303-1. Types of Fracture 2021 Fall-Birleştirildi

MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR of a material
is simply the response of it to forces/loads.
LOAD / FORCE:
Axial, bending, torsion
DEFORMATION:
Elastic, plastic
FRACTURE:
Brittle or ductile
Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 1
Hence MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR
comprises two basic subjects
1. DEFORMATION
Discussed in Part 1
2. FRACTURE
Will be discussed in Part 2

TYPES OF FRACTURE
DUCTILE BRITTLE
One or two pieces afer fracture. Fracture into many pieces (shatters).
Appreciable plastic deformation prior Rapid rate of crack propagation with
to and during the propagation of the no gross plastic deformation and with
crack. Needs high energy. a very little microdeformation. Needs
Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz veryof low
METE 303-1: Types energy.
Fracture 3
DUCTILE FRACTURE

Macro appearance of ductile fracture
surface of a tensile specimen: It is fibrous!
Cup and cone fracture Top view of cone
of tensile specimen section

Macro appearance of ductile fracture
surface of an impact specimen: It is fibrous!
100% Shear Fracture of Side view of Shear Lips
impact specimen
Shear Lips
Fibrous
Fracture

DUCTILE FRACTURE OF
METALS
• The ductile fracture of single crystals is
related to the resolved shear stress (ƬR)
on the slip plane. σ
ƬR= σ cos Ø cos λ

Ƭ
Ductile fracture
occurs by shear Ƭ
along SLIP PLANES!
Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture σ 7
Effect of Grain Orientation on Resolved Shear Stress
R   cos l cos f
σ σ σ
R R R
R
l =90° l =45° l =0°

f =0° f =45° f =90°
 R  cos 90 cos 0  0  R  cos 45 cos 45   / 2  R  cos 0 cos 90  0

Slip can not This is the most convenient Slip can not
occur orientation. RSS is max. Hence occur
Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz slip isMETE
easiest!
303-1: Types of Fracture 8
SHEAR FRACTURE: FORMATION OF
DIMPLES (Top view)

Dimples: Void formation around second
phase particles and shear of ligaments btw
voids
Second Phase
Particles

DIMPLES: Sharp edges formed at
rupture points (Side view)

Ductile fracture surface of a GFRC

Characteristics of DUCTILE
FRACTURE
• Plastic Deformation: Considerable amount of
plastic deformation occurs before fracture ( for
metals more than 5%)
• Appearance: FIBROUS, DULL, ROUGH
• Energy absorbtion: HIGH
• Crack growth: STABLE (relatively slow)
• Crystallographic Mode: SHEAR Breaking of
atomic bonds across slip plane (Metals)
• Crack speed during unstable fracture: Fast (500
m/s)
BRITTLE FRACTURE

Macro appearance of brittle fracture
surface of metals: It is granular!
Impact specimen Tensile specimen

BRITTLE FRACTURE OF
METALS
• The brittle fracture of single crystals is
related to the resolved normal stress on
the cleavage plane. Brittle fracture occurs
by cleavage!
CLEAVAGE is the
seperation of atomic
planes by normal (tensile)
forces.
CLEAVAGE OF METALS
Resolved normal stress:
σ
σR = σ cos2 Ø Ø
σR σR
where Ø is the angle
between tensile axis and
normal to the plane
σ
Where Ø is the angle btw
plane normal and tensile axis.
CLEAVAGE OF METALS
• Cleavage occurs primarily in BCC and HCP structures
only at certain planes. These planes are called cleavage
planes (Planes of easy fracture)
Cleavage Planes
BCC (100) planes
HCP (0001) planes
FCC None

CLEAVAGE FRACTURE SURFACE

Brittle fracture surface of a polymer
RIVER PATTERNS
Since polymer is amorphous, there are no cleavage planes. It is a

cleavage
Prof. like fracture. River
Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METEpatterns are
303-1: Types present. Fracture takes place
of Fracture 20
perpendicular to highest principle tensile stress
Brittle fracture of ‘fiber reinforced polymer
matrix composite’ tensile specimens

Brittle fracture surface of a GFRC
Polymer matrix fractures in a brittle manner. Fiber matrix interface

is weak. Some fibers are pulled out. Fracture is in the direction of
Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz maximum
METE 303-1:tensile stress
Types of Fracture 22
Brittle fracture surface of a glass fiberer
Since glass is not crystalline, there are no cleavage planes.

Fracture takes place perpendicular to highest principle tensile
Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz stress
METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 23
Brittle fracture of ceramics
Fracture along cleavage

planes
Shattered: Fractured into

many pieces
Brittle fracture of ceramics
Fracture along cleavage
planes
Fracture along crystal
boundaries

BRITTLE HELICAL FRACTURES BY
TORSION
τxy σ1 σ2
τyx
σ1
σ2
σ1 =Iσ2I
Brittle fracture takes place on a plane perpendicular to maximum tensile
stress. Consider
Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz stress state
METEof torsion.
303-1: The
Types of direction of principle tensile26
Fracture
stress is perpendicular to fracture surface.
Brittle crack growth on a wall
c.g.d
.
Crack growth direction (cgd) can be determined by the help of crack

opening (COD)
Characteristics of Brittle
Fracture
• Plastic Deformation: Very little or no plastic
deformation at all (less than 5% for metals )
• Appearance: GRANULAR (Metals), SMOOTH,
BRIGHT
• Energy absorbtion: LOW
• Crack growth: UNSTABLE (sudden)
• Crystallographic Mode: CLEAVAGE (Metals,
ceramics), Perpendicular to max. tensile stress
(Polymers)
• Crack speed during unstable fracture: Very fast
(2500 m/s)
BRITTLE FRACTURE IS TO BE
AVOIDED AT ALL COST!!!
because:
• Brittle crack growth is very rapid
(UNSTABLE)
• It occurs without warning (unpredictable;

so takes place suddenly)
• Produces disastrous consequences

Mixed Fracture Surfaces
Fibrous
Cleavage
Cleavage Fibrous
Fibrous
Ductile
Brittle

Another way of classifying fracture types is
according to fracture paths.
A FRACTURE MAY BE:
• TRANSGRANULAR: fracture (crack extension)
through grains: cleavage planes, dimples,
striations
• INTERGRANULAR: fracture (crack extension)

along grain boundaries: intergranular seperation

TRANSGRANULAR FRACTURE
Crack growth is through the grains usually along

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüzcertain crystallographic directions
METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 32
TRANSGRANULAR FRACTURE
Dimples
Cleavage
Fatigue Fatigue
Shear fracture by dimples, cleavage fracture, fatigue

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüzpropagation
crack METE
by303-1: are all transgranular!
Types of Fracture
striations 33
TRANSGRANULAR FRACTURE OF SEMI-CRYSTALLINE POLYMERS
(TRANS-SPHERULITIC)
A semicrystalline polymer may develop spherulites that are clusters of individual crystalline
plates. These spherulites meet at boundaries that are analogus to grain boundaries in metals.
SEMI-CRYSTALLINE SPHERULITE
BRITTLE:
TRANS-SPHERULITIC
SPHERULITIC
MICROSTRUCTURE

INTERGRANULAR FRACTURE
Fracture follows grain boundaries if the grain boundaries are weak. .

G.b. weakness may be because of: Non-uniform composition,
corrosion,
Prof. oxidation, hydrogen
Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: (HE),
Types ofimproper
Fracture heat treatment, SCC,
35
LME etc.
Intergranular fracture
Intergranular fracture has BRITTLE nature. Low or no gross

plastic deformation. Energy absorbtion is low.
Intergranular fracture as a result of corrosion
attack to grain boundaries

INTERGRANULAR FRACTURE
Intergranular crack in a martensitic steel. Fracture path is

along prior austenite grain boundaries.
INTERGRANULAR FRACTURE OF POLYMERS
(INTER-SPHERULITIC)
A semicrystalline polymer may

develop spherulites that are
clusters of individual crystalline
plates. These spherulites meet at
boundaries that are analogus to
grain boundaries in metals.
A crack may choose an inter-
spheluritic or trans-spherulitic path
equivalent to intergranular and
transgranular paths in ceramics
and metals.
INTERGRANULAR vs TRANSGRANULAR
FRACTURE OF CERAMICS

Think about these:

Why does window glass shatter into hundreds of
small pieces?

FATIGUE FRACTURE
Is it brittle or ductile?
Direction of
fracture
propagation

What kind of fracture is that?
Direction of
fracture
propagation

This is fracture surface of a rock. What type
of fracture is that? Find the origin of fracture.

Is this crack intergranular or transgranular?

How many fracture types can you detect on
this fracture surface?

Types of fracture observed in metals
subjected to uniaxial tension. Is ‘b’ ductile or
brittle?
a) Brittle
b) Shearing
c) Chisel Point
d) Cup and cone

THEORETICAL COHESIVE
STRENGTH
Theoretical Strength of a Material
Strength of Cracked Materials
Stress Concentration Concept
Inglis Equation
MetE303-2 Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU 1

THEORETICAL STRENGTH OF A MATERIAL
Force Diagram of a bond: F=dU/dr
ro+x
σ
σmax
TENSILE
σ σ
ro
ro λ x
When a tensile stress is
COMPRESSIVE λ/2
applied, distance btw two
atoms increases by an
amount of x x=0
ro > ro + x
When 𝜎 ≥ 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 bond is
broken. Material fractures.
2𝜋𝑥
This curve can be approximated into a sine wave 𝜎 = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin
𝜆
THEORETICAL STRENGTH OF A MATERIAL
σmax
2𝜋𝑥 2𝜋𝑥 ro
𝜎 = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin ≈ 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 x
𝜆 𝜆 x=0
2𝜋𝑥 𝑥
so 𝜎 = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 but 𝜎 = 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒=
𝜆 𝑟𝑜
Upon substitution
𝑥 2𝜋𝑥
𝐸 ⋅ = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑟0 𝜆
𝐸𝜆
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = EQ 1
2𝜋𝑟𝑜

THEORETICAL COHESIVE STRENGTH
σmax
𝜆 𝐸𝑟𝑜 ro
Let ≈ 𝑟𝑜 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = x
2 𝜋𝑟𝑜
x=0
then
𝐸
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≈ Call this as 𝜎𝑐 : Theoretical cohesive strength
𝜋
𝐺
Remember the similar equation for slip 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2𝜋
More detailed analysis have shown that:
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
> 𝜎𝑐 > A convenient choice is: 𝜎𝑐 ≈
𝜋 15 10

FRACTURE STRENGTH vs THEORETICAL
STRENGTH
𝐸
THEORETICAL STRENGTH 𝜎𝑐 ≈
10
But experiments have shown that fracture strength of engineering materials are usually
much lower (10 to 1000 times) than theoretical value.
𝜎𝑐 𝜎𝑐
> 𝜎𝐹 >
10 1000
WHY in reality materials are weaker than their theoretical strengths?
The only materials that approach their theoretical strengths are tiny, defect free whiskers
and very fine diameter silica fibers. Whiskers can be considered as flaw free and crack
free materials.
This leads to conclusion that FLAWS and CRACKS are responsible for lower-than-ideal
fracture strengths of engineering materials.

Maximum Strength in Solids
MATERIAL 𝝈𝑭 𝑬 E/𝝈𝑭
(GPa) (GPa)
Silica fibers 24.1 97.1 4

Iron whisker 13.1 295.2 23
Silicon whisker 6.47 165.7 26
Alumina whisker 15.2 496.2 33
Piano wire 2.75 200.1 73

ENERGY BALANCE APPROACH TO
FRACTURE
FRACTURE CREATES TWO NEW SURFACES
If surface energy is γ𝑠, the energy required to create two fracture surfaces is 2γ𝑠
γ𝑠
γ𝑠 + γ𝑠 = 2γ𝑠
γ𝑠
APPROACH: So energy needed for fracture should be, at least,

equal to the energy needed to create new fracture surfaces, 2γ𝑠
ENERGY BALANCE
For an idealy elastic material like glass:
Energy of fracture = Energy needed to create two new surfaces (Fracture surfaces), 2γ𝑠
𝑈𝑜 = 2𝛾𝑠
For a plastic material like metal:
Energy of fracture = Energy needed to create two new surfaces, 2γ𝑠 + Energy needed for
plastic work at the crack tip, γ𝑝
𝑈𝑜 = 2𝛾𝑠 + 𝛾𝑝
γ𝑝 >> γ𝑠
That’s why ductile materials are tougher than
the brittle materials.

