UNIT – III NETWORK LAYER

Switching: Packet Switching- Internet protocol - IPV4 – IP Addressing – Subnetting - IPV6,

ARP,RARP,ICMP,DHCP
PART – A
S.No Univ QP (Month/
Question and Answer CO
. Year)
1 Write on the packet cost referred in distance vector
and link state routing.
In distance vector routing, cost refer to hop count while
in case of link state routing, cost is a weighted value CO3 (May2012)
based on a variety of factors such as security levels,
traffic or
the state of the link.
2 What is source routing?
Rotation, stripping off and using pointers are the CO3 (Nov 13)
different types of source routing approach.
3 Define routing.
It is the process of building up the tables that allow the
collect output for a packet to be determined. It is a lot
harder to create the forwarding tables in large, complex
networks with dynamically changing topologies and
CO3 (Nov12,15)
multiple paths between destinations. Routing is a
process that takes place in the background so that, when
a data packet turns up, we will have the right
information in the forwarding table to be able to
forward, or switch, the packet.
4 What is the role of VCI?
An Incoming virtual circuit identifier (VCI) uniquely
identifies the connection at this switch and that will be
carried inside the header of the packets that belong to
this connection. It is a potentially different outgoing CO3 (May 11)
VCI that will be used for outgoing packets. The
combination of incoming interface and incoming VCI
uniquely identifies
the virtual connection.
5 What is packet switching?
In a packet-switched network, it’s not necessary to dedicate
transmission capacity along a path through the network.
CO3 (Nov 12)
Rather, data are sent out in a sequence of small chunks,
called packets. Packet switching is mainly used in terminal-
to-computer and computer-to-computer communications.
6 What is the function of a router? CO3 (Nov 10)
Routers relay packets among multiple interconnected
networks. They route packets from one network to any of
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a number of potential destination networks on internet. A

route operates as the physical, data link and network
layer of the OSI model. A router itermed as an intelligent
device. Therefore, its capabilities are much more than
those of repeater or a bridge. A router is useful for
interconnecting two or more heterogeneous networks that
differ in their physical characteristics such as frame size,
transmission rates, topologies, addressing etc. A router
has to determine the best possible transmission path
among several available paths. Destination, Cost and
Next Hop are the important fields in a routing table.
7 What is subnetting?
The whole network can’t manage by single server, so
that the entire network divided into small network in
order to manage the network easily. Subnetting
provides an elegantly simple way to reduce the total
CO3 (Nov 11,15)
number of network numbers that are assigned. The idea
is to take a single IP network number and allocate the
IP address with that
network to several physical networks, which are now
referred to as subnets.
8 What is subnet mask?
A subnet mask is a number that defines a range of
IP addresses available within a network. A single
subnet mask limits the number of valid IPs for a CO3
specific network. Multiple subnet masks can organize a
single network into smaller networks(called
subnetworks or subnets).
9 Define CIDR?
CIDR, which stands for Classless Inter-Domain Routing, is
an IP addressing scheme that improves the allocation of
CO3
IP addresses. It replaces the old system based on classes
A, B, and C. This helped to extend the life of IPv4 as well
as slow the growth of routing tables.
10 How many network addresses and host
addresses are supported byclass A, class
B networks?
 Class A: Number of networks =127 CO3
Number of hosts = 224 -1
 Class B: Number of networks = 214-1
Number of hosts = 216 – 1 = 65,535
11 What does a router do when it receives a CO3
packet with a destination address that it does
not have an entry for, in its routingtable?
Default Router: If IP Software is not able to find the
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destination, from routing table

