Engineering Chemistry (CHEM136)

Module-I
WATER TECHNOLOGY
Introduction-
 Water is one of the most important compound for the existence of all living beings on the
earth.
 Water needed for domestic purpose, agriculture ,power production, industrial purpose etc.
here domestic purpose such as drinking, cooking and washing ,Industrial purpose such as
iron, steel, aluminium Industries, Rubber industry, Petroleum refinery etc.
Graphical presentation of water distribution on Earth-
 Water cover nearly 78% of the earth surface.
 The water distribution on earth surface is uneven. On earth surface only 3% water is fresh
and remaining 97% water resides in the oceans.
 Out of fresh water 69% resides in glaciers, 30% fresh water resides underground and less
than 1% resides in lacks and rivers.
 Only 1% fresh water is usable by humans.

Sources of Water-
There are mainly three sources of water.
Sources of water
Surface water Rain water Underground water
River water,Lake Water, Sea Water Wells, Tube Wells, springs.
Surface water- Water in form of river etc. comes from rainy water which is not absorbed by earth
and by melting snow on the mountains and hence flow on the surface.
Surface water have high turbidity and microbial concentration.
Dissolve oxygen concentration in surface water vary depending on organic matter concentration.
Underground water- When rain water absorbed by earth surface inside the soil and goes down
through it is prevented by an impervious rocks, after that it moves up and appear in form of well
water or spring water.
Underground water have lower dissolve oxygen as compared to surface water
Underground water have lower microbial contamination.
Rain water- Rain water formed by the evaporation of sea, river water in presence of sun and form
cloud and then comes down in form of rain. Rain water is purest form of natural water.

Standard specification of drinking water-

 The water which is fit for drink is called drinking water or potable water.
 Drinking water requires the high standard of purity whereas water of lower quality is
acceptable for other purpose like industry, agriculture etc.
 Drinking water should have following essential qualities-
It should be good in taste.
It should be clear, colourless and odourless.
It should be free from impurities and harmful gases.
Its turbidity should be less than 10ppm.
Its pH should be range 7.0 -8.0.
It should be free from disease causing bacteria etc.
 The various agencies specify the norms of water quality standards
a) Indian standards institution (ISI)
b) World health organization (WHO)
c) Indian council of medical research (ICMR)
 Chemical standards are set by ICMR and ISI-
S.No. Parameters ICMR ISI
1. Total dissolved 500 500
soilds ppm
2. Total hardness 300 300
ppm
3. pH 7.0-8.5 6.5-8.5
4. Chlorides (ppm) 200 250
5. Iron (ppm) 0.1 0.3
6. Arsenic (ppm) 0.05 0.05
7. Dissolved oxygen 5-6 5-6
(ppm)
8. Fluoride (ppm) 1 0.6-1.2
9 Chlorine (ppm) 0.1-0.2 0.1-0.2
10. Lead (ppm) 0.05 0.1

Classification of soft and hard water based on soap test-

Hard Water- Water which does not produce lather with soap solution due to presence of Calcium
and magnesium salts in it.

Hardness of water can be detected in two ways –

a ) When the water is treated with soap solution it prevent lathering and form white ppt.
b) Water containing hardness gives wine red colour with Erichrome Black-T indicator
(EDTA Process).
Soft Water-
The water which produce lather with the reaction of soap easily is called soft water.
Soft water does not contain dissolved salts of calcium and magnesium.

C17H35COONa + H2O → C17H35COOH +NaOH

Soap ( Sodium Stearate) Stearic Acid

C17H35COONa + C17H35COOH → Lather.

Salts causing water hardness-

 Water which contain dissolved salts of calcium and magnesium ions in it causes hardness
of water.
 Hardness of water is of two types and depending upon the types of dissolved salts present
in water.
i) Temporary Hardness
ii) Permanent Hardness
Temporary Hardness – The temporary hardness is due to the presence salts of carbonates and
bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium ions in it.
For ex- CaCO3, MgCO3, Ca(HCO3)2 , Mg(HCO3)2.