ENERGY OF FRACTURE
2𝜋𝑥 σ
𝜎 = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin
𝜆 σmax
When 𝜎 ≥ 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
Uo
bond is broken.
Material fractures. ro λ x
λ/2
When 𝑥 ≥ λ/2
Complete separation x=0
occurs
Since the area is energy,

blue shaded area (Uo) will
be the energy of fracture.
ENERGY BALANCE FOR FRACTURE
σ σmax
𝜆
2 2𝜋𝑥
𝑈𝑜 = න 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝑑𝑥
0 𝜆 Uo
𝜆
ro x
𝜆 2𝜋𝑥 2 λ/2
𝑈𝑜 = −𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos
2𝜋 𝜆 0
x=0
Complete
separation
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜆 𝑈𝑜 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑

𝑈𝑜 =
𝜋 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
FRACTURE
CONDITION 𝑈𝑜 = 2𝛾𝑠
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜆 2𝛾𝑠 𝜋
= 2𝛾𝑠 𝜆=
𝜋 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥

ENERGY BALANCE FOR FRACTURE
σ σmax
2𝛾𝑠 𝜋
𝜆= Uo
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 ro x
λ/2
𝐸𝜆
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = EQ 1 x=0
Complete
2𝜋𝑟𝑜 separation
𝑈𝑜 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑
Upon substitution of 𝜆 in EQ1, a new
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
expression for theoretical strength in
terms of surface energy can be derived
EQ 2
𝐸𝛾𝑠
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑐 =
𝑟𝑜

Example 1
Determine the σc of silica fiber if
𝐸𝛾𝑠
E = 95 GPa 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑐 =
𝑟𝑜
γs = 1 J/m2
ro = 0.16 nm Use EQ 2 to solve the problem
𝐸𝛾𝑠 𝐸
𝜎𝑐 = = 24.4 𝐺𝑃𝑎 ≅
𝑟𝑜 4
But the observed value (𝜎𝐹 ) is much less
𝐸 𝜎𝑐
𝜎𝐹 ≈ 24 𝑀𝑃𝑎 → 𝜎𝐹 ≈ 𝜎𝐹 ≈
4000 1000
BASIC QUESTION is : WHY in reality materials are weaker than their theoretical
strengths?
ANSWER: Because of the CRACKS.
FRACTURE STRENGTH OF A CRACKED
MATERIAL
All materials do contain CRACKS that are weakening them. How to calculate, then, the
fracture stress of a cracked component?
σo The most important effect of the crack is STRESS
CONCENTRATION. Because of stress concentration, the
stress at the crack tip (𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) is greater than the applied
σmax stress (𝜎𝑜 ) . Stress is magnified by a factor of Kt.
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐾𝑡 𝜎
σo
crack Kt is the STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR.
a APPROACH: If the magnified stress at the crack tip

reaches to theoretical strength of the material,
FRACTURE OCCURS:
So σmax = σc is the fracture condition.
MetE303-2
σo Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU 13
STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR
Inglis has shown that:

𝑎
Kt = 1 + 2
𝜌
a
Where:
a is the crack length
ρ ρ is the crack tip radius
SO
Longer the crack, higher the Kt will be!
Sharper the crack, higher the Kt will be!

FRACTURE STRENGTH OF A CRACKED
MATERIAL
𝑎 𝑎 𝐸𝛾𝑠 EQ 2
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎 1 + 2 ≈ 2𝜎 𝜎𝑐 =
𝜌 𝜌 𝑟𝑜
𝑎 𝐸𝛾𝑠 𝐸𝛾𝑠 𝜌𝑡
σ 1
2𝜎 = 𝜎𝐹 = 𝜎𝐹 ∝
𝜌 𝑟𝑜 4𝑟𝑜 𝑎 𝑎
For the sharpest possible crack: ρ=ro σF1 a1
σF2 a1< a2
a2
𝐸𝛾𝑠
𝜎𝐹 ≅ Inglis Equation
4𝑎 e
Example 2
What is the fracture stress σF of silica fiber (in Ex. 1) if it contains
i. a crack with a = 2.5 μm (micron)
ii. a crack with a = 2.5 mm
𝑖) 𝑖𝑖)
𝐸𝛾𝑠 𝐸𝛾𝑠 (95 × 109 Pa)(1J/m2 )
𝜎𝐹 = = 97.5 MPa 𝜎𝐹 = =
4𝑎 4𝑎 4(2.5 × 10−3 m)
97.5 MPa ≪ 24400 M𝑃a = 3.08 × 106 Pa
𝜎𝐹 ≪ 𝜎𝑐 𝜎𝐹 ≈ 3 M𝑃a
1
1 𝜎𝐹 = 𝜎
𝜎𝐹 ≈ 𝜎 8000 𝑐
250 𝑐
Example 3 WHICH IS STRONGER?
1
𝜎𝐹 ∝
𝑎
σF
Min strength of fiber
Min strength of filament
Min strength of fiber
Glass rod
Ø = 10 mm
Glass filament Glass fiber
Ø = 1 mm Ø = 0.01 mm = 0.01 1 10
a
10 μm
Also: larger the surface area, greater the possibility of having defects!
Small (Thin) is better from fracture point of view!

GRIFFITH THEORY OF
FRACTURE
Energy Approach to Fracture
Griffith Equation
Griffith vs Inglis
Modifications for Ductile Materials (by Irwin and Orowan)

CONCEPT OF ENERGY RELEASE
σ
𝜎 =𝐸⋅𝜀
𝑒1
When a material is
loaded elastically,
σ1 𝐸𝑆𝐸 1 = න 𝜎 𝑑𝑒
ESE 0
an elastic energy is
stored in the 𝜎2
W material. This is 𝐸𝑆𝐸 1 = = 𝑈𝑒
2𝐸
ESE
e
e1
If a crack forms and grows to length “a”, a
region adjacent to the free surfaces is
unloaded and some of this ESE is liberated.
This is called Energy Release.
𝜎2 2
𝐸𝑆𝐸 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 =− 𝜋𝑎
2𝐸

σ
NO CRACK
ENERGY
RELEASED
WHEN
CRACK With a crack “a1”
FORMS
ENERGY
RELEASED
a1 → a2 When crack grows
a1 a2 to “a2”
ε1
ε
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN A CRACK GROWS
Strain energy that is liberated by
crack growth
σ NO CRACK
𝜎2 2
𝑈𝑒′ = − 𝜋𝑎
2𝐸
Released energy
Increase in the surface 𝑈𝑒′
energy when a crack grows
𝑈𝑠 = 2𝛾𝑠 𝑎 With a crack “a”
So total energy associated with

the crack changes
ε
𝑈𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 = 𝑈𝑒′ + 𝑈𝑠
𝜎2 2
𝑈𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 =− 𝜋𝑎 + 2𝛾𝑠 𝑎
2𝐸
GRIFFITH ENERGY APPROACH
This diagram is for
a certain value of
𝑈𝑇 = 𝑈𝑒′ + 𝑈𝑠
stress 𝑑𝑈𝑇
At maximum slope is zero: 𝑑𝑎
=0
𝑈𝑠 = 2𝛾𝑠 𝑎
The crack size at max. ais ac
𝑑𝑈𝑇
=0
𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑈𝑇
ENERGY
UT = 𝑈𝑠 + 𝑈𝑒′ (ΔU)T>0 𝑑𝑎 > 0

SLOPE IS POSITIVE: CRACK
IF a<ac CAN NOT GROW!
a THE CRACK WILL GROW
ac
ONLY IF THE STRESS IS
INCREASED!!
then
𝜎2 2 (ΔU)T<0
𝑑𝑈𝑇
<0
𝑈𝑒′ = − 𝜋𝑎 𝑑𝑎
2𝐸 IF a≥ac SLOPE IS NEGATIVE: CRACK
GROWTH IS SPONTANEOUS
and CATASTROPHIC!!
Then, ac: critical crack size

GRIFFITH FRACTURE CRITERION
𝑈𝑠 = 2𝛾𝑠 𝑎
ENERGY
UT
a
ac
𝜎2 2
2𝐸
For a cracked component subjected to a constant stress, fracture occurs if a ≥ ac
𝑑𝑈𝑇
= 0 at the point of FRACTURE dUT/da = dUe’/da + dUs/da
𝑑𝑎
FRACTURE CONDITION: Fracture is spontaneous if dUe’/da ≥ dUs/da
That is: Fracture will be spontaneous when

The strain energy release rate (dUe’/da ) ≥ Resistance to crack growth (dUs/da)!
GRIFFITH ENERGY APPROACH
𝜎2 2
𝑈𝑠 = 2𝛾𝑠 𝑎 𝑈𝑇 = − 𝜋𝑎 + 2𝛾𝑠 𝑎
2𝐸
ENERGY
UT 𝑑𝑈𝑇 𝜎2
a = − 𝜋2𝑎 + 2𝛾𝑠 = 0
ac 𝑑𝑎 2𝐸
𝜎2 2 Solve for σ to obtain fracture strength

2𝐸
2𝐸𝛾𝑠
𝜎𝐹 =
𝜋𝑎 GRIFFITH EQUATION
Solve for a to obtain critical 2𝐸𝛾𝑠

crack size 𝑎𝑐 = 2
𝜎 𝜋

THIN and THICK PLATES
2𝐸𝛾𝑠
𝜎𝐹 =
𝜋𝑎
is for THIN PLATE !! (plane-stress condition)
For a THICK PLATE: (plane-strain condition)
2𝐸𝛾𝑠
𝜎𝐹 =
(1 − 𝜈 2 )𝜋𝑎

Fracture Strength Equations
STRESS CONCENTRATION GRIFFITH ENERGY APPROACH
APPROACH
𝐸𝛾𝑠 2𝐸𝛾𝑠
𝜎𝐹 = 𝜎𝐹 =
4𝑎 𝜋𝑎
σF
1
𝜎𝐹 ∝
𝑎
MetE303-3 Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU a 9

Fracture Strength vs Crack Size
σF
σ
σF1
a1 σF1 a1
a2
σF2 a2
σF2
a1 a2 e
Fracture Stress – Crack Size Diagram Stress – Strain Diagram

WHICH APPROACH IS BETTER?
INGLIS vs GRIFFITH
STRESS CRITERION ENERGY CRITERION
𝐸𝛾𝑠 𝜌𝑡 2𝐸𝛾𝑠
𝜎𝐹 = 𝜎𝐹 =
4𝑟𝑜 𝑎 𝜋𝑎
𝜎𝐹 ∝ 𝜌𝑡 GRIFFITH equation is
not dependent on ρt
INGLIS
NOT DEPENDENT
Equation isON ρt
dependent on ρt
But IF ρt→0, σF →0 This is NONSENSE!

GRIFFITH vs INGLIS
σ
USE USE INGLIS
GRIFFITH
INGLIS
GRIFFITH
They give the same

result at ρt=3ro
ρt=ro ρt=3ro ρt
Use Griffith equation for very sharp cracks. Inglis underestimates IF ρt→0, σF →0
Griffith, on the other hand, is an underestimation for notches.
Use Inglis equation for notches, since notches are not as sharp as cracks.
MODIFICATIONS by IRWIN and OROWAN
(Adapting the Griffith Theory to Ductile Materials)
Griffith’s original work dealt with very brittle materials,

specifically GLASS RODS.
• When the material exhibits more ductility, Griffith theory

fails to provide an accurate model of fracture.
• This deficiency was later remedied, at least in part,
independently by IRWIN and OROWAN.
• They suggested that the vast majority of released strain
energy was absorbed not by creating new surfaces BUT by
energy dissipation due to plastic flow in the material near
the crack tip.
γ𝑝 >> γ𝑠
MODIFICATIONS by IRWIN and OROWAN
They inserted the plastic energy term, 𝛾𝑝 (i.e. work done at the crack tip) to the
Griffith equation. Hence resultant equation can be used for materials that exhibit
some ductility.
2𝐸(𝛾𝑠 + 𝛾𝑝 )
𝜎𝐹 =
𝜋𝑎
Since 𝛾𝑝 ≫ 𝛾𝑠
2𝐸𝛾𝑝
𝜎𝐹 ≅
𝜋𝑎
𝛾𝑠 ≈ 1 𝐽/𝑚2 𝛾𝑝 ≈ 104 𝐽/𝑚2 for fracture in metallic materials.

MECHANISM OF FRACTURE
• Cracks are responsible from any type
of fracture. There are two main stages:
1) CRACK INITIATION
2) CRACK GROWTH
Stable
Unstable (Final fracture)
http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/brittle_fracture/bond_break.php
• Crack Initiation • Crack Propagation

Propagation of a SCC crack
(Stable)

UNSTABLE CRACK PROPAGATION IN GLASS

WHERE DO CRACKS COME FROM?
May already exist (due to solidification, welding,

heat treatment, mechanical shaping,
assemblage etc.)
OR
May form later: Usually nucleate as a result of

plastic deformation at stress concentration
points (notch tips). Nucleation is due to the pile-
up of dislocations at an obstacle. Corrosion and
SCC may also form cracks.
CRACK FORMATION IN
METALS

Crack Nucleation by Dislocation Pile-up
σ
When many dislocations are contained in the
pile-up, the stress on the dislocation at the head
of the pile-up can approach the theoretical shear
stress of the crystal.
Slip
Plane
This high stress either can initiate yielding on
the other side of the barrier, or it can nucleate a
crack at the barrier. Obstacle
OBSTACLES for PILE-UP

• Grain Boundaries
• Second Phases
• Sessile Dislocations
Stresses at the tip of a dislocation Pile-Up
Very high forces act on the dislocations at
the head of the pile-up:
Stress at the head of pile up=Τsbn
Where n: number of dislocations in pile-up
D: Grain diameter≈ 2L
Ts: Resolved shear stress on
the slip lane
Tensile stress normal to line OP

Fracture Strength
– Larger the grain (High D) or more distant the

obstacles, higher the number of dislocations, n
in pile-up will be.
– Higher the “n”, easier the crack formation and
larger the crack be.
– Hence:
σF = σi + kf / √D
So, fine grained microstructure has higher FRACTURE

STRENGTH!
Other models for the nucleation of
microcracks
– Zener’s model
– Cottrell’s model
– Smith’s model for pearlite
– Intersection of twins
– Grain boundary sliding (creep)
– Slip line intrusions and extrusions (fatigue)

Zener’s model of microcrack formation at a pile-up of
edge dislocations as a result of coalescence of
dislocations into a wedge crack.
Dislocations at the pile up can be

considered to be a giant
dislocation with burgers vector nb

Cottrell’s model of cleavage crack initiation in
BCC metals
Sessile: Can not move

Smith’s model of microcrack formation in grain
boundary carbide film (steel)
Deformation on a slip band within the ferrite grain provides a
stress which may initiate a crack in a brittle grain boundary
carbide (Hypereutectoid steels)

Intergranular crack nucleation by grain
boundary sliding (creep)

Initiation of surface cracks via slip line extrusions and
intrusions in fatigue
(Back and forth deformation as a result of shear cycles)

Initiation of surface cracks via slip line extrusions and
intrusions in fatigue

MECHANISM OF BRITTLE FRACTURE IN
METALS
1. PILE-UP of dislocations at an obstacle
2. NUCLEATION OF CRACK ahead of the pile-up
3. GROWTH of microcrack to fracture

(by CLEAVAGE)

CLEAVAGE FRACTURE and RIVER
PATTERNS

CHEVRON MARKINGS
Chevron markings are

macro indicators of brittle
fracture. They point back to
the crack origin.