thenitsendsthedatagramtodefaultrouter.Itisusefulwhena
sitehassmallsetof
local address connected to it and connected to the rest of
the Internet.
12 List out the functions of IP.
IP services are unreliable, best-effort, connectionless
packet delivery system
 Unreliable – delivery is not guaranteed,
Connectionless – each pocket is treated independent
from others, Best-effort delivery – it makes an earnest CO3
attempt to deliver packets. It defines basic unit of data
transfer throughTCP/IP.
IP s/w performs routing function and finds a path from
source to destination. IP includes a set of rules that embody
the idea of unreliable packetdelivery.
13 What do you mean by ICMP?
ICMP is an error reporting mechanism. It does not
specify the action to be taken for each possible error. The CO3
source must relate the error to an individual application
program and take other actions to correct the problem.
14 To whom ICMP reports error message will be sent?
ICMP allows routers to send error messages to other
router or hosts. ICMP is an error reporting mechanism. It
does not specify the action to be taken for each possible CO3
error. It is informing the source that the error has
occurred and the source has to take actions to rectify
theerrors.
15 When ICMP redirect message is used?
An ICMP redirect is an error message
sent by a router to the sender of an IP
packet Redirectsare used when a
router believes a packet is being
CO3 (May 17)
routed sub optimally and it would like
to inform the sending host that it
should forward subsequent packets to
that same destination through a
different gateway.
16 What is IP address?
An Internet Address is made of four bytes (32 bits) that
define a host’s connection to a network. There are currently
CO3
5 different field lengths patterns, each define a class of
addresses. These are designed to cover the needs of
different types of organizations, class A, B, C, D, E.
17 Netid CO3
18 Explain Multicast routing? CO3
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Multicast IP Routing protocols are used to distribute

data (for example, audio/video streaming broadcasts)
to multiple recipients. Using multicast, a source can
send a single copy of data to a single multicast
address, which is then distributed to an entire
group of recipients.
19 Explain IPV6 protocol.
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) is a set of basics of
IPv6 are similar to those of IPv4. The most obvious
improvement in IPv6 over IPv4 is that IP addresses are
lengthened from 32 bits to 128 bits. This extension
anticipates considerable future growth of the Internet CO3 (Nov 19)
and provides relief for what was perceived as an
impending shortage of network addresses. IPv6 also
supports auto-configuration to help correct most of the
shortcomings in version 4, and it has integrated security
and mobility features.
20 What is RIP?
RIP(Routing Information Protocol) is a widely-used
protocol for managing router information within a
self-contained network such as a corporate local area
network or an interconnected group of such LANs.
Using RIP, a gateway host (with a router) sends its
entire routing table (which lists all the other hosts it CO3
knows about) to its closest neighbor host every 30
seconds. The neighbor host in turn will pass the
information on to its next neighbor and so on until all
hosts within the networkhave
the same knowledge of routing paths, a state known as
network convergence.
21 Explain about OSPF.
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) is a router protocol
used within larger autonomous system networks in
preference to the Routing Information Protocol (RIP),
an older routing protocol that is installed in many of
CO3
today's corporate networks. Using OSPF, a host that
obtains a change to a routing table or detects a change
in the network immediately multicasts the information
to all other hosts in the network so that all will
have the same routing table information.
22 Why is IPV4 to IPV6 transition required?
IPv4 and IPv6 networks are not directly interoperable,
CO3 (May 17)
transition technologies are designed to permit hosts on
either network type to communicate with any other host.
23 What is DVMRP? CO3
The Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol
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(DVMRP), is a routing protocol used toshare

