac-
wa-
wells.
wa-
frac-
position
to
to the
the to the
water
water in-
in-
tureinjection
ter
The network
real of the
well
displacement same
cannot layerrefers
represent
distance andthetherealwater
to the injection
displacement
shortest well (Figure
distance
displacement between 8). In
distance order
oilbetween to the
and water achieve
wells.
frac-
water
jectioninjection
jection well is
well well is ter
is different,different,
tureinjection
different,
ture
network
but
but
reasonable
The real the
the of but
well
layered cannot
the water
samethe
represent
displacement
displacement
displacement
network of the same
layerdisplacement
injection
distance
layer
andtheand
refers
and
real
the displacement
water
distance
todistance
the improve
the
watershortest distance
injection
injection
distance
fromwell (Figure
from
thedisplacement
well the
the
displacement
(Figure
from
between 8). Inoilthe
perforation
perforation
effect,
distance
8). In
the
and
orderreal
between
order
perforation
water
to
to the
wells.
achieve
position
position
displace-frac-
achieve
position
to
to the
the wa-
wa-
The real
reasonable
ment displacement
distancelayered distance
water andrefers
injection andtowells
the shortest
improve thedisplacement
displacement distance
effect, between
the the frac-
realtodisplace-
toterthe water injection well cannot ofbetween oillayer
the represent water
the in injection
real different layers
displacement should 8).beIn clarified first.
Indistance between oilwells.
and
ture network
reasonable layered same and the water well (Figure order achieve
ter injection well cannot
cannot
ture represent
network the water
ofbetween the
same injection
real
layer an and
and
the improve
displacement
water the
ininjection
displacement
distance
well (Figure effect,
8).six the
between
orderrealtodisplace-
oilthe
achieve and water
water wells.
injection well mentrepresent
distance
Taking
reasonable
ment distance
reasonable
B170-109
layered
between
layered
the
water
water
oil
Xoilas real
and
injection
and
injection
displacement
water
example,
water
wells
andwells thein
improve
and improve
different
wellthewas
different
the
distance
layers
fractured
displacement
layers
displacement
should
shouldin
effect,
effect,
between
be
be
clarified
sections,
clarified and
the real displace-
first.
the real displace-
oil
first. and
water wells.
The real The real
real displacement
displacementment displacement
length,Taking
mentTaking width,
distance
distance
B170-109
and
betweenXoil
refers
X
height distance
as an
data
and
to
example,
of
the each
water wells refers
the
fracture
shortest
well
inwell to
was
were
different the
obtained
layers
displacement shortest
fractured in
using
should six displacement
sections,
microseismic
be sections, and
clarified first.
distance moni-the distance
between the the frac-
frac-
The distance
length,
toring distance
width,
(Figure
Taking
refers
B170-109
between
and
9,
B170-109 height
Table
asto
oil an the
and
data
X4).asThrough
example,
water
of each
an example,
shortest
the wellsthein
fracture
drawing
the well ofdisplacement
was
different
were
fractured
layers
obtained
fracturing
was fractured
shouldin six
using
fractures,
in six
be distance
clarified
microseismic
the
and the
first.moni-
real displace-
sections, and
between
the
between the
ture network fracture
network of of the network
length,
toring
the same
same
width,
Taking
(Figure
layer of
and
B170-109
9, the
height
Table
and X4).same
the
data
asThrough of layer
an water
water
each
example,the and
fracture
the
drawing well
injection
werethe
ofwas water
obtained
fractured
fracturing
well in injection
using
fractures,
(Figure
microseismic
six sections,
the software andwell
real displace-
8).displace-
In the (Figure 8). In
moni-
order to to achieve
achieve
ture ment
length, layer
distance
width,
toring (Figure
length,
ment width,
distance
and
9,
and and
between
Table
between
4).the
height
height
oil and
data
Through
data
oilThrough
and
water
of
of
water
each wellsinjection
the fracture
each
was
fracture
drawing
wells
measured
were well
of fracturing
were
was measured
with
obtained
obtained (Figure
Geomap
using
fractures,
using
withfractures,
Geomap
3.6
microseismic
the real
microseismic8).
3.6 software
In moni-
moni- order
(Fig-
(Fig-
order to achieve
reasonable reasonable
layered
ure
toring
ment
water
toring layered
8).distance
Without
(Figure
(Figure
9,considering
Table 4).
between
injection
9,considering water
oil
Tableto4).and and thewater
Through injection
fracture
improve
the
the wellsnetwork,
drawing
ofand
ofthe
was measured
drawing the improve
displacement
fracturing with
displacement
fracturing Geomap
fractures,
distance
the
3.6
thethe displacement
from
real
software
effect,
real
the
displace-
(Fig-
displace-
in-
the real effect,
displace-
reasonable layered water
jection
ment injection
ure 8).distance
Without
well
ure 8).distance B171-109
between
Withoutbetweenconsideringand
the
oil andtheimprove
fracture
production
water
thewater
fracture wells was the
network,
well
network,
the
B170-109X displacement
measured displacement
is 350
with
the displacementm. distance
Through
Geomap 3.6
distance effect,
the from the
description
software
from the the
in- real
(Fig-
in- displace-
the real displacement
ment distance
distance between
between distance
ment
jection
of
ure the
8). well B171-109
fracture
oilWithout
and between
network, tooil
considering
water
the
theand real
the
wells oil
production and
wells
shortest
fracture
in
well water
was measured
B170-109X
displacement