MECHANISM OF DUCTILE FRACTURE IN
METALS
1. PILE-UP of dislocations at particle-matrix interface to initiate

MICROCRACKS
2. NUCLEATION OF MICROVOIDS around second phase

particles
3. GROWTH and COALESCENCE of microvoids

(by SHEAR) forming dimples
DIMPLES

CUP –AND- CONE FRACTURE
Fracture
Origin

PROCESS OF CUP-AND-CONE FRACTURE AT
THE NECK IN A DUCTILE MATERIAL
a) Formation of hydrostatic tensile stress at the neck (max. at the center)

b) Formation of fine voids
c) Coalescence of voids (growth of central crack)
d) Growth of crack along shear bands
MetE303-4
e) Cup and cone fracture Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU 22
Dislocation pile-up causing the formation of
high stresses at particle-matrix interface
Particle
Slip Plane

Initiation of microcrack at particle-matrix
interface due to stresses at the pile-up
Particle
Slip Plane

Formation of a microvoid around the particle
by decohesion
Void
Particle
Slip Plane

Growth of microvoid by hydrostatic tensile stress
component of triaxial stress state at the neck
Void
Particle
Slip Plane
Coalescence of microvoids to form
dimples and free fracture surface
Void Void Void

Void
Particle 1 Particle 4
Particle 2
Particle 3

Ductile Fracture Surface
Second
Phase
Particles
Side-view of fracture surface Top-view

Tear dimples on crack surface
Slip bands can be seen on dimple surfaces

Second phase particles in dimples
Equiaxed dimples form in the center, where microvoids grow.

Dimples around MnS Inclusions in steel
MnS
Inclusions

Shear Dimples at Shear Lips
Direction of
fracture
propagation
Elongated dimples form on the shear lip pointing toward

the origin of failure, Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU
MetE303-4 32
Ductility is the function of volume of second phase
particles (and also the shape of particles)

Think about these:

Mechanism of Ductile Fracture in
Pearlitic Steel

Crack propagation by ductile fracture.
Fracture is along second phase particles such as
inclusions, carbides, precipitates…

QUASI-CLEAVAGE FRACTURE : What does it
mean?

VERY SHARP CRACK (There is some plastic
deformation at the tip, blunting the crack)

FRACTURE TRANSITION
(DUCTILE or BRITTLE?)
Steels and other bcc metals as well as polymers and glasses may fracture
in a ductile manner or in a brittle manner depending on some factors.
This phenomenon is
called FRACTURE
DUCTILE TRANSITION BRITTLE
Factors affecting fracture behavior are:

TEMPERATURE
STRAIN RATE
STRESS STATE
GRAIN SIZE
SIZE
MetE 303-6 Crack Size 1
Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU
Always keep in mind that:
PLASTIC DEFORMATION is a diffusion

dependent (and hence time and temperature
dependent) process.
Plastic deformation becomes easier at high

temperatures and at low testing speeds.
Since fracture process involves plastic

deformation, FRACTURE BEHAVIOR of a
material is also dependent on time and
temperature!
MetE 303-6 Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU 2
TEMPERATURE EFFECT
Higher the temperature:

Higher the DUCTILITY
Lower the STRENGTH
Higher the TOUGHNESS
More ductile the FRACTURE
PLAIN–C STEEL

Effect of Temperature on Yield
Strength and Ductility
STRENGTH vs T
DUCTILITY vs T
Ni
Al
Ni
The effect of temperature is different on BCC and FCC materials

YIELD STRENGTH vs TEMPERATURE
Effect of Temperature is
more pronounced in BCC
BCC metals as compared to
FCC metals
Yield Strength
FCC
MetE 303-6 Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU Temperature 5

THE INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON
STRESS_STRAIN BEHAVIOR OF POLYMETYL
METHACRYLATE

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON
MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR
As the temperature decreases:
• Yield and tensile strengths increase.

• Hardness increases
• Ductility and Toughness decrease
• Brittle Fracture Tendency of the material
increases (This is not desired!)

What will happen? Will
it first flow or fracture?
 = 2τ for ϴ =45o
Ƭ
σY = 2τC
If F > Y it will flow
 before fracture
(DUCTILE FRACTURE)
If F < Y it will fracture

before yielding
MetE 303-6 (BRITTLE FRACTURE)
Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU 8
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON FLOW STRESS (Y) and
FRACTURE STRESS (F) IN A BCC METAL
FRACTURE TRANSITION and TRANSITION TEMPERATURE
Y
Material will yield
before fracture
STRESS
Material will F
fracture before
yield
Brittle Ductile
T →
MetE 303-6 Prof.DBTT
Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU 9
FCC METALS do always exhibit some ductility:
Material will always yield before fracture at any
temperature
F
 F , Y →
Y
Always ductile
T →
MetE 303-6
There is no DBTT in FCC metals
STRAIN RATE EFFECT
STRAIN RATE: Deformation speed
dϵ/dt
Unit: 1/s = s-1
Strain rate is about 0.01 s-1 during a tension test.

Effect of Strain Rate on Tensile
Behavior
• An increased rate gives less time for dislocations to move
past obstacles.

UTS e
larger
y
UTS
e
smaller
y
e
STRAIN RATE DEPENDENCY OF PE

Effect of strain rate on flow stress
Higher the temperature, higher

the slope (strain rate sensitivity)
is!
* Strain rate dependance of

strength (slope) increases
with increasing temperature!
**BCC metals are usually more sensitive to changes in strain

rate than FCC metals.

EFFECT OF STRAIN RATE
dε / dt
• When the deformation rate increaes:
• Material becomes less ductile, less

tough
• Strength increases
• Brittle Fracture Tendency increases.

NOTCH EFFECT

EFFECT OF NOCTH ON TENSILE
BEHAVIOR
NSR = (UTS)Notched / (UTS)Unnotched
NSR < 1
NSR > 1
FOR
MetE 303-6 A DUCTILE MATERIAL FOR
Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, A BRITTLE MATERIAL
METU 17
STRESS CONCENTRATION at the tip of a
notch or a crack
σo
σmax
σo
Kt = σmax / σo
Kt : Elastic Stress
Concentration Factor
MetE 303-6 Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU
σo 18
CHANGE IN STRESS STATE
σo σo
σy σy
σx
σz
UNIAXIAL TRIAXIAL
STRESS STATE STRESS STATE
MetE 303-6 σo Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU σo 19

Elastic stress distribution at the tip of a notch
is dependent on thickness
y
x
z σz =ν (σx+ σy)
THIN PLATE THICK PLATE

PLANE-STRESS PLANE-STRAIN
Y
Z X
PLANE STRESS PLANE STRAIN
σX, σy, σz= 0 σX, σy, σz

ϵX, ϵy, ϵz ϵX, ϵy, ϵz = 0
No stress in thickness No strain in thickness
direction (z)! direction (z)!
Plane Strain vs Plane Stress
Propagation of a Crack
PLANE STRAIN
PLANE STRESS
PROPAGATION
PROPAGATION
NOTCH
cgd
NOTCH
cgd
STABLE
UNSTABLE
PROPAGATION
PROPAGATION OF CRACK
OF CRACK BY
DURING FINAL FRACTURE
FATIGUE
Plastic stress distribution at the tip of a
notch (thick plate)
(Kσ: Plastic stress concentration factor<2.57)
3σY
2.57σY
σz =0.5 (σx+ σy)
2σY
σY
PLANE-STRAIN
Prof. is
The stress in the y direction
MetE 303-6 Dr.magnified
Rıza Gürbüz,
byMETU
2.57 times at the tip of 23
plastic deformation zone (ry)!
Effect of Notch on the Transition Temperature
Presence of a notch increases the transition temperature (This is not a good thing for design!)
q: plastic-constraint factor (2.57)
qY (Notched)
STRESS
F
Y (No notch)
T →
MetE 303-6
T* (Unnotched)Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU
T* (Notched) 24
Simple tension
A NOTCH CAUSES:
1. High local stresses

2. A constraint to plastic deformation(in x and z
directions); and hence, tri-axial state of stress
3. High local strain hardening and cracking
4. High local strain rate
All these factors increase the tendency for

brittle fracture and transition temperature

Effect of CRACK LENGTH on fracture
behaviour (σF α 1/√a )
Stress
IF IF
a < a* a > a*
Fractures without
yielding
(BRITTLE)
Y
Yields before
fracture
(DUCTILE) F
a* Crack Size, a
IN SUMMARY
FRACTURE TRANSITION (FROM DUCTILE TO BRITTLE) is
favored by:
1. Increasing strain rate

2. Decreasing temperature
3. Increasing notch sharpness
4. Increasing crack size
5. Increased size
and
6. Increasing grain size
One of the best tests to determine the brittle fracture tendency

and fracture transition is Notched Bar Impact Test
Fracture transition for different materials
(Data obtained by Impact Test)
LOW STRENGTH FCC (and most of HCP):
No T*, they are always ductile and tough
LOW STRENGTH BCC (and

some of HCP), Polymers,
Polymers
Glasses: They exhibit a fracture
transition
Glasses
Some HCP
No T*, they are always brittle

FRACTURE TRANSITIN AND TRANSITION
TEMPERATURES
BRITTLE TRANSITION DUCTILE

Cv max
Impact Toughness, Cv
Cv ave
27 J
Cv min
NDT DBTT FTP

DTT27
Temperature

FRACTURE APPEARANCE vs T
Fracture Appearance, % Cleavage

BRITTLE TRANSITION DUCTILE
100
50
0
NDT FATT FTP
Temperature

Transition Temperatures
• FTP: Fracture Transition Plastics: The lowest T at which
fracture is 100% Shear
• NDT: Nil Ductility Temperature: The highest T at which
fracture is 100% Cleavage
• DBTT: Ductile to Brittle Transition Temp: Temperature at
which Cv is the average of upper and lower shelves.
• FATT: Fracture Appearance Transition Temp: T at which
fracture is 50%Cleavage + 50%Shear
• DTT: Ductility Transition temperature: The temperature at
which the material is sufficiently ductile and absorbs arbitrary
low value of energy such as 27 J.
Below Nil Ductility temperature,NDT
(Cleavage only)

Transition Region(below DBTT, but above
NDT)
(Cleavage+Shear)
Lateral Lateral
Contraction Expansion 33
Transition Region(above DBTT but below FTP)
(Cleavage+Shear)
Brittle Zone
(Cleavage)
Above FTP
(100% Ductile)
Shear Lips Shear Lips

DESIGN STRATEGY: Stay above DBTT
IF Tapp < DBTT

Impact Toughness, Cv
BRITTLE
Risk of Catastrophic
Fracture IF Tapp > DBTT
DUCTILE
UNSAFE!!
Warning before
fracture
SAFE
DBTT
Temperature

DESIGN STRATEGY: (Tapp > DBTT) EXAMPLE
Material selection for a steel railway bridge to be constructed in Ankara:
Tmax: 40C, Tmin: -25C
Tmin Tmax
Impact Toughness, CVN
FCC
A B C
T*A T*B T*C Temperature

Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
LNG TANKS ( T= -162oC)
Which material would you use for the

production of storage tanks?
Factors affecting transition temperature
• Specimen size
• Grain size
• Chemical compositon
• Microstructure
• Cleanliness
• Orientation
• Crack length
Effect of Specimen Size
(Sub-sized specimens, Material: Steel)
T* 2.5mm T* 5mm T* 10mm
Transition temperature drops with decreasing specimen thickness!