information between routers to facilitate the
transportation of IP multicast packets among
networks. The protocol is based on the RIP protocol.
The router generates a routing table with the multicast
group of which it has knowledge
withcorrespondingdistances.Whenamulticastpacketisre
ceivedbyarouter,itis
forwarded by the router's interfaces specified in the
routing table.
24 Compare ARP and RARP.
ARP RARP
Address Resolution Reverse Address
Protocol. Resolution Protocol.
Retrieves the Retrieves the
physical address logical address
CO3
of the receiver. for a computer
from the
server.
ARP maps 32-bit logical RARP maps 48-bit
(IP) address to 48- physical address to 32-
bit physical address. bit logical (IP) address.
25 What is DHCP ?
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a
network management protocol used to dynamically
assign an Internet Protocol (IP) address to any
device, or node, on a network so they can CO3 (Nov 19)
communicate using IP. DHCP automates and centrally
manages these configurations rather than requiring
network administrators to manually assign
IP addresses to all network devices.
PART B
1 Discuss DHCP in detail. CO3
The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a
network management protocol used on UDP/IP networks
whereby a DHCP server dynamically assigns an IP address
and other network configuration parameters to each device on
a network so they can communicate with other IP networks. A
DHCP server enables computers to request IP addresses and
networking parameters automatically from the Internet service
provider (ISP), reducing the need for a network administrator
or a user to manually assign IP addresses to all network
devices. In the absence of a DHCP server, a computer or other
device on the network needs to be manually assigned an IP
address, or to assign itself an APIPA address, which will not
enable it to communicate outside its local subnet.
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2 Explain Distance Vector routing in detail. CO3 (APR/MAY 2015)

Distance Vector Algorithm – (MAY/JUN 2016)
1. A router transmits its distance vector to each of its (NOV/DEC 2015)
neighbors in a routing packet.
2. Each router receives and saves the most recently
received distance vector from each of its neighbors.
3. A router recalculates its distance vector when:
 It receives a distance vector from a neighbor
containing different information than before.
 It discovers that a link to a neighbor has gone
down.
The DV calculation is based on minimizing the cost to
each destination. Dx(y) = Estimate of least cost from x to
y
C(x,v) = Node x knows cost to each neighbor v
Dx = [Dx(y): y ∈ N ] = Node x maintains distance
vector
Node x also maintains its neighbors' distance vectors
– For each neighbor v, x maintains Dv = [Dv(y): y ∈N ]
Note –
 From time-to-time, each node sends its own
distance vector estimate to neighbors.
 When a node x receives new DV estimate from any
neighbor v, it saves v’s distance vector and it
updates its own DV using B-F equation:
 Dx(y) = min { C(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y ∈ N

Example – Consider 3-routers X, Y and Z as shown in

figure. Each router have their routing table. Every routing
table will contain distance to the destination nodes.
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Advantages of Distance Vector routing –

 It is simpler to configure and maintain than link
state routing.
Disadvantages of Distance Vector routing –
 It is slower to converge than link state.
 It is at risk from the count-to-infinity problem.
 It creates more traffic than link state since a hop
count change must be propagated to all routers and
processed on each router. Hop count updates take
place on a periodic basis, even if there are no
changes in the network topology, so bandwidth-
wasting broadcasts still occur.
 For larger networks, distance vector routing results
in larger routing tables than link state since each
router must know about all other routers. This can
also lead to congestion on WAN links.
3 Explain about Link state routing in detail. CO3
Link State Routing –
Link state routing is the second family of routing
protocols. While distance vector routers use a distributed
algorithm to compute their routing tables, link-state
routing uses link-state routers to exchange messages that
allow each router to learn the entire network topology.
Based on this learned topology, each router is then able to
compute its routing table by using a shortest path
computation.
Features of link state routing protocols –
Link state packet – A small packet that contains routing
information.
Link state database – A collection information gathered
from link state packet.
Shortest path first algorithm (Dijkstra algorithm) – A
calculation performed on the database results into
shortest path
Routing table – A list of known paths and interfaces.
Calculation of shortest path –
To find shortest path, each node need to run the famous
Dijkstra algorithm. This famous algorithm uses the
following steps:
Step-1: The node is taken and chosen as a root node of
the tree, this creates the tree with a single node, and now
set the total cost of each node to some value based on the
information in Link State Database
Step-2: Now the node selects one node, among all the
nodes not in the tree like structure, which is nearest to the
root, and adds this to the tree.The shape of the tree gets
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changed .
Step-3: After this node is added to the tree, the cost of all
the nodes not in the tree needs to be updated because the
paths may have been changed.
Step-4: The node repeats the Step 2. and Step 3. until all
the nodes are added in the tree
4 Explain OSPF in detail. CO3 (APR/MAY 2015)
Open shortest path first (OSPF) routing protocol –
 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a unicast routing
protocol developed by working group of the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
 It is a intradomain routing protocol.
 It is an open source protocol.
 It is similar to Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
 OSPF is a classless routing protocol, which means
that in its updates, it includes the subnet of each
route it knows about, thus, enabling variable-length
subnet masks. With variable-length subnet masks,
an IP network can be broken into many subnets of
various sizes. This provides network administrators
with extra network-configuration flexibility.These
updates are multicasts at specific addresses
(224.0.0.5 and 224.0.0.6).OSPF is implemented as a
program in the network layer using the services
provided by the Internet Protocol.
 IP datagram that carries the messages from OSPF
sets the value of protocol field to 89.
 OSPF is based on the SPF algorithm, which
sometimes is referred to as the Dijkstra algorithm
 OSPF has two versions – version 1 and version 2.
Version 2 is used mostly
OSPF Messages – OSPF is a very complex protocol. It
uses five different types of messages. These are as
follows:
1. Hello message (Type 1) – It is used by
the routers to introduce itself to the other
routers.
2. Database description message (Type 2)
– It is normally send in response to the
Hello message.
3. Link-state request message (Type 3) – It is
used by the routers that need information
about specific Link-State packet.
4. Link-state update message (Type 4) – It is
the main OSPF message for building Link-
State Database.
5. Link-state acknowledgement message
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(Type 5) – It is used to create reliability in