network,
different the wells with
isdistance
350 m.
displacement
layers in
Geomap
Through
is different
240 3.6
distance
should m. software
the Through
from
be thelayers
(Fig-
description the
in-
clarified should
first. be
ment jection
ure
of the
jection
oil
8). welland
Without
fracture
stratigraphic
B171-109water
network,
profile
well B171-109
wells
to the production
considering the
theproduction
oftohighly
the real fracture
deviated in
shortest
wellsdifferent
well B170-109X
network,
displacement
and water
welldisplacement
B170-109X
is layers
distance
isdistance
350 m.wells,isshould
350 m. Through
the injection
displacement distance
Through240real
the
thefrom
m. be
Through theclarified
description
thedisplacement
description
in-
the first.
clarified first. of the fracture
jection well
stratigraphic
network,
B171-109
profile to
of
theproduction
the
highly
real
deviated
shortest well
wells B170-109X
and water is 350
injection m. is 240
Through
wells, the
m.the
real
Through
description
displacement
the
Taking B170-109
Taking B170-109 of XX fracture
distance
the as
as
fracture
stratigraphic an
an
between example,
example,
different
network,
profile layers
the
of highly the
the
realofshortest
deviated oil and well
well
wellswater was
was
and wells
displacement
water can fractured
fractured
be visually
distance
injection wells,is seen
240real
the m.in
m.in
(Figure six
six
Through
displacement sections,
10). sections,
the and the
and the
Taking B170-109 Xof the
distance
as anbetween
stratigraphic
distance between
network,
example, different
profile
the
of highly
different
layers
the
layers
real ofshortest
deviated oil and
ofwell
oil and
displacement
water
was
wellswater
wells can
fractured
and wells
water
watercan
distance
injection inis seen
be visually
wells,
be visually
240
six
wells,seen
the real
Through
(Figure
sections,10). the
displacement
(Figure 10). and the length,
length, width, and
length, width, and height height
stratigraphic
Table 4. dataprofile
datadifferent
Microseismic
distance between ofof each
highly
ofmonitoring
each
monitoring fracture
deviated
layersfracture
fracture wells
data
of oil and water
and
of were
were
B170-109x
wells can obtained
injection
obtained
well.
be visually seen
theusing
real
using
(Figure 10). microseismic
displacement
microseismic moni- moni-
width, and height data Tableof
distance eachdifferent
between
4. Microseismic fracture ofwere
layersfracture oil and obtained
datawater wells can
of B170-109x beusing
well. visually seen microseismic
(Figure 10). monitoring
toring (Figure
toring (Figure 9,9, Table
Table
Table4).
Table 4). Through
4. Microseismic
Through
4. Microseismic
the fracture
monitoring
the
monitoring
drawing
drawing
fracture
of fracturing
data of B170-109x
of
data of B170-109x
fracturing
well.
well.
fractures, the
fractures, the realreal displace-
displace-
(Figure 9, Table 4). Through the drawing
Table 4. Microseismic monitoring fracture ofdata fracturing
of B170-109x well.fractures, the real displacement
ment distance
ment distance between
between oil oil and and water water wells wells was was measured
measured with with Geomap Geomap 3.6 3.6 software
software (Fig-
(Fig-
distance between oil and water wells was measured with Geomap 3.6 software (Figure 8).
ure 8).
ure 8). Without
Without considering
considering the the fracture
fracture network, network, the the displacement
displacement distance distance from from thethe in-
in-
Without considering the fracture network, the displacement distance from the injection well
jection well B171-109 to the production well
jection well B171-109 to the production well B170-109X is 350 m. Through the description B170-109X is 350 m. Through the description
of the
of the fracture
fracture network,
network, the the real real shortest
shortest displacement displacement distance distance is is 240
240 m. m. Through
Through the the
stratigraphic profile
stratigraphic profile of
of highly
highly deviated deviated wells wells and and water water injectioninjection wells, wells, the the real real displacement
displacement
distance between
distance between different
different layers layers of of oiloil and and water water wells wells can can be be visually
visually seen seen (Figure (Figure 10).
10).
 ment distance between oil and water wells in different layers should be clarified first.
Taking B170-109 X as an example, the well was fractured in six sections, and th
length, width, and height data of each fracture were obtained using microseismic moni
toring (Figure 9, Table 4). Through the drawing of fracturing fractures, the real displace
Energies 2023, 16, 7764 16 of 24
ment distance between oil and water wells was measured with Geomap 3.6 software (Fig
ure 8). Without considering the fracture network, the displacement distance from the in
jection well B171-109 to the production well B170-109X is 350 m. Through the descriptio
B171-109 to the production well B170-109X is 350 m. Through the description of the fracture
of the fracture network, the real shortest displacement distance is 240 m. Through th
network, the real shortest displacement distance is 240 m. Through the stratigraphic profile
stratigraphic
of profile
highly deviated wellsofand
highly
waterdeviated
injectionwells
wells,and
the water injection wells,
real displacement the real
distance displacemen
between
distancelayers
different between different
of oil layers
and water ofcan
wells oil be
and water wells
visually can be10).
seen (Figure visually seen (Figure 10).