Effect of Specimen Size
The transition temperature increases with increasing
Charpy bar thickness.
Laboratory results may not be directly used for design

components. To overcome this difficulty, large scale tests like
drop weight tear test (DWT) or dynamic tear test (DT) are used.
Effect of metallurgical structure on
transition temperature
(Fine grain is better!)
http://www.niobelcon.com/NiobelCon/niobium/niobium_in_automotive_flat_steel/auto_martens
MetE 303-6
itic_steel/tough_martensite/ Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU 42
Effect of C % on fracture behavior of
plain-C steel
Çentik Darbe Tokluğu
(J)
Sıcaklık (oC)
Effect of Specimen Orientation

Think about:

1) What was the root cause of Commet jet airliner
crush in 1954? (Watch video in National
Geographic Channel)

2) During WW2, twelve liberty ships broke in half
without warning. WHY?
There are two surviving liberty ships. But more than 30 broke into two

2) Sinking of Titanic: What was the root cause in
terms of materials?

FRACTURE MECHANICS
Studies the fracture behavior of cracked
materials
Two main categories:

1. Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics: LEFM
2. Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics: EPFM

LEFM
Linear Elastic Fracture
Mechanics :
Used for high-strength, brittle
materials. There is small scale Localized
yielding at the crack tip. yielding at
crack tip
Parameters:
K: Stress Intensity Factor and
G: :Strain Energy Release Rate
EPFM
Elastic-Plastic Fracture
Mechanics :
Good for low-strength, ductile
materials. There is large scale Net section
yielding at the crack tip. yielding
Parameters:
J: J-Integral and
δ: Crack Tip Opening Displacement
(CTOD)
FRACTURE STRESS CALCULATIONS
GRIFFITH
a
a
INGLIS
MODIFIED GRIFFITH
(by Orowan and Irwin)
a
FRACTURE STRESS vs CRACK SIZE
σF = f (1/a)
.
σF1
Fracture
Stress
σF
a
σF2
a1 a2 Crack Length, a

DEFINITION OF STRESS INTENSITY
FACTOR, K
σF (π a)1/2 = (2 E γ ) 1/2
Irwin called σ (π a)1/2 as

Stress Intensity Factor, K (2 E γ )½ is Material’s property
K = σ (π a)1/2 (Energy required to fracture
material: FRACTURE
(If Critical, K=Kc) TOUGHNESS)
KC = σF (π a)1/2 OR KC = σ (π aC)1/2
STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR and FRACTURE
TOUGHNESS
σ a σ
K is not constant but is a parameter that increases with

increasing STRESS or CRACK SIZE or both
K = f ( σ, a)
When K ≥ (2 E γ ) ½ , Material Fractures!!

Where (2 E γ ) ½ = Kc
Kc is the Critical Stress Intensity Factor and
it is the FRACTURE TOUGHNESS

Elastic stress distribution at the tip of a
crack
ELASTIC STRESS DISTRIBUTION AT THE TIP OF A CRACK

CAN BE DIRECTLY EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF K
So at any point at the crack tip, when

the K reaches to Kc crack propagates
instably

ENERGY RELEASE, Ue’ and ENERGY RELEASE
RATE, dUe’/da
σ Specimen is streched to ε1 and rigidly
gripped
With a crack “a1”
ENERGY
RELEASED
a1 → a2
Ue’
When crack
a1 a2 grows to “a2”
dUe’/da
ENERGY
RELEASE RATE
ε
ε1
GRIFFITH ENERGY APPROACH and DEFINITIONS
OF STRAIN ENERGY RELESE RATE and CRACK
GROWTH RESISTANCE
At max
ENERGY
a
ac

FRACTURE CRITERION IN TERMS OF
G and R
G is also known as crack driving force.
IF G < R
Crack can not grow
ENERGY
At max, G = R
Critical Condition
ac a IF G > R
Crack will grow
UT
FRACTURE

G, R and Gc
STRAIN ENERGY RELEASE RESISTANCE TO CRACK
RATE, G = dUe/da GROWTH, R
Ue’ = σ2πa2/2E Us = 2aγs

dUe’/da = σ2πa/E R = dUs/da = 2γs
So So
G= σ2πa/E R = 2γs
At critical condition G=Gc=R
R = 2γs is constant for a
Then Gc = 2γs brittle material
CALCULATION OF FRACTURE STRESS by
using GC
G= σ2πa/E
For critical condition
GC= σF2πa/E So
Where
Gc = 2 γs for perfectly brittle materials
Gc = 2(γs + γp) for elastic-plastic materials This is called Jc
If Gc is known, fracture stress of a cracked component can be

calculated. It is hard to measure γs , whereas Gc is directly measurable
by a standard test.
STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR and STRAIN ENERGY
RELEASE RATE are related into each other
K2
So
K 2 = GE

FRACTURE CRITERIA and DEFINITIONS OF
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
IF
K < KC No Fracture
G < GC No Fracture
J < JC No Fracture
CTOD < (CTOD)c
BUT IF
K ≥ KC Fracture
G ≥ GC Fracture
J ≥ JC Fracture
CTOD ≥ (CTOD)c Fracture
KC : Fracture Toughness in terms of K

GC : Fracture Toughness in terms of G
JC : Fracture Toughness in terms of J
(CTOD)C : Fracture Toughness in terms of CTOD

Parameter vs Property
Parameter Materials Property
• Temperature, T • Tm
• Stress, σ • σY, σu, σF, σe
• Strain, ε • εY, εU
• Stress Intensity Factor, K • KC
• Strain Energy Release, G • GC
Rate
• CTOD, δ • δC
• J • JC

General Equation for the
STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR
K = Y σ π a
K: Stress intensity factor
Y: Factor of geometry (f of a/w)
σ: Nominal stress
a: Crack size
Geometry factors for infinite sheets
Edge crack in a
A crack in an
semi infinite sheet
infinite sheet
Crack size is 2a Crack size is a

Y=1 Y=1.12
Y is independentProf.on
MetE 303-7 Dr. the crack
Rıza Gürbüz, size in both cases
METU 18
Geometry factors for finite geometries
Y is crack size dependent!!

Geometry factor for pressure vessel

Crack size dependancy of geometry
factor
For an Edge cracked plate (https://www.efatigue.com)

FRACTURE CRITERION
IF
• KI < KIC No Fracture
• KI ≥ KIC Fracture!! (Unstable propagation of crack

causing seperation)
KIC is the PLANE STRAIN FRACTURE TOUGHNESS. It

can be determined by a test (ASTM E399)

FRACTURE CRITERIA FOR ALL
MODES
IF
• KI ≥ KIC MATERIAL FRACTURES
• KII ≥ KIIC MATERIAL FRACTURES
• KIII ≥ KIIIC MATERIAL FRACTURES
• Since MODE I type of crack growth is the most
common, generally KIC is used in designs.

FRACTURE PROPERTIES THAT CAN BE CALCULATED
BY THE HELP OF FRACTURE CRITERION
σ
IC
1) Max stress that a cracked component can carry, σF

σF: Fracture Strength
a 2) Max. allowable crack size for a certain design load, ac

ac : Critical Crack Length
Sensitivity of NDT technique is determined
accordingly: NDT should be able to detect the crack
smaller than ac
3) Critical length that a propagating crack can grow, ac

ac: Critical Crack Length

DETERMINATION OF CRITICAL CRACK
SIZE, ac
Constant σ
For a propagating crack at
constant stress
(Fatigue, SCC etc.)
KIC = Yσπac a3
a1 a2 ac
Constant
When a ≥ ac material
FRACTURES!!
ac= 1/π ( KIC/Y σ)2

Constant σ
DETERMINATION OF FRACTURE STRESS, σ F
σ3
σ2 For increasing load at a
σ1 constant crack size
(e. g. Tensile test)
KIC = YσFπa
a a a Constant
When σ ≥ σF material
FRACTURES!!
σF = KIC / (Y πa)

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF CRITICAL CRACK
LENGTH AND MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE STRESS
.
σAPP
Fracture
Stress,σF
K = Y σ π a
σF
a Crack Length, a
ac (max. size of the cracks
present in the material)

HIGH TOUGHNESS MATERIAL vs LOW TOUGHNESS
MATERIAL
. A
High KIC material can support
B the design load with a smaller
σ2 cross-section. This reduces the
weight!
KIC = Y σ π a
Allowable Stress →
High KIC material can

tolerate longer
σ1 cracks, so service life
σ High KIC will be longer.
Low KIC
a a1 a2 Crack length →
High KIC material is always BETTER!! Either the max alllowable stress is higher, or max.
permissible crack size is longer
EXAMPLE 1. An infinitely large Ti6Al4V alloy sheet is to be used at a
tensile stress of 300 MPa, what would be the maximum allowable size
of a centrally located straight through crack?
Yield Strength: 900 MPa

KIC: 57 MPa.m1/2
KIC = Y σπac
Y=1
Solve for critical crack size, ac
Answer: a= 11.5 mm
2a = 23 mm
EXAMPLE 2. A semi-infinite plate of Ti6Al4V alloy is inspected by an NDT
technique. It was detected an edge crack of 4 mm long. What is the
maximum stress that this sheet can withstand?
Yield Strength: 900 MPa

KIC: 57 MPa.m1/2
KIC = Y σF πa
Y = 1.12
Solve for fracture stress, σF
σF = KIC / Y πa
Answer: 454 MPa
What would the max. allowable design stress be if
the yield strength of the material were 400 MPa?

EXAMPLE 3

Thickness dependency of KC
Shear lips are the
indicators of plane stress
condition (i.e. plastic
deformation)
For B < B*, PLANE STRAIN

Kc is thickness For B >B*,
dependent B* Kc is constant: Kıc
Kc is dependent on size, whereas Kıc is not. So it can be accepted as

materials property. Kıc depends only on metallurgical factors. Different
materials can be compared with each other according to their Kıc. 11
Plastic Zone at the Crack Tip
B* is related to the size of plastic zone at the crack tip. Plastic zone
size, rp is inversely proportional to square of yield strength. Therefore
lower the yield strength larger the PDZ size.
σAPP
σmax
rp is the radius of PDZ
σAPP
rp is proportional to
PDZ (σAPP / σY)
rp α 1/ σY
MetE 303-8
σAPP Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU 12
Minimum thickness required for KIC
B* is related to the size of plastic zone at the crack tip. Lower the yield
strength larger the PDZ size and hence higher the B* be.
B* ≥ 10 rp
B* B*= 2.5(KC/σY)2

ENGINERING DESIGN BY USING
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
K relation may be used to make design against a component failure. K,
σ and a are interrelated with each other.
KIC specifies the Material

K = KIC = Y σ π a σ specifies the Design Stress
a specifies the Max. Allowable
Crack Size or NDT Flaw
KIC detection method
When two of them are determined,
third is fixed by the relation. For
example, if the design stress and
NDT method are known, the K is
σ a fixed and the material should be
selected accordingly

LEAK-BEFORE-BREAK DESIGN
THE USE OF FRACTURE MECHANICS IN
PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
Find the size of the critical crack which will cause rupture of the
pressure
MetE 303-8 vessel with a wall thickness
Prof. of 12
Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, mm.
METU 15
STRESSES ON THE WALL OF A PRESSURE VESSEL
Thin Wall Spherical

Thin Wall Cylindrical Pressure Vessel Pressure Vessel
σH σ1
σL σ1
BIAXIAL TENSILE STRESS STATE

σL= Pr/2t σ1= Pr/2t
σH= Pr/t
σR≈ 0 (thin)
EXAMPLE (Cont.)
Consider a semi-circular crack: Q=2.35 (Read

a/2c = 0.5
from graph)
and
σ /σY = 360/900 = 0.4 17

EXAMPLE (Cont.)
ac > t : So when a is equal to t, crack

becomes thickness through and fluid will
leak!! But no fracture..
ac
Leakage
a=t
t
a1 a2
Pressurised Medium
When a is equal to t, the fluid will

leak!! But no fracture.. Leakage warns
the engineers about taking a measure
EXAMPLE (Cont.)
IF
a/2c =0.05
Q=1
ac=6.6mm
ac < t

ac < t
t
a1
Pressurised Medium
When a is equal to ac,

vessel fractures
YIELD BEFORE FRACTURE and Leak BEFORE
FRACTURE DESIGNS
. IF
Stress IF IF
a < a* t > a > a* a>t
Fractures
Leaks before
without
Yielding fracture
UNSAFE SAFE
Yields Y
before
Fracture F
SAFE
a* a=t Crack Size, a

DESIGN STRATEGIES
FRACTURE YIELD BEFORE LEAK BEFORE

BEFORE YIELD FRACTURE FRACTURE
Fracture is sudden without Yielding can be detected by Leakage warns the operators.
any warning strain gages. So disaster is So disaster can be prevented.
prevented.