the OSPF protocol.
5 Discuss RIP in detail.
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a dynamic routing
protocol which uses hop count as a routing metric to find
the best path between the source and the destination
network. It is a distance vector routing protocol which
has AD value 120 and works on the application layer of
OSI model. RIP uses port number 520.
Hop Count :
Hop count is the number of routers occurring in between
the source and destination network. The path with the
lowest hop count is considered as the best route to reach a
network and therefore placed in the routing table. RIP
prevents routing loops by limiting the number of hopes CO3
allowed in a path from source and destination. The
maximum hop count allowed for RIP is 15 and hop count
of 16 is considered as network unreachable.
Features of RIP :
1. Updates of the network are exchanged
periodically.
2. Updates (routing information) are always
broadcast.
3. Full routing tables are sent in updates.
4. Routers always trust on routing information
received from neighbor routers. This is also
known as routing
6 Explain about CIDR. CO3
DEFINITION
CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing or supernetting)
CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing, sometimes called
supernetting) is a way to allow more flexible allocation of
Internet Protocol (IP) addresses than was possible with the
original system of IP address classes. As a result, the number
of available Internet addresses was greatly increased, which
along with widespread use of network address translation
(NAT), has significantly extended the useful life of IPv4.
Originally, IP addresses were assigned in four major address
classes, A through D. Each of these classes allocates one
portion of the 32-bit IP address format to identify a network
gateway -- the first 8 bits for class A, the first 16 for class B,
and the first 24 for class C. The remainder identify hosts on
that network -- more than 16 million in class A, 65,535 in class
B and 254 in class C. (Class D addresses identify multicast
domains.)
To illustrate the problems with the class system, consider that
one of the most commonly used classes was Class B. An
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organization that needed more than 254 host machines would

often get a Class B license, even though it would have far
fewer than 65,534 hosts. This resulted in most of the block of
addresses allocated going unused. The inflexibility of the class
system accelerated IPv4 address pool exhaustion. With IPv6,
addresses grow to 128 bits, greatly expanding the number of
possible addresses on the Internet. The transition to IPv6 is
slow, however, so IPv4 address exhaustion continues to be a
significant issue.
CIDR reduced the problem of wasted address space by
providing a new and more flexible way to specify network
addresses in routers. CIDR lets one routing table entry
represent an aggregation of networks that exist in the forward
path that don't need to be specified on that particular gateway.
This is much like how the public telephone system uses area
codes to channel calls toward a certain part of the network.
This aggregation of networks in a single address is sometimes
referred to as a supernet.