Table4.4.Microseismic
Table Microseismic monitoring
monitoring fracture
fracture data
data of of B170-109x
B170-109x well. well.

Fracture Length
Fracture Length (m)(m) Fracture
Fracture WidthWidth Fracture
Fracture HeightHeight Fracture
Fracture Strike Strike
Section
Section
West Flank
West Flank East Flank
East Flank Overall Length
Overall Length (m) (m) (m) (m) (Northeast)
(Northeast)
TheThe
first section
first section 128
128 4646 174 174 41 41 76 76 57◦ 57°
◦
TheThe
second
second section
section 159
159 131
131 290 290 62 62 49 49 61 61°
The third section 220 126 346 58 59 63◦
The third section 220 126 346 58 59 63°
The fourth section 267 134 401 60 60 66◦
The fourth section
The fifth section 267
128 134
96 224 401 44 60 43 60 58 ◦ 66°
The fifth section 128 96 224 44 43 58°

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 24

Figure8.8.Plane
Figure Plane position
position of the
of the B170-109X
B170-109X wellthe
well and and the B171-109
B171-109 well. well.

Figure
Figure 9.
9. Microseismic
Microseismic monitoring
monitoring results
results of
of the
the B170-109X
B170-109X well.
well.

SW
B171-109 B170-109X
GR/API Perforation RT/Ω·m GR/API Perforation RT/Ω·m
60 150 Depth and 15 60 50 140 Depth and 20 60
Stratum
SP/mV /m Interpretation AC/μs·m–1 SP/mV /m Interpretation AC/μs·m–1
55 60 conclusion 220 250 60 80 conclusion 190 250
135m
0
145m 244
2080
0
246

C632-2 170m
0
248
200m
0
250
240m
 Energies 2023, 16, 7764 17 of 24

Figure 9. Microseismic monitoring results of the B170-109X well.

SW
B171-109 B170-109X
GR/API Perforation RT/Ω·m GR/API Perforation RT/Ω·m
60 150 Depth and 15 60 50 140 Depth and 20 60
Stratum
SP/mV /m Interpretation AC/μs·m–1 SP/mV /m Interpretation AC/μs·m–1
55 60 conclusion 220 250 60 80 conclusion 190 250
135m
0
145m 244
2080
0
246

C632-2 170m
0
248
200m
0
250
240m
0
252
2085
Oil layer Poor-Oil layer Dry layer Perforation interval Perforation point Water injection well Oil well

Natural potential Natural gamma Acoustic time difference Resistivity SW Southwest Inter-well distance

Figure10.
Figure 10. The
The B170-109X
B170-109X and
and B171-109
B171-109well
well stratigraphic
stratigraphicprofile
profile(marked
(markedas
asthe
theactual
actualdisplacement
displacement
distance).
distance).