PLASTICITY AT THE CRACK
TIP and PLASTICITY
CORRECTIONS

PLASTICITY AT THE CRACK TIP
.
σ
Almost all of the Plastic deformation at
metals exhibit some the crack tip blunts
ductility. the crack and causes
a redistribution of the
Plastic deformation local stresses.
zone (PDZ) forms at
the crack tip when the
concentrated stress Decrease in the
exceeds yield severity of the crack
a
strength of the PDZ will improve fracture
material. toughness. (That’s
why R increases in
ductile materials)
DUCTILE MATERIALS
ARE TOUGHER
MetE 303-9
σ
BLUNTING OF CRACK TIP

ESTIMATION OF PLASTIC ZONE SIZE
σY (σo) Modified stress

distribution
rp
Modified stress distribution shows that PDZ is larger and in fact, rp is
the radius of PDZ
PLASTIC ZONE SIZE
At red point
rp = a/2 (σ/σo)2
σo : Flow stress
THIN SHEET
THICK SHEET

PLASTIC ZONES FOR PLANE STRESS (SURFACE)
AND PLANE STRAIN (CENTER) CASES
PLANE
STRESS
PLANE
STRAIN

EFFECTIVE CRACK LENGTH
When PDZ forms, the stiffness of the

component decreases. That means
material behaves as if it has a longer
crack! This is called “effective crack
length”
a + rp
rp a eff = a + rp
a Then effective stress intensity factor
can be defined and used in design:
Keff = σ √ πaeff

PLASTIC ZONE SIZE IS PROPORTIONAL TO CRACK SIZE
σ
rp = a/2 (σ/σY)2
a2 > a1
Longer the crack, larger the
a1 zone will be!
a2
MetE 303-9
σ Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU 8
PLASTIC ZONE SIZE IS PROPORTIONAL TO STRESS
APPLIED
σ1 rp = a/2 (σ/σY)2 σ2
a1 a1
Higher the stress, larger the zone will be!
σ2> σ1
MetE 303-9 σ1 Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU σ2 9
PLASTIC ZONE SIZE IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO
YIELD STRENGTH
σ1 rp = a/2 (σ/σY)2 σ1
High Strength Low Strength
a1 a1
Lower the yield strength, larger the zone will be!
σ1
σ1
MetE 303-9 10
PLASTIC ZONE SIZE IS THICKNESS DEPENDENT
Thin Sheet Thick Sheet
PLANE PLANE
STRESS STRAIN
σ1 σ1
a1 a1
Thinner the specimen, larger the zone will be!
MetE 303-9
σ1 Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU
σ1 11
KIC TESTING
(Specimens and their KQ Expressions)
STUDY:
http://aluminium.matter.org.uk/content/html/eng/default.asp?catid=176&pageid=2144416586

TEST PROCEDURE
Steps:
1. Form a sharp crack by fatigue
2. Fracture by tensile load
3. Determine ac and PQ
4. Calculate KQ
5. Check for thickness

requirement
6. If it is satisfied, report KQ=KIC
7. If not, repeat the test with a

thicker specimen
Determination of critical crack size, ac
and critical load, PQ
Critical Crack Size, ac Critical Load, PQ
ac
Fatigue crack front can be

detected at the fracture surface. The load at which the unstable
The size of it is measured by crack growth starts is determined
micrometer. from the P-Δx plot.
Determination of KQ
PQ and ac are substituted in KQ equation of the related specimen.
KQ is the conditional fracture toughness. If the

specimen thickness is equal or greater than
the B*, it is KIC which is a material’s property.
If not, it is Kc which is greater than KIC.
Therefore the thickness criterion should be

checked.
B*
B* = 2.5(KIC/σY)2

Check for Minimum Thickness Criterion
B*
CRITERION FOR B* and KIC
B ≥ B*= 2.5(KQ/σY)2
-If this criterion is satisfied, it means specimen is sufficiently thick and the
fracture is 100% plain strain. Then KQ = KIC
-If not, a new specimen with a greater thickness should be prepared and test
should be repeated.
Fracture Toughness of Selected Metals
Ferrous Alloy
Kc Yield Strength
Material
(MPa·m1/2) (MPa) Cast Iron 6-20 120-290
Aluminum Alloy
Roter Steel (A533) 204-214 -
2014 18-31 380-470
Pressure-vessel Steel (HY130) 170 -
2020 19-27 525-240
High-Strength Steel 50-154 -
2024 21-37 305-455
Mild Steel 140 -
2124 21-36 440-460
2219 28-41 340-345 Medium-Carbon Steel 51 -
7049 21-38 460-510 4330V 86-110 1315-1400
7050 25-41 430-510 4340 44-91 1360-1660

7075 16-41 395-560 D6AC 62-102 1495-1570
7475 33-44 395-515 9-4-20 132-154 1280-1310
7079 24-33 505-540
18Ni 50-110 1450-1905
7178 17-30 470-540
AFC77 79 1530
Titanium Alloy
Ti6Al4V 77-116 815-875
Other Metals
Beryllium (Be) 4

Fracture Toughness of Selected Polymers,
Ceramics and Composites
Toughness of Polymers Toughness of Ceramics
Kc Kc
Material Material
(MPa·m1/2) (MPa·m1/2)
ABS 4
Cement/Concrete 0.2
Epoxy 0.3-0.5
Cement/Concrete, Steel Reinforced 10-15
Nylon 3
Polycarbonate 1-2.6 Silicon Nitride (Si3N4) 4-5
Polyester 0.5 Cobalt Carbite 14-16

Polyethylene 1-2 Silicon Carbite (SiC) 3
Polypropylene 3
Tungsten Carbite 14-16
Polystyrene 2
Magnesia (MgO) 3
PMMA 0.5-1.75
Alumina (Al2O3) 3-5
Kc
Toughness of Composites Material
(MPa·m1/2)
Kc
Material
(MPa·m1/2)
Electric Porcelain 1
GFRP 20-60
Soda Glass 0.7-0.8
CFRP 23-45
Boron Fiber-Epoxy 46 Alumina (Al2O3) 3-5
Wood (along grain) 0.5-1

B* increases with decreasing yield strength.
LEFM is for high strength materials. If σ > 1400 MPa it works well. If not, LEFM
parameters can still be used by preparing thicker specimens that satisfy the
plain strain condition.
Consider a material with KIC = 50 MPa.m1/2.
- If it has a yield strength of 1600 MPa, B* = 2.5 (50/1600)2 = 2.44 mm
- If it has a yield strength of 1000 MPa, B* = 2.5 (50/1000)2 = 6.25 mm
- If it has a yield strength of 500 MPa, B* = 2.5 (50/500)2 = 25 mm
Preparation and testing of very thick specimens (like 100mm or 625mm) are practically
impossible. In such cases (i.e. for low strength materials) EPFM should be employed
instead of LEFM.
So fracture toughness of ductile materials are measured in terms of CTOD and J.

CTOD (δ) : Crack Tip Opening Displacement
Consider an imaginary micro tensile specimen with a

gage length of Lo at the crack tip. Fracture of this
specimen is analogous to unstable crack growth.
Elongation of this specimen, ∆L is analogous to CTOD
The micro-specimen with a gage length of Lo=2ρ

ρ
breaks when the strain reaches the tensile ductility, eF
CTOD of this micro specimen is simply the elongation

of it.
Hence CTOD (δ) = e L = e 2 ρ
Thus the fracture criterion is

δ c = 2 ρ eF
δc is fracture toughness in terms of CTOD

CTOD can be determined by calculating
the displacement at the intersection of a
The opening displacement of the 90° vertex with the crack flanks when the
original crack tip. load is applied
When δ ≥ δC Fracture takes place.

The unit of CTOD is mm.
CTOD is calculated by measuring the CMOD (COD) by a clip-on gage
Crack CTOD, δ Crack

CMOD, ∆
Mouth x Tip
CMOD can be measured by a device called clip-on-extensometer. It is also called COD (∆).
∆ = 4 σ/E [ a2-x2+ δ(E2/16 σ2)]
where x is the distance from the crack center.

J INTEGRAL
Physical interpretation of the J-integral can be interpreted as the
J-integral potential energy difference between
two identically loaded specimens
having slightly different crack lengths.
J = dUe/da = G = K2/E
The shaded area (A) is energy

released (∆Ue) when the crack
propagates by ∆a. Hence:
J = A / ∆a B
where B is specimen thickness
FRACTURE CRITERION:
When J ≥ JIC Fracture occurs
JIC is the fracture toughness in terms of J.
Unit of JIC is kJ/m2

MetE 303-9 23
Topics to think about:
• Is it possible for a crack to grow under
constant static tensile load?
• Suppose several cracks of same size are

oriented at different angles in a large glass
sheet. Which of these cracks will grow first
when a sufficiently high uniaxial tensile
stress is applied?

Which crack will
propagate first?

Which crack will
propagate first?

Which crack will grow?
1 1
2 2

FATIGUE FAILURES
FAILURES THAT OCCUR UNDER CYCLIC STRESSES OR STRAINS
Applied stress levels are
usually lower than the
yield strength.
STRESS
σ
σ1
σ1 NF= 7 cycles
σY
σ2 σ2 NF= 7 M
cycles
e time
TYPES OF FATIGUE FAILURES
High cycle fatigue, NF>104 : At stress

levels lower than the yield strength. There
is no plastic deformation on macro scale.
Low cycle fatigue, NF<104 :At stress levels

around and/or higher than the yield
strength. There is gross plastic deformation
during fracture.
IMPORTANCE OF FATIGUE
FAILURES
• Fatigue accounts for at least 90% of all service
failures because of mechanical causes!
• Therefore it is extremely important to understand

the mechanism of fatigue process.
Here are some examples to fatigue failures

analyzed in our department:

Fracture of a generator shaft by torsional
fretting fatigue

Fracture of a rolling mill by HE induced
fatigue

Fracture of a cannon gun barrel because of
fatigue

Fracture of jetty piles of a petroleum platform
on eagean sea by corrosion fatigue

Failure of helicopter motor because of
fracture of rotor blade by fatigue

Fracture of truck wheel studs by corrosion
fatigue

GENERAL FEATURES OF FATIGUE
FRACTURE
• Fatigue failures are insidious and they take place suddenly without
any obvious warning; therefore catastrophic!
• Fatigue results in a brittle apperaring fracture with no gross plastic

deformation at the fracture ( This is true for high-cycle fatigue)
• On macroscopic scale the fatigue fracture surface is usually normal

to the principle tensile stress
• There are two distinct regions at the fracture surface
• Fatigue fracture usually starts at a point of stress concentration

Fracture surface has usually a brittle character. There
exist two distinct regions on the fracture surface
Two distinct regions


Fatigue fracture Fatigue fracture

surface of a surface of a rail
helicopter bolt head

THREE BASIC FACTORS NECESSARY
TO CAUSE FATIGUE FAILURE
STRESS
σmax
Δσ
N
1. Tensile stress of sufficiently high value (σmax)
2. Sufficiently large variation in the applied stress (Δσ)
3. Sufficiently large number of cycles of the applied stress (N)

MECHANISM OF FATIGUE FRACTURE
3 MAIN STAGES:
1. Crack Initiation, Ni
2. Crack Propagation, Np
3. Catastrophic Failure: i.e. final sudden
fracture by unstable crack growth
when Kı > KIC
TOTAL FATIGUE LIFE: NF

NF= N i + Np
MECHANISM OF FATIGUE FRACTURE
.
SURFACE DEFECT
(NOTCH, DENT etc)
CRACK INITIATION Origin of Fracture
FZ: Fatigue Zone

(Slow crack growth)
FZ
CRACK Beach Marks
PRORAGATION
IZ IZ: Instantenous Zone

SUDDEN FRACTURE (Sudden fracture region of
When K ≥ KIC unstable crack growth)
MetE 303-10 16
Fatigue fracture surface of a helicopter bolt
Crack
Propagation
Region
Crack
Origins
Beach
(Progression) Sudden
Marks Fracture
Region

Fracture
Origin
Crack
Propagation
Sudden Fracture Region

Sudden
Fracture
Region
Crack
Crack Propagation
Propagation Crack Region
Region Origin

Two initiations at different times
Crack
Origin 2
Sudden
Fracture
Region
Crack
Propagation
Crack
Origin 1

CRACK INITIATION: Fact 1
CRACKS ALMOST ALWAYS ORIGINATE AT STRESS RAISERS.
STRESS RAISERS are the

stress concentration points:
Threads, notches, inclusions,
NOTCH dents, scratches, hardness
indentations, pores, cavities,
corrosion pits, machining
marks, sharp fillets, keyways
etc..)

CRACKS USUALLY INITIATE AT THE FREE SURFACES
• In bending and torsion, maximum tensile stresses form at

the surface.
• Free surfaces are open to external damages like

corrosion, denting, scratching, machining marks etc.
• Initiation sometimes starts at the interior from weak

interfaces or internal defects like inclusions, voids,
shrinkage cavities etc.

CRACK INITIATION IS BY LOCAL CYCLIC PLASTIC STRAINS
• Stress concentration at the tip of stress raisers causes

the formation of stresses greater than yield strength of
the material.
• This results plastic deformation at the stress

concentration point on micro-scale.
• Cyclic plastic strains (Cyclic slip) cause the initiation of

cracks.