It can be removed by boiling process and by adding lime to the water

Ca(HCO3)2 → CaCO3 + H2O +CO2
Heat
Calcium and magnesium ions are removed from the water and form precipitate of calcium
carbonate at the bottom of the tank.
Mg(HCO3)2 + 2Ca(OH)2 → Mg (OH)2 + 2CaCO3 + H2O
Lime Magnesium Hydroxide
Permanent Hardness- The permanent hardness is due to the presence of chloride and sulphates
salts of calcium and magnesium ions in it.
For ex- CaCl2, MgCl2 , CaSO4 , MgSO4.
It cannot be removed by boiling the water, it can be removed by lime soda process, zeolite
process or by ion-exchange process.

Unit of Hardness-
Hardness of water can be expressed in following units-
i) Parts per million (ppm)-
1ppm hardness =1 part of CaCO3 equivalent hardness in 106 parts of water.
ii) Clark’s Degree of hardness (°Cl )-
Hardness present per 70,000 parts of water.
iii) Milligrams per litre (mg/L)-
It is the number of milligrams of hardness causing substance in terms of CaCO3
equivalents present per litre of water.
1mg/L=1ppm.

Quantitative measurement of water hardness by ETDA method-

The hardness of water can be estimated by EDTA method.
There are two types of hardness present in water temporary and permanent hardness.
EDTA Method-(Ethylene di-amine tetra Acetic Acid)

Principle-
EDTA is not soluble in water its disodium salts is used as complexing agent.
The hardness can be estimated by titrating the water sample against EDTA by using indicator
EBT (Erichrome-Black-T indicator) at pH 8-10. To maintain the pH buffer solution is used.
EDTA Process-
When EBT is added to hard water it forms wine-red coloured complex.
Ca+2 or Mg+2 + EBT → [Ca-EBT] or [Mg-EBT]
Unstable complex (Wine red colour)
When the solution is titrated against EDTA solution EDTA combines with Ca+2 or Mg+2 the
weak complex and forming a stable Ca+2 or Mg+2 EDTA complex.
The colour of the free indicator is steel blue colour .Thus at the end point is change the colour
from wine to steel blue.
[Ca-EBT] or [Mg-EBT] + EDTA → [Ca-EDTA] or [Mg-EDTA] +EBT
Unstable complex (Wine red colour) Stable Complex Steel Blue colour

 This method includes a series of titrations to determine total, permanent, temporary

hardness.
 Standardisation of EDTA-
In this process 50ml of standard hard water is taken in a conical flask then we add 10ml of
buffer solution and add 4-5 drops of EBT indicator and titrate it against EDTA solution at
the end point wine colour change into steel blue colour. Let the volume of EDTA
consumed be V1ml.
 Determination of total hardness of water-
In this process we take 50 ml of hard water sample into a conical flask and titrate it against
with EDTA by adding buffer solution and EBT indicator in sample water. Let the volume
of EDTA solution consumed be V2 ml.
Total Hardness = V2 /V1 x 1000 mg/L or ppm.
 Determination of permanent hardness of water sample-
 In this process we take 250ml of water in a flask and boil it till the volume reduce to half.
On boiling the temporary hardness will be removed, than we cool this water and filtered it
and made up to 250ml with distilled water, than titrate it against EDTA as before.
Permanent hardness = V3/V1 x 1000 ppm.
 Temporary Hardness = Total hardness – permanent Hardness.
Temporary Hardness =1000/V1 (V2 - V3) ppm.

Numerical-
Atomic MASS-
Ca=40 Mg=24 Cl=35.5 Na=23 O=16 H=1 S=32 C=12
Que. A water sample contain 204 mgs of CaSO4 and 73mg of Mg(HCO3)2 per lit. What is the
total hardness in terms of CaCO3 equivalent?
Ans.-
Name of the Amount in mg/L Molecular Weight Amount equivalent
hardness producing ( w) (M) to CaCO3
salt- (W x 100)/M
CaSO4 204 136 204x100/136
=150mg/L
Mg(HCO3)2 73 146 73x100/146 = 50
mg/L

Temporary Hardness = Mg(HCO3)2 =50mg/L

Permanent Hardness = CaSO4 = 150mg/L
Total Hardness = Temporary Hardness + Permanent Hardness
50 + 150 =200mg/L
Que. 2 Calculate the hardness in terms of CaCO3 equivalent if water sample contains 250mg of
MgCl2 mg/L.
Ans- MgCl2present in water (w)= 250mg
Molecular Mass of MgCl2 = 24+35.5+35.5 = 95
Amount in terms of CaCO3 equivalent = 250 x100/95 =263.15 mg CaCO3 equivalent.
Hence hardness of water is 263.15mg/L.