Throughstatistical
Through statisticalanalysis
analysisof ofthe
themicroseismic
microseismicmonitoring
monitoringdata dataofoflow-permeability
low-permeability
reservoirsin
reservoirs inOrdos
OrdosBasin,
Basin,ititisisconsidered
consideredthatthatthere
thereisisaapositive
positivecorrelation
correlationbetween
betweenthe the
ground
groundfluidfluidvolume
volumeand andthe
thelength
lengthof offracture
fracture[53].
[53]. Microseismic
Microseismicmonitoring
monitoringtechnology
technology
isisthe
themain
mainmeans
meansto todescribe
describefracture
fracturemorphology,
morphology,but butits
itscost
costisishigh
highand
andititisisdifficult
difficultto to
achieve
achievefull fullcoverage.
coverage. Therefore,
Therefore, three to five
three typical
to five wellswells
typical underunder
different fracturing
different scales
fracturing
can
scalesbe selected for testing
can be selected forintesting
water in injection development
water injection reservoirs.reservoirs.
development CombinedCombined with the
microseismic monitoring
with the microseismic fracture data,
monitoring the correlation
fracture formula is formula
data, the correlation obtainedisusing
obtainedthe linear
using
regression
the linear of the fracture
regression length
of the and ground
fracture fluidground
length and volume,fluidwhich provides
volume, whicha basis for thea
provides
absence
basis forofthemicroseismic monitoring wells
absence of microseismic and describes
monitoring the fracture
wells and describes network. According
the fracture network.to
the linear regression formula of the single-stage fracture length and the
According to the linear regression formula of the single-stage fracture length and the sin- single-stage ground
fluid volume
gle-stage groundin the Chang
fluid volume63 reservoir
in the Changof the
63 Huaqing
reservoir area
of the(Figure
Huaqing 11),area
the (Figure
regression11),
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
coefficient the 18 of 2
the regression coefficient is greater than 0.8, which is a strong correlation andguide
is greater than 0.8, which is a strong correlation and can effectively can effec-
fracture description
tively guide of highly
the fracture deviatedofwells
description highlywithout microseismic
deviated wells withoutmonitoring in this mon-
microseismic area.
itoring in this area.
500 The fracture length under single-stage ground fluid volume
Regression curve-The fracture length under single-stage ground fluid volume
Fracture length(m)

400
y = 0.3951x + 67.332
R² = 0.8639
300

200

100
300 400 500 600 700 800
Volume of liquid entering the ground in a single section(m 3)

Figure11.11.
Figure Relationship
Relationship curve
curve between
between the single-stage
the single-stage fracturingfracturing fracture
fracture length length
and the and the single
single-stage
stage ground
ground fluid of
fluid volume volume of the
the Chang Chang 63 oil-bearing
63 oil-bearing formation information
the Huaqing in area.
the Huaqing area.

5.5.Layered
LayeredInjection
InjectionAllocation
AllocationCalculation Method
Calculation Method
5.1. Layered Injection Allocation Calculation Formula
5.1. Layered Injection Allocation Calculation Formula
With the above analysis, it can be seen that the effective thickness (h), connectivity
With(ϕ),
coefficient thepermeability
above analysis, it can
(k), crude oil be seen that
viscosity (µo ), the
welleffective thickness
spacing radius (ℎ), connectivit
(re ), wellbore
coefficient (𝜑), permeability (𝑘), crude oil viscosity (𝜇 ), well spacing radius (𝑟 ), wellbor
radius (𝑟 ), production pressure difference (∆𝑃), and transformation parameters (𝑆) ar
important factors affecting layered injection allocation. Among them, the crude oil viscos
ity of the same reservoir is the same, the wellbore radius of the same block is the same
 Energies 2023, 16, 7764 18 of 24

radius (rw ), production pressure difference (∆P), and transformation parameters (S) are
important factors affecting layered injection allocation. Among them, the crude oil viscosity
of the same reservoir is the same, the wellbore radius of the same block is the same, and
the production pressure difference between single oil and water wells is the same, which is
not used as a calculation parameter. The distance between the oil and water wells (L = 2re )
represents the real displacement distance, which combines the fracturing scale parameters,
and the transformation parameters are not used as calculation parameters. The formula of
the layered injection ratio (ω) can be obtained:

ϕi ∗ k i ∗ hi ∗ Li
ωi = n . (4)
∑ i =1 ϕ i ∗ k i ∗ h i ∗ L i

In the formula, k ∗ h represents the stratigraphic coefficient, which reflects the pro-
duction capacity of the oil and gas layer and the water absorption capacity of the water
injection well. The larger the formation coefficient is, the greater the production capacity of
the oil and gas layer and the water absorption capacity of the water absorption layers [54].
k ∗ h ∗ ϕ ∗ L is the product of the stratigraphic coefficient, connectivity coefficient, and real
displacement distance. It can determine the permeability, water absorption capacity, and
water storage capacity of connected sand bodies under the real displacement distance of oil
and water wells, which is called the displacement coefficient.