Crack initiation by local plastic deformation at
stress concentration regions
Crack initiation, at the stress concentration points, is controlled

by low-cycle fatigue.
Formation of intrusions and extrusions
by plastic microdeformation
Crack nucleation at
an intrusion at the
surface
Fatigue cracks that are initiated from a drill hole and
propagated to fracture in a railway rail

Crack initiation at stress concentration sites

Fatigue crack initiation from a surface defect
(dent)
Surface defect:
A DENT

A fatigue crack starting from a poor
repair weld (Weld defect)
Crack
Origin
Crack
Propagation
Region
Crack initiation due to corrosion
Corrosion pits on the A microcrack originated

surface of a high from a corrosion pit
strength(10.8) steel bolt

CRACK GROWTH
Crack Growth takes place at 2 stages:
STAGE 1 (along slip planes): Very slow growth rate(in

the order of nanometers/cycle), fracture surface is
featureless, along persistent slip bands, only for a few
grain diameters..
STAGE 2 (normal to max tensile stress): Higher growth

rate (in the order of micrometers/cycle), growth is along a
direction perpendicular to max. tensile stress, beach
marks and striations are observed on the fracture
surface..
Stage 1 (microstrucuture-sensitive) and stage 2
(microstructure-independent) fatigue crackgrowth.
STAGE 1 STAGE 2
Along slip bands Normal to max
tensile stress

SEM FRACTOGRAPHS OF FATIGUE FRACTURE
SURFACE AT SEM
Stage 2 crack
growth surface:
Stage 1 crack FATIGUE
growth surface STRIATIONS

Beach Marks: Macro indicators of fatigue crack
propagation in Stage 2
Beach marks are also called as progression marks. They may form
because of the change in the loading spectrum, corrosive environment,
on-off cycles or because of the interruptions in loading during the service..
Thousands of microcracks grow
individually between two beachmarks
Micro indicators of fatigue fracture:

1. Fatigue striations
2. Tear ridges
3. Secondary cracks
SEM micrograph of typical fatigue fracture
surface
Striations
Tear Ridge
Secondary
Crack

FATIGUE STRIATIONS show:
1) Crack growth direction, 2) crack growth rate,
3) loading spectrum
Striations show the current position of an
advancing crack front. They look like
concentric circles. Their curvature is convex
in crack growth direction.
Each cycle forms one striation. So da/dN is

simply striation spacing, ∆x da/dN ≅ 3 microns/cycle

Model for the formation of fatigue striations during Stage
II fatigue crack growth due to blunting and re-sharpening
of the crack tip via slip.

Topics to think about:

Find the crack initiation points and final fracture region
Reversed bending fatigue fracture surface

Calculate the average crack growth rate

This is the fatigue fracture surface of a 30cm diameter
shaft with a keyway. Find the crack initiation points, FZ
and IZ

* STRESS CYCLES
* S-N DIAGRAM
* ε-N DIAGRAM
* GOODMAN DIAGRAM
* CUMULATIVE FATIGUE DAMAGE
* FATIGUE DESIGN
* FRACTURE MECHANICS APPROACH

How to describe a stress cycle?
Repeated stress cycle

Rotating Shaft and Completely Reversed
Stress Cycle
σmax
M M
Completely reversed stress cycle is

ideally produced in rotating shafts that σmin
supports bending moments.
σmax σm = 0
R = -1
σ=0 σ=0
MetE 303-11 σmin Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU 3

Random Stress Cycle
Statistical techniques, like ‘rainflow analyses’ are

used to evaluate the data
DETERMINATION OF S-N DIAGRAM
Rotating Beam Fatigue Testing is the most common technique used to
determine S-N Diagram
Smooth
Tests are performed until fracture. If there is no fracture at a prescribed life,

test is stopped. This value can be 107 for Ti and ferrous alloys and 5x108 for
nonferrous alloys.
Finally STRESS vs LIFE Diagram is plotted. It is usually a semi-logaritmic plot.

‘No fracture’ data points are plotted as run-out points.
MetE 303-11 5
S-N DIAGRAM (STRESS-LIFE)
S-N Diagram (Also known as Wohler Diagram)is a semi-logarithmic plot of stress
amplitude against number of cycles to fracture.
500 Basquin Relation Fractured

Stress Amplitude, S (σa)
Run-out
NF (σa)p = C
400
300
200
100
104 105 106 107
103
Number of Cycles, N (Log Scale)
S-N DIAGRAMS
S-N diagrams are suitable for high-cycle fatigue for which stress amplitude is well
below yield strength.
S-N diagrams of some metal alloys. Higher the level of the diagram, higher the
fatigue performance is.
σm = 0
R = -1

S-N DIAGRAM
Stress Amplitude, S (σa) (Definition of Fatigue Life)
Lower the stress, higher the

S1
fatigue life will be
S2
N1 N2
N1: FATIGUE LIFE at S1 N2: FATIGUE LIFE at S2
Number of Cycles to Failure, N
(Logarithmic Scale)
S-N DIAGRAM
(Definition of Fatigue Strength)
Basquin Relation
Stress Amplitude, S (σa)
NF (σa)p = C
Fatigue Strength is the

maximum allowable stress for
the required life in design.
S3
FATIGUE STRENGTH
at N3 cycles
N3
Number of Cycles to Failure, N
(Logarithmic Scale)
ENDURANCE LIMIT, σe (FATIGUE LIMIT)
σe
If σAPP < σe
PRACTICALLY NO FATIGUE FRACTURE
Ferrous materials and some Ti alloys exhibit endurance limit (knee).

Below endurance limit, no fatigue failure is expected. Endurance
limit is a fraction of UTS ( roughly 50% of UTS)
Fatigue behavior of non-ferrous materials
ENDURANCE
LIMIT
FATIGUE
STRENGTH for
108 cycles
- For STEELS: σe ≈ 0.5 σu

- For NON-FERROUS ALLOYS: There is no true endurance limit. The fatigue
strength at arbitrary number of cycles (Usually 10 8 or 5x108) is accepted as
the fatigue limit: σe (for 108 cycles) ≈ 0.35 σu
Statistical Nature of Fatigue
(Probability of fracture)
The width of the scatter band increases with decreasing stress amplitude.
A VERY PRACTICAL WAY OF CONSTRUCTING S-N
CURVE USING TENSILE TEST DATA
(FOR WROUGHT STEEL)
• Approximate fatigue life at 90% of UTS is approximately 1000 cycles
• Endurance limit is a fraction of UTS (Su).
• Endurance limit is approximately 50% of UTS for 10 6 cycles.
Log-log plot is usually linear

ε-N DIAGRAM (STRAIN-LIFE)
ε-N diagrams are suitable for low-cycle fatigue in which there is plastic deformation.
Plastic Strain Amplitude, Δεp

Coffin Manson Relation
Δεp/2 = ε’f (2N)c
10 102 103
1
Number of Cycles, N
Effect of mean stress on SN Behaviour
Fatigue Stresses
40000
sa
30000
Applied Stress - psi
20000 sa sm
10000
s sm
0
-10000 0 2 4 6 8 10
-20000 Fully Reversed Repeated Fluctuating

Increasing mean
Load Cycles stress
Fatigue strength drops

with increasing mean
stress.
Endurance limit also drops with increasing mean stress.

GOODMAN DIAGRAM
(gives the maximum allowable stress amplitude for infinite
life if the mean stress is different then zero)
FATIGUE FRACTURE
(UNSAFE REGION)
NO FATIGUE
FRACTURE
(SAFE REGION)

Effect of mean stress on fatigue
x = 1 for Goodman line

x = 2 for Gerber parabola
σu = σY and x = 1 for Soderberg line
Where:
σe: is the endurance limit for σm= 0
σa: is the maximum allowable stress amplitude for
infinite life for σm > 0
σu: is the ultimate tensile strength
EXAMPLE
600
σa = 300
300 700
σm = 300
0
B: 1000, 300
A: 300, 300
1400
MetE 303-11 18
EXAMPLE
Goodman Relation
σa = σe [1 + (σm / σu)]
600
σa = 300 σa = 700 [1 + (300/ 1400)]
300 σa = 550 MPa > 300 MPA so no
σm = 300 failure
0
If residual stress is 700 MPa
σa = 700 [1 - (1000/ 1400)]
σa = 200 MPa < 300 MPA so part will
fail!
MetE 303-11 19
CUMULATIVE NATURE OF
FATIGUE DAMAGE

PROBLEM: WHAT WILL THE REMAINING LIFE BE?
.
The fatigue life of a 300
component at σa=300
MPa is 130 000 cycles.
The life of the same 200

component is 2 500 000
cycles at σa=200 MPa.
130 000 2 500 000
The component is loaded at σa=300 for 30 000 cycles. What

will the remaining life be if it is to be used at σa=200 until
fracture?
MetE 303-11 How toProf.
handle this problem??
Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU 21
CUMULATIVE FATIGUE DAMAGE
n1: Number of cycles spent from NF1 at S1

Damage ratio, D=
• Damage ratio represents percentage of theoretical

fatigue life under a given loading regime:
• If D<1, NO FAILURE
MetE•303-11
If D≥1, FAILUREProf. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU 22
Damage ratio, D=
Answer:
Spent Life: 30 000/130 000 = 0.23 (23%)
Available Life: 1-0.23 =0.77 (77%)
Solve for n2 for D=1 condition:

30 000/130 000 + n2 /2 500 000 =1
n2= 1 925 000 cycles

A practical example
A multipurpose traffic bridge has been in service for three years and
each day carries a large number of trains, trucks, and automobiles. A
subsequent highway analysis reveals a sharp difference between
expected and actual traffic patterns that threatens to shorten the usefull
life span of the bridge.
a) Given the following fatigue information estimate the remaining
lifetime of the bridge.
b) Fortunately, a nearby second bridge was recently completed that
can assume all of the train traffic. Estimate the remaining lifetime for the
first bridge, assuming that it will carry only truck and automobile traffic
when the second bridge is in service.
VEHICLE FATIGUE LIFETIME VEHICLES/DAY
Automobiles 108 5000
Trucks 2x106 100
Trains 105 30
S-N
DIAGRAM OF
BRIDGE
Trains
Trucks
Cars
105 2x106 108

a) First establish the amount of fatigue damage accumulated during the
initial 3-year(1095 days) service period:
1095(5000/108+100/2x106+30/105) = 0.438 =D
Accumulated damage in initial 3 years is 0.438.

That is 43.8% of the combined fatigue lifetime. So remaining fatigue
lifetime is 56.2% of the combined fatigue lifetime (1-D= 0.562). If the
remaining life is N
N(5000/108+100/2x106+30/105) = 0.562
N= 1405 days
Remaining life would be 3.85 years (for automobile + truck + train traffic)
b) If there is no train traffic:

0.562 = N(5000/108+100/2x106)
Remaining Life= 5620 days(15.4 years) for automobile + truck traffic only.
FATIGUE DESIGN
INITIATION CONTROLLED PROPAGATION
CONTROLLED
*No cracks pre-exist.
*Fatigue of uncracked *Fatigue of cracked
components. structures.
High Cycle Fatigue *Cracks pre-exist.
Suitable for gears, gear *Suitable for large
teeth, axles, shafts, wheels, structures, welds, bridges,
crank shafts etc. ships, pressure vessels.
Low Cycle Fatigue
Suitable for air frames,
turbine components, nuclear
reactors, thermal fatigue etc.
FATIGUE DESIGN STRATEGIES
INITIATION CONTROLLED PROPAGATION
CONTROLLED
1) INFINITE LIFE DESIGN: 1) DAMAGE TOLERANT

S-N Diagram is used DESIGN:
Fracture Mechanics (LEFM)
2) FINITE LIFE (SAFE LIFE) and da/dN - ΔK Diagram is
DESIGN: used
S-N Diagram or 2) FAIL SAFE DESIGN
ε-N Diagram is used

Use of SN Diagram in Engineering Design
TYPICAL S-N DIAGRAM is valid for:
* Zero mean stress (R=-1)

* Rotational Bending type of loading
* Smooth and polished surface
* Small size specimen
* Room temperature
* Unnotched sample
* Dry air (Non-corrosive media)
* 50% reliability
But IN REAL CASE conditions are usually very different:
* Mean stress may be different than zero

* Loading type may be different
* Surface may not be polished
* Component may be larger than specimen
* Temperature may be different
* There may be a notch
* Corrosive medium
* Higher than 50% reliability may be needed in design.
WATCH: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ywDsB3umK2Y
* In a real case, fatigue strength of the component will be lower than
the fatigue strength determined from S-N Diagram.
* So reduction factors (or modification factors) should be used in
design.
ka kb kc kd ke kf
where
ka: Reduction factor for surface finish
kb: Reduction factor for size
kc: Reduction factor type of loading
kd: Reduction factor for for temperature
ke: Reduction factor for reliability
kf: Reduction factor for corrosive medium
Each of these factors are less than 1.

σe
σAPP < σe
INFINITE LIFE
INFINITE LIFE DESIGN: Design is based on endurance limit. Design stress is kept less than
endurance limit to have an infinite life.
Endurance limit from SN curve, Se is modified by using reduction factors:

S’e = kakbkckdkekf Se
Where
Se: endurance limit from SN curve (Testing condition)
S’e: endurance limit modified for real condition (to be used in design)
FINITE LIFE (SAFE LIFE) DESIGN:

Design is based on a certain fatigue life, N1. Design stress,
S1 (that is maximum allowable stress) is calculated from SN
diagram for the life required. Modification factors are
applied.
S1

(Damage Tolerant Design for
Fatigue)
FRACTURE MECHANICS
APPROACH TO FATIGUE

.
Δσ
A crack was detected by
Non-Destructive Test: ao
NDT KIC Critical crack size can be

determined by Fracture
Toughness, KIC: aC
Part will be subjected to

repeated stresses: Δσ
ao aC
What will the

fatigue life be??
Δσ
What will the fatigue life be??
Life can be calculated if the crack growing velocity is known:
da/dN : Crack Growth Rate
If the growth rate were constant:
NF = (aC – ao) / da/dN
But the crack growth rate is not constant; there is an

acceleration..
da/dN increases as the crack grows..