Using CIDR, each IP address has a network prefix that

identifies either one or several network gateways. The length
of the network prefix in IPv4 CIDR is also specified as part of
the IP address and varies depending on the number of bits
needed, rather than any arbitrary class assignment structure. A
destination IP address or route that describes many possible
destinations has a shorter prefix and is said to be less specific.
A longer prefix describes a destination gateway more
specifically. Routers are required to use the most specific, or
longest, network prefix in the routing table when forwarding
packets. (In IPv6, a CIDR block always gets 64 bits for
specifying network addresses.)
7 Explain in detail about Multicast routing. CO3 (NOV/DEC 2015)
Multicast IP Routing protocols are used to distribute data (for
example, audio/video streaming broadcasts) to multiple
recipients. Using multicast, a source can send a single copy of
data to a single multicast address, which is then distributed to
an entire group of recipients.
A multicast group identifies a set of recipients that are
interested in a particular data stream, and is represented by an
IP address from a well-defined range. Data sent to this IP
address is forwarded to all members of the multicast group.
Routers between the source and recipients duplicate data
packets and forward multiple copies wherever the path to
recipients diverges. Group membership information is used to
calculate the best routers at which to duplicate the packets in
the data stream to optimize the use of the network.
A source host sends data to a multicast group by simply setting
the destination IP address of the datagram to be the multicast
group address. Any host can become a source and send data to
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a multicast group. Sources do not need to register in any way

before they can begin sending data to a group, and do not need
to be members of the group themselves.
There are many different multicast protocols and modes of
operation, each optimized for a particular scenario. Many of
these are still at an early stage of standardization. However,
they all operate in the same general way, as follows.
 A Multicast Group Membership Discovery protocol
is used by receiving hosts to advertise their group
membership to a local multicast router, enabling
them to join and leave multicast groups. The main
Multicast Group Membership Discovery protocols
are Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)
for IPv4 and Multicast Listener Discovery (MLD)
for IPv6.
 A Multicast Routing Protocol is used to
communicate between multicast routers and enables
them to calculate the multicast distribution tree of
receiving hosts. Protocol Independent Multicast
(PIM) is the most important Multicast Routing
Protocol.
 The multicast distribution tree of receiving hosts
holds the route to every recipient that has joined the
multicast group, and is optimized so thatMulticast
traffic does not reach networks that do not have any
such recipients (unless the network is a transit
network on the way to other recipients)
 Duplicate copies of packets are kept to a minimum.
8 Explain about IPV6?Compare IPV4 and IPV6. CO3
IPv4 is a 32-Bit IP address, whereas IPv6 is a 128-Bit IP
address. IPv4 is a numeric addressing method, whereas IPv6 is
an alphanumeric addressing method. IPv4 binary bits are
separated by a dot(.), whereas IPv6 binary bits are separated by
a colon(:). IPv4 offers 12 header fields, whereas IPv6 offers 8
header fieldIPv4
IPv4 address consists of two things that are the network address
and the host address. It stands for Internet Protocol version
four. It was introduced in 1981 by DARPA and was the first
deployed version in 1982 for production on SATNET and on
the ARPANET in January 1983.

IPv4 addresses are 32-bit integers that have to be expressed in

Decimal Notation. It is represented by 4 numbers separated by
dots in the range of 0-255, which have to be converted to 0 and
1, to be understood by Computers. For Example, An IPv4
Address can be written as 189.123.123.90. s.

IPv4 Address Format

IPv4 Address Format is a 32-bit Address that comprises binary
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digits separated by a dot (.).