5.2. Calculation Example of Layered Injection Allocation in Highly Deviated Wells

Taking the B193-101 water injection well as the center, four highly deviated wells
(B192-101X, B193-100X, B193-102X, and B194-101X) correspond to the surrounding area,
and the number of fracturing sections is 6, 6, 5, and 5, respectively. Combined with the
regression formula of microseismic monitoring, the fracture length of each highly deviated
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
well is calculated (Figure 12), and the real distance between the oil and water wells in 19 of 2
different layers is measured using Geomap 3.6 software (Table 5).

B193-102X

B192-101X

B193-101
B194-101X

B193-100X

Oil well Water injection well Fracture length

Figure12.12.
Figure Fracturing
Fracturing network
network ofwell
of the the well
groupgroup B193-101.
B193-101.

TableWith the evaluation

5. B193-101 of the of
well group sand bodyinjection
layered connectivity, the sand body connectivity between
calculation.
highly deviated wells and water injection wells is determined (Figures 13 and 14), the effec-
tive sand body thickness is defined, and the displacement coefficientDisplace- of each perforation
Real Dis- Sand
pointBody
can be obtained. Permeabil-
Since highly Effective
deviatedDisplace-
wells and Water
injection ment Coeffi- Layered Layered In
Fractur- Connectiv- In- wells are divided into
Well placement Connectiv- Thick- cient Injec- jection Cal
ing Sec- upper and lower sections, the
ity Degree itylayered injection ratioCoeffi-
ment of different single wells can be obtained
jection
Name Distance ity ness of Water In- tion Ra- culation
tion by calculating the displacement
Coefficient (mD) coefficients of different
cient injection
Section sections. According to
(m) (Yes/No) (m) jection tio (m3)
the demand of oilfield water injection, the injection allocation of the B193-101 well is set to
Section
20 m3 , and the injection allocation of each highly deviated well can be calculated using the
1 85 Yes 0.9 0.23 1.56 27.4
single well layered injection allocation ratio (Table Upper the weighted sum of the
5). Through
2 150 Yes 0.8 0.23 4.77 131.7 199.5 0.72 14.5
injection allocation of the upper and 3.28
lower sections, section
the injection allocation of the upper
3 110 Yes 0.8 0.14 40.4
B192-101x
4 150 No 0.16 0.91 0
Lower
5 110 Yes 1.0 0.2 3.48 76.6 76.6 0.28 5.5
section
6 140 No 0.16 2.98 0
1 120 Yes 0.8 0.25 2.71 65.0
Upper
2 140 Yes 1.0 0.18 5.66 142.6 261.8 0.62 12.4
Energies 2023, 16, 7764 19 of 24

and lower sections is 13.5 m3 and 6.5 m3 , respectively. Because the reasonable injection
allocation of the B192-101X well lower section is the minimum injection allocation, which
is 5.5 m3 , in order to avoid a long-term large amount of water scouring the layer to form
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 and
a preferential seepage channel, the final reasonable injection allocation of the upper of 24
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 24
3 3
lower sections is determined to be 14 m and 6 m , respectively.

230m SE 230m
230m SE 230m
B192-101X B193-101 B194-101X
GR/API B192-101X
Perforation RT/Ω·m GR/API B193-101
RT/Ω·m
Perforation GR/API B194-101X RT/Ω·m
Perforation
50GR/API
140 Depth Perforation
and 30RT/Ω·m60 50GR/API140 Depth Perforation
and 15RT/Ω·m
50 GR/API
50 140 Depth Perforation
and 20 RT/Ω·m
100
Stratum and
Stratum /m Interpretation
50SP/mV140 Depth 30
AC/μs·m60–1 and
/m Interpretation
50SP/mV140 Depth 15 50–1
AC/μs·m 50 140
SP/mV Depth and
/m Interpretation 20
AC/μs·m100
–1

40 SP/mV
55 /m Interpretation
conclusion AC/μs·m
190 250
–1
40 SP/mV55 /m Interpretation
conclusion 200 AC/μs·m
250
–1 SP/mV
35 90 /m Interpretation
conclusion AC/μs·m
190 250
–1

40 55 conclusion 190 250 40 55 conclusion 200 250 35 90 conclusion 190 250

2200
C631-2
120m(connection) 2200
C631-2 2420 2100
120m(connection)
2420 2100
85m(connection)
85m(connection) Upper
Upper
injection
C632-1 injection
section
C632-1 2220
140m(connection) section
2440 150m(connection) 2220
2440 150m(connection) 140m(connection)

100m(connection) 2110 160m(connection)