Crack Growth Rate is measured
experimentally
1) Crack length, a is
measure against
number of cycles, N
2) a vs N diagram is
drawn
3) Crack growth rate,
da/dN is calculated
from the slope.
STUDY:
http://aluminium.matter.org.uk/
content/html/eng/default.asp?c
atid=176&pageid=2144416584
a vs N DIAGRAM and Crack Growth Rate, da/dN
ac
da/dN increases as the crack grows..
Crack Length, a
(da/dN)a2 > (da/dN)a1
a2
(da/dN)a2
a1
ao (da/dN)a1
Cycles, N NF
a vs N Diagram at two stress levels
. da/dN = f(Δσ, a)
ac1 σ1
ac2
σ2 σ2 > σ1
Crack size, a
(da/dN)a2
at σ2 (da/dN)a2
a2 at σ1
a1
ao (da/dN)a1
Cycles, N
Crack Growth Rate, da/dN is dependent on both stress range (Δσ) and
MetE 477 Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU 38
crack size, a
Relation between da/dN and K
da/dN = f(Δσ, a)
But ΔK= Δσ √πa
So da/dN = f(ΔK)
da/dN= A(ΔK)m
Crack growth rates for different crack sizes can be determined from the
slope of a-N diagram.
da/dN vs ΔK diagram is drawn

Calculation of ΔK
The driving force for crack growth is the range in the stress
intensity factor during cycling. (Compressive stresses are not
taken into account)
σmax
∆K= Kmax
ΔK = Kmax – Kmin
0
ΔK = σmax (πa)1/2 - σmin (πa)1/2 σ min
ΔK = Δσ (πa)1/2
If σmin is compressive, take ∆σ = σmax
then ∆K= Kmax

Crack Growth Rate Diagram
log da/dN vs log ΔK is plotted. Units are m/cycle and
MPa.m1/2
Stable Crack
log da/dN, m/cycle
No crack
Unstable crack growth

Growth
growth
(FRACTURE)
II
III
I
Damage
Tolerant Design
Region
ΔKth ΔKmax=Kc
log ΔK, MPa.m1/2 41
DETERMINATION OF CRACK GROWTH RATE
PARAMETERS (A and m)
. STABLE CRACK
GROWTH
NO CRACK
FRACTURE
Paris-Erdoğan Equation
GROWTH
da
log da/dN, m/cycle
 A(K ) m
dN
m
log(da/dN) = log A + m log ΔK
da
 A(K ) m So log-log plot is linear.
dN
m: Slope
A A: da/dN value at the
Log ΔK =0 intersect
ΔK=1 ΔKth ΔKmax=Kc
log ΔK, MPa.m1/2
Crack Growth Rate Diagrams for various FCC, BCC and
HCP metals

CALCULATION OF THE REMAINING FATIGUE
LIFE OF A CRACKED COMPONENT
. Δσ da
 A(K ) m
dN
dN = da/A ΔKm
ac
ao aC
a0: Initial crack length

ac: Critical crack length
Δσ
FATIGUE LIFE
For m = 3:
2  1 1 
NpF 
N   
A (  s ) Y
3/ 2 3 3
 a o a c 
a0: Initial crack length (Determined by NDT)
ac: Critical crack length (Determine from KIC)
Δσ= σmax - σmin(If R>0)
KIC
ac Δσ = σmax (If R≤0)

General Solution:
Solution for m=2:

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1
MetE 303-11A relatively large sheet of steel is to be exposed to cyclic tensile and compressive
stresses of magnitudes +100 MPa and -50 MPa respectively. Prior to testing, it has been
determined that the length of the largest straight- through center crack is 2.0 mm. Estimate the
fatigue life of this sheet if its plane strain fracture toughness is 25 MPa.m 1/2 and the values of
m and A are 3 and 1X10-12 respectively for Δσ in MPa and a in mm. The frequency of loading
is 0.5 Hz.
+100
• 2ao= 2 mm, ao= 1 mm -50 100
• Y≈1(Large sheet)
Δσ = σmax = 100
• KIC = 25 MPa.m1/2
• m=3, A=1X10-12 0
2ao= 2mm
• f=0.5 Hz
-50
• NF = ?
σmax = 100 MPa
σmin = - 50 MPa
Δσ = 100 MPa (R≤0)

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1
ac= 0.01989 m = 19.89 mm
2  1 1 
NFp    
A 3 / 2 ( s )3 Y 3  a o a c 
NF= 8.81 x 106 cycles
TF = NF / f = 204 days

EXAMPLE 2 (FROM DIETER)

TOPICS TO THINK ABOUT
1) Why does shot peening improve the fatigue life
of a metal component?
2) Why does carburizing increase the fatigue life of
a steel component?
3) Why does pure iron exhibit no fatigue limit?
4) What kind of fatigue (low cycle or high cycle)
should be considered for the ribbed steels in
steel reinforced concrete during an earthquake?
5) What effect will have the decarburization of a
steel component be on the fatigue performance
of it?
FACTORS AFFECTING THE
FATIGUE LIFE
• Mean Stress
• Geometrical Design
• Having a Notch
• Surface Roughness
• Surface Strength
• Residual Stresses
• Type of stress(Bending, axial, torsion etc)
• Size
• Environment
• Metallurgical Structure
• Temperature
HOW TO IMPROVE FATIGUE LIFE?

GEOMETRICAL DESIGN
(Remove stress concentrators)
POOR DESIGN GOOD DESIGN
BETTER
BAD

EFFECT OF NOTCH
Having a notch significantly drops the fatigue strength and

endurance limit
Fatigue stress concentration factor,

Kf = σe(Unnotched) / σ e(Notched)
EFFECT OF SURFACE FINISH
(Surface roughness)
• As Cast • Poor surface
• As Forged finish
Higher
• Machined Fatigue
Life
• Ground
• Polished • Good surface
• Mirror Polished finish
Even in smootly polished specimens, direction of the fine
scratches (stress raisers) is important. When they are parallel to
principle tensile stress, max life is attained.

SURFACE FINISH
. Good surface finish: No Poor surface finish: Higher
stress concentration, so stress concentration, so easy
retarded crack formation crack formation
High Ni + Np Low Ni + Np
Since
Higher NF NF = Ni + Np
Lower NF

Reduction factor for fatigue limit of steel due to
various surface treatments (Surface Finish)
Sensitivity to surface
condition increases
with increasing
strength.
Corrosion has a
significant effect on
fatigue limit

SURFACE TREATMENT
(Example: Shot Peening)
Shot Peening causes:

1. Formation of
compressive residual
stresses
2. An increase in the
surface hardness
Shot Peening, Carburizing, Nitriding, Induction Hardening

Decarburization?
SURFACE CONDITION
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
CASE: SOFTER 20 HRC

CASE: HARDER 55 HRC
THROUGH INTERIOR: INTERIOR:
HARDNESS 35 HRC 35 HRC
35 HRC
NF = Ni + Np = NF1 Higher Ni + Np Lower Ni + Np
Higher NF Lower NF
NF2 > NF1 > NF3

COMPRESSIVE RESIDUAL STRESS
(Avoid having tensile residual stresses but put surface into
compression if possible)
Stresses due to
applied
BENDING, σMAX
Residual
Stresses, - σR
Superposed
(σMAX + σR) < σMAX
Lower the stress at the surface, higher the fatigue life be!
EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENT
Corrosive environments shorten the fatigue life.

Endurance limit may disseppear completely!
EFFECT OF CORROSION
Corrosion attack almost
always shorten the life
Corrosion pits cause stress concentration

EFFECT OF CORROSION
Cracks starting from a corrosion pit and IG corrosion as a

result of stress concentration

SIZE FACTOR
• Increasing the diameter increases the volume and surface area of
the specimen. Since fatigue failures usually start at the surface, the
increase in the amount of surface is of significance.
• An increase in diameter increases the volume of material which is
higly stressed for specimens loaded in torsion or bending.

EFFECT OF STRENGTH
Since Endurance Limit is proportional to
UTS, increasing the strength by:
Heat Treatment
Deformation
Precipitation etc
will always have a beneficial effect on

Fatigue Performance.
Effect of METALLURGICAL
VARIABLES on fatigue.

EFFECT OF INTERSTITIALS
Steps in the development of a material with the fatigue limit:
A: Pure Metal,
B: Effect of solid solution elements on A,
C: Fatigue limit due to strain aging from intersititials,
D: Increased fatigue limit from enhanced strain aging

STRAIN AGING
Strain aging is a type of behaviour, usually associated with yield
point phenomenon, in which the strength of a metal is increased
on heating at a relatively low temperature after cold working
Strain Aging:
Yield point reappears,
and the yield point
increases.

EFFECT OF STACKING FAULT ENERGY
(SFE)
FATIGUE STRENGTH IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO DIFFICULTY
OF DISLOCATION CROSS SLIP (DISLOCATION MOBILITY)
When SFE is high, dislocation mobility is great. Materials

with high SFE permit dislocations to cross slip easily around
obstacles. This promotes slip band formation and large plastic
zone at the tip of cracks. Hence initiation and propagation of
fatigue cracks become easier.
Conversly, when SFE is low, cross slip is difficult.

Dislocation mobility is restricted. This limits local concentrations
of plastic deformation and suppresses fatigue damage.
Pearlite vs Spheroidite
Even though the steel in the two structural conditions have the same tensile
strength, the pearlitic structure results in a significantly lower fatigue limit due to
higher notch effects of the carbide lamellae in pearlite
Martensite
Martensite is brittle and contain tensile residual stresses
Fatigue
Crack
Martensite
Crack

Tempered Martensite
In general quenched and tempered microstructures result in the

optimum fatigue properties in heat treated low-alloy steels
Bainite
At the hardness level above 40HRC, a bainitic structure produced by

austempering results in better fatigue properties than quenched and tempered
structure with the same hardness.
Cast Iron
Gray Cast Iron vs Nodular Cast Iron

Graphite in gray iron is highly branched and interconnected within a
eutectic cell structure. These cell structures are composed of sharp
flakes which provide an easy fracture path as well as areas of high
stress concentration.
Cracks start on the first loading cycle at flakes oriented perpendicular

to the applied tensile stress. Since grey iron already contains cracks,
it is not very notch sensitive.
Inclusions
Longitudinal Direction
Transverse Direction
Influence of Inclusions and internal
defects
Practically all the fatigue failures in transverse direction start at

nonmetallic inclusions. Nearly complete elimination of inclusions
by vacuum melting produces a considerable increase in transverse
fatigue limit.
Casting defects

Crack nucleating from casting defect

Gas pores

HOW TO IMPROVE THE
FATIGUE PERFORMANCE?
• Round of the fillets, corners. Remove stress

concentrations if possible
• Improve surface finish. Polish!
• Increase surface hardness
• Remove tensile residual stresses
• Form compressive residual stresses
• Protect material from corrosion
• Improve the microstructure

TOPICS TO THINK ABOUT
1) Why does shot peening improve the fatigue life
of a metal component?
2) Why does carburizing increase the fatigue life of
a steel component?
3) Does pure iron exhibit a fatigue limit?
4) What kind of fatigue (low cycle or high cycle)
should be considered for the ribbed steels in
steel reinforced concrete during an earthquake?
5) What effect will have the decarburization of a
steel component be on the fatigue performance
of it?
CREEP OF MATERIALS
Creep is the time dependent deformation of a material under
constant load at high temperatures
- Elevated service temperature + static mechanical stresses may cause creep

deformation. For metals creep deformation is usually plastic. For polymers,
on the other hand, it may be time dependent elastic deformation which is
known as anelasticity.
- Following the deformation, if the material breaks it is called CREEP RUPTURE
- Creep is undesirable. Even if there is no rupture, too much plastic

deformation beyond a certain limit is accepted to be a FAILURE.
MetE303 Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU 1

At low temperature: NO CREEP
Suppose a material is loaded to a stress below its yield strength at time to and then stress is kept
constant for an extended period of time. Stress is removed at time t1
Stress-Strain
AT LOW TEMPERATURE:
THERE IS NO CHANGE IN STRAIN BY TIME:
σ1 NO CREEP (Creep is absent or
insignificant)
e1
Strain-Time
e1
Stress-Time
σ1
to t1
to t1
At high temperature: CREEP OCCURS
Stress-Strain AT HIGH TEMPERATURE:
THERE MAY BE A CHANGE IN STRAIN:
MATERIAL CREEPS
σ1
Time
dependent
plastic
e1 deformation
e2
Elastic strain
Stress-Time e1 that is
σ1 recovered
e2-e1
Plastic strain
to t1 to t1
Time dependent deformation may
also be elastic
Time dependent elastic deformation which is mostly seen in
polymers is called ANELASTICITY
(Viscoelastic creep)
Immediate elastic
contraction
σ1
Time dependent
elastic strain
recovery
(Elastic Aftereffect)
to t1

CREEP FAILURES
Creep failures are mostly seen in:
• Rocket engines, rocket motor nozzles, ballistic missile

nose cones
• Turbine rotors of jet engines
• Steam generators (steam turbines)
• High pressure steam pipelines
• Nuclear power plants
• Gas turbine engine(800-1000 oC)

STEAM POWER PLANTS and HEAT EXCHANGERS
CREEP RUPTURE
CREEP CRACKS

JET ENGINE TURBINE BLADES and ROCKET
NOZZLES

AT WHICH TEMPERATURE WILL MATERIALS
CREEP?
Generally, creep becomes of engineering significance at

a temperature greater than 40% of melting
temperature in oK.
TAPP (oK) > 0.4TM (oK)
Below this temperature creep may still exist but it is

insignificant..