IPv6
IPv6 is based on IPv4 and stands for Internet Protocol version
It was first introduced in December 1995 by Internet
Engineering Task Force. IP version 6 is the new version
of Internet Protocol, which is way better than IP version 4
in terms of complexity and efficiency. IPv6 is written as a
group of 8 hexadecimal numbers separated by colon (:). It
can be written as 128 bits of 0s and 1s.Benefits of IPv6
 The recent Version of IP IPv6 has a greater advantage
over IPv4. Here are some of the mentioned benefits:
 Larger Address Space: IPv6 has a greater address space
than IPv4, which is required for expanding the IP
Connected Devices. IPv6 has 128 bit IP Address rather
and IPv4 has a 32-bit Address.
 Improved Security: IPv6 has some improved security
which is built in with it. IPv6 offers security like Data
Authentication, Data Encryption, etc. Here, an Internet
Connection is more Secure.
 Simplified Header Format: As compared to IPv4, IPv6
has a simpler and more effective header Structure, which
is more cost-effective and also increases the speed of
Internet Connection.
 Priorities: IPv6 contains stronger and more reliable support
for QoS featureswhich helps in increasing traffic over
websites and increases audio and video quality on pages.
 Improved Support for Mobile Devices: IPv6 has increased
and better support for Mobile Devices. It helps in making
quick connections over other Mobile Devices and in a
safer way than IPv4.

9 Explain in detail the ARP and RARP. CO3

IP addresses are assigned independently of the hardware
addresses of the machines. To send a datagram on the Internet,
the network software must convert the IP address into a
physical address, used to transmit the frame.

Address resolution refers to the determination of the address of

a device from the address of that equipment to another
protocol level. We solve, for example, an IP address in an
Ethernet address or an ATM address.

It’s ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) performing this

translation between the IP world and Ethernet based on the
physical network. ARP enables machines to resolve addresses
without using static table that lists all addresses of both
worlds. A machine uses ARP to determine the recipient’s
physical address by broadcasting an ARP request to the subnet
containing the IP address to be translated. The machine with
the relevant IP address responds with its physical address. To
make ARP more efficient, each machine maintains in memory
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a table of addresses resolved and thus reduces the number of

Broadcast emissions.

At the time of initialization (bootstrap), a mass storage without

the machine (diskless) should contact their server to determine
its IP address and to use the TCP / IP services. RARP (Reverse
ARP) allows a machine to use its physical address to
determine its logical address on the Internet. The RARP
mechanism allows a computer to be identified as a target on
the network by broadcasting a RARP request. The servers
receiving the message examine their table and meet. Once the
IP address obtained, the machine stores it in memory and no
longer uses RARP until it is reset.

10 Explain in detail the RARP. CO3

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) is a protocol a
physical machine in a local area network (LAN) can use to
request its IP address. It does this by sending the device's
physical address to a specialized RARP server that is on the
same LAN and is actively listening for RARP requests.

A network administrator creates a table in a RARP server that

maps the physical interface or media access control (MAC)
addresses to corresponding IP addresses. This table can be
referenced by devices seeking to dynamically learn their IP
address. When a new RARP-enabled device first connects to
the network, its RARP client program sends its physical MAC
address to the RARP server for the purpose of receiving an IP
address in return that the device can use to communicate with
other devices on the IP network. The RARP request is sent in
the form of a data link layer broadcast. It is, therefore,
important that the RARP server be on the same LAN as the
devices requesting IP address information.

The general RARP process flow follows these steps:

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Device 1 connects to the local network and sends

an RARP broadcast to all devices on the subnet. In
the RARP broadcast, the device sends its physical
MAC address and requests an IP address it can
use.
Because a broadcast is sent, device 2 receives the
broadcast request. However, since it is not a
RARP server, device 2 ignores the request.
The broadcast message also reaches the RARP server. The
server processes the packet and attempts to find device 1's
MAC address in the RARP lookup table. If one is found, the
RARP server returns the IP address assigned to the device. In
this case, the IP address is 51.100.102.
11 Define the uses of subnet with examples.
 Subnetting helps in organizing the network in an
efficient way which helps in expanding the technology
for large firms and companies.
 Subnetting is used for specific staffing structures to
reduce traffic and maintain order and efficiency.
 Subnetting divides domains of the broadcast so that
traffic is routed efficiently, which helps in improving
network performance.
 Subnetting is used in increasing network security.
The working of subnets starts in such a way that firstly it
divides the subnets into smaller subnets. For communicating
between subnets, routers are used. Each subnet allows its CO3
linked devices to communicate with each other. Subnetting for
a network should be done in such a way that it does not affect
the network bits.