100m(connection) 2110 160m(connection)
C632-2 2240
C632-2 2460 2240
2460

Unconnected sand body 2260

2480 Unconnected sand body 2260
2120 160m(connection) Lower
C633-1 2480 Lower
injection
C633-1 2120 160m(connection)
110m(connection) injection
section
110m(connection) 2280 section
2500 2280
Unconnected sand body
2500 Unconnected sand body Unconnected sand body
C633-2 Unconnected sand body
C633-2
00
23 0
0
23
Oil layer Poor-Oil layer Dry layer Perforation interval Perforation point I type of flow unit II type of flow unit III type of flow unit Water injection well Oil well
Oil layer Poor-Oil layer Dry layer Perforation interval Perforation point I type of flow unit II type of flow unit III type of flow unit Water injection well Oil well
Natural potential Natural gamma Acoustic time difference Resistivity SE Southeast Inter-well distance Segmented line Layered line Connectivity distance
Natural potential Natural gamma Acoustic time difference Resistivity SE Southeast Inter-well distance Segmented line Layered line Connectivity distance

Figure13.
13. B192-101Xwell—B193-101
well—B193-101 well—B194-101Xwell
well sandbody
body connectedprofile.
profile.
Figure 13.B192-101X
Figure B192-101X well—B193-101well—B194-101X
well—B194-101X wellsand
sand bodyconnected
connected profile.
230m NE 230m
230m NE 230m
B193-100X B193-101 B193-102X
GR/API B193-100X
Perforation RT/Ω·m GR/API B193-101
RT/Ω·m
Perforation GR/API B193-102X RT/Ω·m
Perforation
40GR/API
160 Depth Perforation
and 30 RT/Ω·m
90 50GR/API140 Depth Perforation
and 15RT/Ω·m50 55GR/API
140 Depth Perforation
and 30 RT/Ω·m
90
Stratum and
Stratum /m Interpretation
40SP/mV160 Depth 30
AC/μs·m90–1 and
/m Interpretation
50SP/mV140 Depth 15
AC/μs·m50–1 55SP/mV140 Depth and
/m Interpretation 30
AC/μs·m90
–1

40 SP/mV
120 /m Interpretation
conclusion AC/μs·m
190 270
–1
40 SP/mV55 /m Interpretation
conclusion AC/μs·m
200 250
–1
60SP/mV180 /m Interpretation
conclusion AC/μs·m
190
–1
250
40 120 conclusion 190 270 40 55 conclusion 200 250 60 180 conclusion 190 250
24 60
C631-2 2460 160m(connection)
160m(connection)
C631-2 2100 2280
2100 2280
150m(connection) Upper
150m(connection) Upper
injection
C632-1 2480 injection
section
C632-1 2480 160m(connection) 2300 section
160m(connection) 150m(connection) 2300
150m(connection)
100m(connection) 2110 165m(connection)
100m(connection) 2110 165m(connection)
C632-2 2500
C632-2 2500 2320
2320

Unconnected sand body Unconnected sand body

2520 Unconnected sand body 2340
Unconnected sand body Lower
2520 2340 Lower
injection
2120 宽版
2120 宽版 180m(connection) injection
section
C633-1 90m(connection) 180m(connection) section
C633-1 90m(connection)
2540 2360
2540 2360

Oil layer Poor-Oil layer Dry layer Perforation interval Perforation point I type of flow unit II type of flow unit III type of flow unit Water injection well Oil well
Oil layer Poor-Oil layer Dry layer Perforation interval Perforation point I type of flow unit II type of flow unit III type of flow unit Water injection well Oil well
Natural potential Natural gamma Acoustic time difference Resistivity NE Noutheast Inter-well distance Segmented line Layered line Connectivity distance
Natural potential Natural gamma Acoustic time difference Resistivity NE Noutheast Inter-well distance Segmented line Layered line Connectivity distance

Figure 14. B193-100X well—B193-101 well—B193-102X well sand body connected profile.
Figure14.
Figure 14.B193-100X
B193-100Xwell—B193-101
well—B193-101well—B193-102X
well—B193-102Xwell
wellsand
sandbody
bodyconnected
connectedprofile.
profile.

6. Production Dynamic Verification of the Layered Water Injection Adjustment Results

6. Production Dynamic Verification of the Layered Water Injection Adjustment Results
Taking B193-101 well group as an example, because the production time of highly
Taking B193-101 well group as an example, because the production time of highly
deviated wells is different, the production performance of the B193-101 well group was
deviated wells is different, the production performance of the B193-101 well group was
compared and analyzed using the time alignment (Figure 15a). After the B193-101 well
compared and analyzed using the time alignment (Figure 15a). After the B193-101 well
group was put into production, it was divided into two sections of layered water injection.
group was put into production, it was divided into two sections of layered water injection.
The total injection allocation was 30 m33, and the injection allocation of the upper and lower
The total injection allocation was 30 m , and the injection allocation of the upper and lower
sections was 20 m33 and 10 m33, respectively. In the twelfth month of production, the water
sections was 20 m and 10 m , respectively. In the twelfth month of production, the water
cut of the B193-100X well increased rapidly, and then the water cut of the B192-101X and
cut of the B193-100X well increased rapidly, and then the water cut of the B192-101X and
Energies 2023, 16, 7764 20 of 24

Table 5. B193-101 well group of layered injection calculation.