Que. Calculate the temporary and permanent hardness of a sample of water containing the
dissolved salts as given below in mg/L.
Mg(HCO3)2 =7.3 , Ca(HCO3)2 = 40.5 , CaSO4 =13.6, MgCl2 =21.75 and NaCl=50 mg/L.
Ans-
S.No Name of Amount in Molecular Amount
hardness mg/L (W) Weight (M) equivalent
 toCaCO3
1 Mg(HCO3)2. 7.3 146 7.3 x100/146
=5mg/L
2 Ca(HCO3)2 40.5 162 40.5 x100/162
=25mg/L
3 CaSO4 13.6 136 13.6 X100/136
=10mg/L
4 MgCl2 21.75 95 21.75 x 100/95
=22.9mg/L
5 NaCl 50 Nacl does not
contribute any
hardness of
water.
Temporary Hardness =Mg(HCO3)2. +Ca(HCO3)2
5+25=30mg/L
Permanent Hardness= CaSO4 +MgCl2
10+22.9 =32.9mg/L
Total Hardness= Temporary Hardness + Permanent Hardness
30 + 32.9 =62.9mg/L

Cause of poor lathering of soap in hard water-

 Hard water is not produce lather when it react with soap due to high concentration of
calcium and magnesium ions in it.
 Hardness of water is due to presence of following salts in water-
Bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium ions in it Ca(HCO3)2 , Mg(HCO3)2.
Carbonates of calcium and magnesium ions in it CaCO3, MgCO3.
Chlorides of calcium and magnesium ions in it CaCl2, MgCl2.
Sulphates of calcium and magnesium ions in it CaSO4 , MgSO4.
 These salts dissolve in water when it passes through the ground water.
 When soap is added to hard water the anions of fatty acids of soap combine with Ca+2 and
Mg+2 ions and precipitated.
2C17H35COONa + MgCl2→ (C17H35COO)2Mg +2NaCl

Soap Magnesium Chloride Precipitate

Alkalinity of water-
The ability of water to neutralize acids is called alkalinity.
Alkalinity of water is due to the presence of carbonates bicarbonates and hydroxides of sodium,
potassium, calcium and magnesium.
Example of naturally occurring alkalinity in water when small amount of strong acid inform of
acid rain get added to natural water, the water resist change in pH . During this reaction acids
convert carbonate to bicarbonate and bicarbonates to carbon dioxide due to this reactions water pH
is changed.
Depending on the basis of anion alkalinity can be classified as-
i)Caustic alkalinity is due to OH- and CO32-
ii) Bicarbonate alkalinity is due to H CO3
The alkalinity of water can be present due to the following ions-
 Hydroxide only
 Carbonates only
 Bicarbonates only
 Hydroxides and carbonates
 Carbonates and Bicarbonates