Different materials will creep at different
temperatures
• Tm of solder(Pb-Sn alloy): 183oC= 456oK
0.4x456= 182 oK= -90 oC
So at room temperature solder will creep!
• Most metals, however, do not suffer from creep at room

temperature, since they have much higher melting points
than solder.
• Tm of iron: 1537oC= 1812oK

0.4x1812= 725oK= 451 oC
So iron will creep above 451 oC !

CREEP TEST and CREEP CURVE
A constant load is applied to a specimen in a furnace at high
temperature until rupture. Strain is recorded against time.
STRESS-Time STRAIN-Time
s
s,e
Strain
0 t
Time

CREEP CURVE
During loading under a constant stress, the strain often varies as a function of
time in the manner shown below:
PRIMARY CREEP Rupture
SECONDARY CREEP
Strain
(Steady State Creep)

TERTIORY
At high T CREEP
έs = dε/dt
εo
εo: Instantenous At low T: Strain is
Strain constant
Time tR
CREEP PROCESS is an interplay between
SOFTENING and HARDENING
SOFTENING HARDENING
SOFTENING is due to RECOVERY HARDENING is due to STRAIN

HARDENING
Time dependent diffusional

processes(such as climb, cross-slip and Plastic deformation causes strain
vacancy diffusion) that are accelerated at hardening
high temperature increases the
dislocation mobility and makes the slip
easier.
Balance between the softening rate and the hardening rate determines the slope of creep
curve (i.e.creep rate)

CHANGE in STRAIN RATE (dϵ/dt) during
CREEP TEST
FIRST STAGE: PRIMARY CREEP
- Work hardening is faster than rate of recovery!
- Thus, creep rate continually decreases.
SECOND STAGE: STEADY STATE CREEP

- The stage of creep that is of the longest duration
- Rates of work hardening and recovery are approximately equal.
- Creep rate is constant: έs (Steady State Creep Rate)
THIRD STAGE: TERTIARY CREEP

- Creep rate increases until rupture due to cracking, necking and dominancy ın
softening rate. Time to rupture is tR.

EFFECT OF STRESS AND TEMPERATURE ON
CREEP CURVE
Keeping the T constant and
increasing the stress OR
keeping the stress constant
and increasing the T gives
similar results. Creep curve
shifts upwards.
As the Stress or Temperature

increases: Creep rate
increases and rupture lifetime
shortens.
So creep rate is the function
of stress and temperature.
έ = f(T, σ) tR α 1/(T, σ)
STEADY STATE CREEP RATE
Dependence of creep rate on Dependence of creep rate on
TEMPERATURE STRESS
• Creep occurs faster at higher • Creep occurs faster at higher

temperatures. stresses.
έs α exp( -Q/RT) έ s α σn
 Qc 
e s  K 2 s exp  
n

 RT 
Stress exponent “n” and activation energy “Q” are material constants and they can be
determined experimentally.

CREEP DESIGN and PRESENTATION OF
ENGINEERING CREEP DATA
• Two design parameters for creep are:
Steady state creep rate, έs

Rupture lifetime, tR
• Two common diagrams for creep design are:
Stress vs Steady State Creep Rate Diagram

Stress vs Rupture lifetime Diagram

Example: TURBINE BLADE OF JET ENGINE
Centrifugal
Force
The blades in jet engines can be exposed to hot gases at up to

about 1400°C. They are also under stress as a result of the high
centrifugal forces.

Example: Determination of έs for TURBINE BLADE OF JET
ENGINE
• Working temperature is 1200°C + Subjected to high centrifugal forces (Max
Centrifugal Stress ≈ 100MPa)
• Turbine blades must withstand this environment without excessive creep, which
would cause them to strike the turbine enclosure. Suppose, the max allowable
elongation is 2 mm for 1000 hours of flight time
2 mm
• For these conditions we can calculate the max allowable creep creep
rate and select the blade material accordingly.
• Initial Blade Length: 20 cm

• Max allowable elongation: 2 mm for 1000 hours
• Max allowable strain ≈ 2/200 = 0.01
• So MAX ALLOWABLE CREEP RATE, έs = 0.01/1000h
(Strain rate = de/dt = Strain / time) έs = 1x10-5 h-1
Choose an alloy having έs < 1x10-5 h-1 for this temperature and stress
PRESENTATION OF ENGINEERING
CREEP DATA
σ vs έs diagram
σ vs tR diagram

STEADY STATE CREEP RATE vs DESIGN STRESS
DIAGRAM
For a given material, design stress and temperature, the creep rate can be
determined and the creep design is made accordingly.
έs = A σn exp( -Q/RT)
Low Carbon Nickel Alloy

RUPTURE LIFETIME VS DESIGN STRESS
DIAGRAM
For a given material, design stress and temperature, rupture lifetime can be
determined and the creep design is made accordingly.
Low Carbon Nickel Alloy

MECHANISM OF CREEP

What may happen at high temperatures?
• Atoms move faster
• Greater mobility of dislocations by the mechanism of climb
• Increased amount of vacancies
• New deformation mechanisms may come into play(such as
g.b. sliding)
• Slip systems may change or additional slip systems are
introduced
• Deformation at grain boundaries
• Metallurgical changes, i.e., phase transformation,
precipitation, oxidation, recrystallization and grain
coarsening.
• Oxidation and penetration of oxides to grain boundaries

TIME is a factor!
Plastic deformation by slip is a diffusion dependent (and
hence time and temperature dependent) process!
Diffusion controlled processes have very significant

effects on high-temperature mechanical properties.
• Therefore, high-temperature strength of a material

must always be considered with respect to a TIME
SCALE.

MECHANISMS OF CREEP
The mechanism of creep depends on temperature
and stress
There are three broad mechanisms by which creep
takes place:
1) Diffusion creep (Diffusive mass transfer)
2) Dislocation creep (Climb assisted glide and
thermally activated glide via cross slip)
3) Grain boundary sliding
The most common mechanism is climb-assisted glide.

Diffusion Creep
• Diffusion creep occurs by transport of material via diffusion (Vacancy

difusion) of atoms within a grain. Driving force is the applied stress. Grains
elongate in the loading direction.
• There are two types of diffusion creep, depending on whether the diffusion
paths are predominantly:
1) through the grain boundaries COBLE CREEP

(favoured at lower temperatures)
2) or through the grains themselves NABARRO-HERRING CREEP

(favoured at higher temperatures)

Diffusion creep
Grains elongate in stress direction as a result of mass transport by atomic difffusion
Coble creep: by diffusion along grain Nabarro-Herring creep: by diffusion
boundaries (Boundary Diffusion) through grains (Lattice Diffusion)
Since this occurs on the scale of the individual grains, diffusion distances are shorter in
fine-grained materials, which thus tend to be more susceptible to creep. COARSE
GRAINED materials, therefore, are more resistant to creep deformation.
http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/creep/mechanisms.php
Dislocation Creep
• Dislocation creep is a mechanism involving motion of
dislocations. This mechanism of creep tends to dominate at high
stresses and relatively low temperatures.
• Dislocations can move by gliding in a slip plane, a process

requiring little thermal activation. But glide will be easier at high
temperatures. Thermally activated glide can occur:
1) via CLIMB and
2) via CROSS-SLIP
• The rate-determining step for their motion is often a climb

process, which requires diffusion and is thus time-dependent and
favored by higher temperatures.

CLIMB of an edge dislocation
The motion of an edge dislocation from its slip plane to an
adjacent parallel slip plane is called CLIMB. Climb allows
dislocations to get around obstacles.
Slip plane 2 glide

 
3 4
glide climb
 
1 2 Slip plane 1
Obstacle
http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/creep/mechanisms.php
Atomistic mechanism of climb is by diffusion



CROSS-SLIP of a screw dislocation
Slip plane 1
b
1 2
3
Change in slip plane of a
screw dislocation
Grain boundary sliding
Grain boundary sliding is promoted by increasing the temperature and/or decreasing

the strain rate.
Grain boundary sliding is more difficult in COARSE GRAINED materials!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1m2YOWHmlp0
Diffusion creep + GB sliding
Diffusional flow elongates grains and lead to grain seperation (b). But this is
accomodated by grain-boundary sliding, which brings grains together (c).

Grain boundary sliding and formation of intergranular
cracks

Deformation mechanism map
The mechanism of creep depends on temperature and stress!!
G is the shear modulus.
The various regions of the

map indicate the dominant
deformation mechanism for the
combination of stress and
temperature.
Dislocation glide involves

dislocations moving along slip
planes.
Dislocation creep involves the

movement of dislocations which
overcome barriers by thermally
assisted mechanisms like diffusion
of vacancies and interstitials.

CREEP RESISTANT MICROSTRUCTURE
Materials for the blades of the rotor of a jet engine
Conventional Columnar Only one
casting grains grain
At high temperatures new deformation mechanisms like grain boundary sliding come to play.
So, coarse grain structure will be better than the fine grain structure for decreasing the creep
rate.
TESTING FOR HIGH TEMPERATURE
BEHAVIOR:
1) High-T Tensile Test (For short-lived components
like missiles nose cones, rocket engines, nozzles)
2) Creep test (For long-lived components: e.g.

steam pipelines to withstand 100,000 hours, 11
years)

TESTING EQUIPMENT
CONSTANT
LOAD
Test is carried out in a

HEATING
heating chamber (Furnace). CHAMBER
HIGH T
Temperature is kept constant
during the test.
EXTENSOMETER
Elongation over gage length
HIGH –T
is measured against time.
Strain-time data is collected

to plot creep diagram.

TYPES OF CREEP TESTS
1. CREEP TEST: Creep test aims to measure the dimensional

changes which occur when a material is subjected to high
temperature. Creep rate is determined at stresses usually well
below those which would result in fracture.
Since the maximum deformation is only a few percent, a sensitive
extensometer is required. ϵ is measured against time..
2. CREEP RUPTURE TEST: A test in which progressive specimen

deformation and the time for rupture are measured. In general,
deformation is much larger than that developed during a creep
test. Both ϵ and tR are measured.

TYPES OF CREEP TESTS
3) STRESS RUPTURE TEST: A test in which time for rupture is
measured, no deformation measurements being made during
the test. Only tR is measured.
4) STRESS RELAXATION TEST: Constant strain is applied and the

stress drop is measured against the time.
Constant load test Constant strain test

STUDY QUESTIONS
• Can ice creep?
• How cold does your freezer need to be to avoid creep in the ice cubes?
• Is a precipitation hardened alloy suitable for a high-T application?
• What are the metallurgical requirements for a metallic material to
exhibit superplasticity?
• What is viscous flow?
WATCH
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hUk2_Y34WRI
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=opPWceW-YKc

303-1. Types of Fracture 2021 Fall-Birleştirildi

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303-1. Types of Fracture 2021 Fall-Birleştirildi

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MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR of a material

is simply the response of it to forces/loads.

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 2

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 4

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 5

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 6

ƬR= σ cos Ø cos λ

l =90° l =45° l =0°

 R  cos 90 cos 0  0  R  cos 45 cos 45   / 2  R  cos 0 cos 90  0

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 9

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 10

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 11

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 12

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 14

Impact specimen Tensile specimen

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 15

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 18

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 19

Since polymer is amorphous, there are no cleavage planes. It is a

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 21

Polymer matrix fractures in a brittle manner. Fiber matrix interface

Since glass is not crystalline, there are no cleavage planes.

Fracture along cleavage

Shattered: Fractured into

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 25

Crack growth direction (cgd) can be determined by the help of crack

• It occurs without warning (unpredictable;

• Produces disastrous consequences

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 30

• INTERGRANULAR: fracture (crack extension)

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 31

Crack growth is through the grains usually along

Shear fracture by dimples, cleavage fracture, fatigue

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 34

Fracture follows grain boundaries if the grain boundaries are weak. .

Intergranular fracture has BRITTLE nature. Low or no gross

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 37

Intergranular crack in a martensitic steel. Fracture path is

A semicrystalline polymer may

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 40

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 41

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 42

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 43

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 44

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 45

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 46

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 47

Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz METE 303-1: Types of Fracture 48

MetE303-2 Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU 1

MetE303-2 Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU 3

MetE303-2 Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU 4

MetE303-2 Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU 5

Silica fibers 24.1 97.1 4

MetE303-2 Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU 6

APPROACH: So energy needed for fracture should be, at least,

For a plastic material like metal:

MetE303-2 Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU 8

Since the area is energy,

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜆 𝑈𝑜 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑

MetE303-2 Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU 10

MetE303-2 Prof. Dr. Rıza Gürbüz, METU 11

But the observed value (𝜎𝐹 ) is much less