Displacement
Real Layered
Sand Body Connectivity Effective Water Coefficient Layered
Fracturing Displacement Permeability Displacement Injection
Well Name Connectivity Degree Thickness Injection of Water Injection
Section Distance (mD) Coefficient Calculation
(Yes/No) Coefficient (m) Section Injection Ratio
(m) (m3 )
Section

1 85 Yes 0.9 0.23 1.56 27.4

199.5 0.72 14.5
2 150 Yes 0.8 0.23 4.77 131.7 Upper section
3 110 Yes 0.8 0.14 3.28 40.4
B192-101x
4 150 No 0.16 0.91 0
76.6 0.28 5.5
5 110 Yes 1.0 0.2 3.48 76.6 Lower section
6 140 No 0.16 2.98 0

1 120 Yes 0.8 0.25 2.71 65.0

261.8 0.62 12.4
2 140 Yes 1.0 0.18 5.66 142.6 Upper section

B194-101x 3 160 Yes 0.9 0.33 1.14 54.2

4 160 Yes 0.8 0.3 4.17 160.1

Lower section 160.1 0.38 7.6
5 190 No 0.24 3.29 0

1 160 Yes 1.0 0.19 2.15 65.4

228.2 0.72 14.4
2 160 Yes 1.0 0.22 3.71 130.6 Upper section

B193-100x 3 100 Yes 0.8 0.21 1.92 32.3

4 110 No 0.24 1.79 0

Lower section 87.7 0.28 5.6
5&6 90 Yes 1.0 0.22 4.43 87.7

1 150 Yes 0.8 0.18 2.12 45.8

144.4 0.63 12.7
2 150 Yes 1.0 0.18 1.24 33.5 Upper section

B193-102x 3 165 Yes 0.8 0.21 2.35 65.1

4 180 No 0.24 1.68 0

Lower section 83.1 0.37 7.3
5 180 Yes 0.9 0.18 2.85 83.1

6. Production Dynamic Verification of the Layered Water Injection Adjustment Results

Taking B193-101 well group as an example, because the production time of highly
deviated wells is different, the production performance of the B193-101 well group was
compared and analyzed using the time alignment (Figure 15a). After the B193-101 well
group was put into production, it was divided into two sections of layered water injection.
The total injection allocation was 30 m3 , and the injection allocation of the upper and lower
sections was 20 m3 and 10 m3 , respectively. In the twelfth month of production, the water
cut of the B193-100X well increased rapidly, and then the water cut of the B192-101X and
B193-102X wells began to increase gradually. Because of the long-term water injection
scouring of a large amount of water, the preferential seepage channel was gradually formed
in the high-permeability area of each layer, and the peak water absorption is presented on
the water absorption profile (Figure 15b). Therefore, by reducing the water injection volume
and applying the method determining the layered injection allocation in highly deviated
wells based on connectivity evaluation, the water injection volume was optimized, and
the upper and lower sections had water injection volumes of 14 m3 and 6 m3 , respectively.
In the second, fourth, and fifth months after the injection adjustment, the water cut of the
wells B192-101X, B193-100X, and B193-102X began to decrease. In the eighth month after
the adjustment of injection allocation for the three highly deviated wells with increased
water cut, all the water cuts decreased, and the daily oil production gradually returned
to the level before the water cut increased. Among them, B193-100X daily oil production
gradually increased, much higher than the level before the water cut increased. From the
adjusted injection profile (Figure 15b), it can be seen that the peak water absorption in all
water absorbing layers disappeared, achieving uniform displacement. Through production
dynamic verification, it can be concluded that the method for determining the layered
allocation of highly deviated wells based on connectivity evaluation can effectively guide
the layered allocation work of highly deviated wells in the water injection development of
oil reservoirs.
 daily oil production gradually increased, much higher than the level before the water cut
increased. From the adjusted injection profile (Figure 15b), it can be seen that the peak
water absorption in all water absorbing layers disappeared, achieving uniform displace-
ment. Through production dynamic verification, it can be concluded that the method for
determining the layered allocation of highly deviated wells based on connectivity evalu-
Energies 2023, 16, 7764 21 of 24
ation can effectively guide the layered allocation work of highly deviated wells in the wa-
ter injection development of oil reservoirs.