In class C the first 3 octets are network bits so it remains as it

is.

For Subnet-1: The first bit which is chosen from the host id
part is zero and the range will be from (193.1.2.00000000 till
you get all 1’s in the host ID part i.e, 193.1.2.01111111)
except for the first bit which is chosen zero for subnet id part.

Thus, the range of subnet 1 is: 193.1.2.0 to 193.1.2.127

PART C
1 Difference between IPv4 and IPv6 CO3
IPv4
IP version 4 is the older version. It uses 32 bits to create a
single uniques address on the internet. IPv4 is limited to
4,294,967,296 addresses i.e. 2³² addresses. It consists of four
numbers each of which can contain one to three digits ranging
from 0 to 255 separated by a single dot(.). Here, each number
is the decimal representation(base-10) for an 8 digit binary
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number(base-2). These IP addresses pretty much guarantee

that our emails will come and go as expected, our google
searches would take us to the website where we want and so
many other things that we do on the internet.
Example of an IPv4 address: 63.171.234.171

IPv4 Packet Format

IPv4 datagram is a variable-length packet
composed of the header(20 bytes) and data(up to
65,536 bytes).

IPv6
It is the replacement for IPv4. It uses 128 bits to create a
uniques address. This means that there can be theoretically
2¹²⁸uniques address i.e.
340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456 and
this number will never run out(at least in near future). It
consists of eight groups of hexadecimal numbers separated by
a colon(:). The IPV4 version used numerical values, so, IPv6
adopted the hexadecimal numbers to avoid any conflict. If any
group contains all zeros then the notation can be shortened by
using a colon to replace the zeroes.
Example of an IPv6 :
adba:1925:0000:0000:0000:0000:8a2e:7334

2 What are the classes of IPV4? How to identify an IP class CO3 APR/MAY 2020
from a given IP address?
IP addressing is the most popular way to identify a device on
the network. The address has 32 bits which can be broken into
four octets(1 octet=8 bit). These octets provide an addressing
method through which we can accommodate large and small
AKSHAYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

networks. Accordingly, there are 5 classes of the network

about which we will study in this blog. So, let's get started.
IPv4
IP version 4 is 32 bits long. The maximum value of a number
that can be formed by using 32 bits is 2³². So, the maximum
number of IPv4 addresses is 4,294,967,296 addresses i.e. 2 ³²
addresses. It consists of four octets each of which can contain
one to three digits ranging from 0 to 255 separated by a single
dot(.). Here, each number is the decimal representation(base-
10) for an 8 digit binary number(base-2).
Classes of IPv4
Class A
Class B
Class C
Class D
Class E
3 What is meant by subnetting in computer networks?
Subnetting is used for specific staffing structures to reduce
traffic and maintain order and efficiency. Subnetting divides
domains of the broadcast so that traffic is routed efficiently,
which helps in improving network performance.

Type of Subnetting
There are two types of Subnetting FLSM and VLSM. In
FLSM, all subnets have equal number of host addresses and
use same Subnet mask. In VLSM, subnets have flexible CO3
number of host addresses and use different subnet mask.

Subnetting is the practice of dividing a network into two or

more smaller networks. It increases routing efficiency,
enhances the security of the network, and reduces the size of
the broadcast domain. In the picture above we have one huge
network: 10.0. 0.0/24.

The are two fundamental rules when subnetting:

 If a bit in a subnet mask has a value of one, then the bit
is part of the network prefix in the corresponding ip
address.
 If a bit in a subnet mask has a value of zero, than the bit
is part of the host suffix in the corresponding ip
address.