8 GR/API Perforation RT/Ω·m Ultrasonic flow rate m3/d

B192-101X B193-100X B193-102X B194-101X 50 140 Depth and 15 50 Before After
Daily oil production(/d)

Stratum
SP/mV /m Interpretation AC/μs·m–1 adjustment adjustment
6 conclusion
40 55 200 250 0 40 0 40

4
C631-2
2100
2 Increase or
stabilize daily
oil production
0 C632-1
50 Adjusted layered Controlled the
injection volume increase in water cut
40
2110
Water cut(%)

30 C632-2

Stable water cut

20

10
C633-1 2120

0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
Oil layer Poor-Oil layer Dry layer Perforation interval Segmented line Layered line
Time alignment(month)
Natural potential Natural gamma Acoustic time difference Resistivity Ultrasonic flow rate

(a) (b)
Figure 15. Dynamic verification of layered water injection production. (a) Production curve of the
Figure 15. Dynamic verification of layered water injection production. (a) Production curve of the
B193-101 well group. (b) Comparison of the water injection profile before and after the injection
B193-101 well group. (b) Comparison of the water injection profile before and after the injection
allocation adjustment in well B193-101.
allocation adjustment in well B193-101.
7. Conclusions
7. Conclusions
(1) Four
(1) Four types
types of
of vertical
vertical stacking
stacking patterns
patterns and
and five
five types
types of
of lateral contact relationships
lateral contact relationships
of
of single
single sand body were
sand body were identified
identified using
using sand
sand body
body configuration.
configuration. TheThe deposition
deposition
rate
rate and
and sediment
sediment recharge
recharge rate
rate of
of the
the turbidite sedimentary system
turbidite sedimentary system are
are fast,
fast, and
and the
the
vertical multiperiod channel cutting and stacking type and lateral docking
vertical multiperiod channel cutting and stacking type and lateral docking contact contact of
the single sand body are the most developed. Through the combination
of the single sand body are the most developed. Through the combination three of three
methods
methods of sand body configuration, seepage unit, and single sand body boundary
identification,
identification, the
the accuracy
accuracy of single sand body identification in the target area was was
12.6% higher than that of sand body configuration identification.
(2) The
(2) The connectivity
connectivity coefficient
coefficient characterizes
characterizes the
the connectivity
connectivity ratio of sand bodies, the the
transition
transition coefficient
coefficient characterizes
characterizes the connectivity strength of sand bodies, and the the
connectivity
connectivity degree
degreecoefficient
coefficientcharacterizes
characterizesthethe
real connectivity
real of sand
connectivity bodies.
of sand The
bodies.
The connectivity degree coefficient can be used as a standard for the quantitative
evaluation of single sand body connectivity to determine the connectivity of single
sand bodies.
(3) In order to calculate the reasonable layered injection allocation of water injection
reservoirs in highly deviated wells, it is suggested that three to five typical wells
under different fracturing scales should be selected for microseismic monitoring,
and the correlation between the fracture parameters and the ground fluid volume
should be regressed to provide the basis for the lack of microseismic monitoring wells.
According to the calculation results of the correlation formula, the fracture network is
described, and the real displacement distance of oil and water wells in each layer of
highly deviated wells is obtained.
(4) The new methodology for determination of layered injection allocation in highly devi-
ated wells drilled in low-permeability reservoirs clarifies the connectivity relationship
between single sand bodies, describes the method for obtaining the real displacement
distance of different layers in highly deviated wells, and determines the reasonable
stratified injection allocation between layers. The method’s implementation resulted
in a 3.6% reduction in the water cut by a year, and a significant increase in the daily oil
production of individual wells by 0.5 t/d in the target area. The impact of the injection
allocation adjustment was notably significant. This method is scientific and reason-
Energies 2023, 16, 7764 22 of 24

able, simple and practical, convenient and fast, and has a good application value for
the same type of highly deviated wells’ water injection development reservoirs.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, writing—original draft

preparation, M.L.; investigation, data curation, S.J. and L.B.; validation, S.Y.; resources, writing—
review and editing, Z.Q. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.
52274007 and No. 51974255), the Scientific Research Program Funded by Shaanxi Provincial Edu-
cation Department (No. 22JS028 and No. 22JK0597), the Science and Technology Personnel Service
Enterprise Project of Xi’an Science and Technology Bureau (No. 22GXFW0148), and the Yan’an
University Doctoral Research Initiation Project (No. YAU202303785).
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: The authors are grateful for the editors and anonymous reviewers for their
constructive comments and suggestions, which greatly improved the quality of the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any
commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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