Alkalinity of water is due to the presence of Hydroxide ions (OH-), Carbonates ions (CO32-)
and Bicarbonates ions (HCO3-) there are five alkalinity conditions are possible in a water
sample. These conditions can be estimated by titrating with standard acid using
phenolphthalein (P) and methyl orange (M) indicators
ALKALINITY CONDITIONS:-
Volume of HCl used for Phenolphthalein [P] and Methyl Orange [M]
S. No. Alkalinity OH- CO32- HCO3-
1 P =0 Nil Nil M
2 P= M P or M Nil Nil
3 P= ½ M Nil P or M Nil
4 P>½M 2P - M 2(M – P) Nil
5 P<½M Nil 2P M - 2P
If, P = O; only bicarbonate ion is present
P = M; only hydroxide ion is present
P = 1/ 2M; only carbonate ion is present.
P < 1/ 2M; Carbonate and bicarbonate ions are present.
P > 1/ 2M; hydroxide & carbonate ions are present.
Calculations:-
For Carbonates ions (CO32-)
Volume of water sample taken =… ml.
Volume of N/50 HCl used for phenolphthalein end point P = ---- ml.
Volume of N/50 HCl used for methyl orange end point M = ---- ml.
N1V1 = N2V2 N1 = N2 x 2P / V1
Strength of Carbonates ions (CO32-) S = N1 x 30 x 1000 ppm For Bicarbonates ions (HCO3-)
Volume of water sample taken =… ml.
Volume of N/50 HCl used for phenolphthalein endpoint P = ---- ml.
Volume of N/50 HCl used for methyl orange endpoint M = ---- ml.
N1V1 = N2V2
N1 = N2 x M -2P / V1
Strength of Bicarbonates ions (HCO3-) S = N1 x 61 x 1000 ppm
Problems caused by the use of hard water in boiler(Boiler Trouble)
 Boiler are used for steam generation.
 In this process water is feed to industrial boiler and steam is produced this process is
called boiler feed water.
 If we use hard water in boiler that may causes damage to boiler system.
 Boiler trouble are classified into following catagories.
i) Sludge and Scale
ii) Priming and foaming
iii) Boiler Corrosion.
iv) Caustic Embrittlement.
Sludge and scale formation in boiler-
 In boiler water is continuously evaporated to produce steam by this the concentration of
dissolved slats in water increases.
 When the concentration of the salt reach their saturation point they start precipitating .The
precipitate are thrown by the inner walls of the boiler.
 If the precipitate are soft loose and slimy it is called sludge and if the precipitate are hard
and sticky it is called scale.
Causes of Sludge formation-
 Sludge is soft loose and slimy precipitate formed within the boiler. Sludge are formed by
substance which have grater solubility’s in hot water like MgCl2, MgCO3, MgSO4, etc.
They can be easily scrapped off with a brush.
Causes of Scales formation-
 Scales are hard and sticking to the inner surface of the boiler.They are difficult to remove
even with the help of hammer and they are main source of boiler trouble. Scale are formed
due to decomposition of calcium bicarbonate into carbonates.
 Decomposition of bicarbonates-
When water containing bicarbonates is heated in the boiler the bicarbonates are converted
into soluble carbonates.
Ca(HCO3)2 → CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O
Hydrolysis of Mg salts-
Magnesium salts undergo hydrolysis forming precipitates of Mg(HO)2
MgCl2 2H2O → Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl
 Calcium sulphate is soluble in cold water but the solubility decreases with rise in
temperature therefore CaSO4 gets precipitated as hard scale.


Disadvantage of sludge and scale formation in boiler-

 Sludge and scale formation disturbed the working of boiler it settles in the region such as
pipe connection, plug opening, and condenser of the boiler thereby causing even chocking
of pipes.
 sludge and scale have poor thermal conductivity so the rate of heat transfer from boiler to
inside water is reduced therefor to supply heat to water overheating is done this causes
more fuel consumption.
Prevention of sludge formation-
 Sludge formation can be prevented by using soft water for boiler feed purposes.
 Drawing off a portion of concentrated water.
 Sludge can be removed by using wire brush and mild acid.
Prevention of scale formation-
 By internal conditioning of internal treatment method. (Phosphate conditioning, calgon
conditioning, carbonate conditioning.

i) Priming and Foaming-

Priming-
 When the steam is produced rapidly in the boiler some water droplet of water are carried
out along with steam this wet steam formation process is called priming.
 Priming is caused due to presence of dissolved solids.
 High velocities of steam carry droplet of water into the steam pipe.
 Or it is caused due to faulty design of boiler.
Prevention-
By controlling rapid change in steaming velocities
By the proper design of boiler
By using soft water
By blowing off sludge or scales from time to time.
Foaming-
 Foaming process is the formation of small bubbles at the water surface in the boiler which
do not break easily.
 Foaming caused due to presence of oil and alkalis in boiler feed water
Prevention-
By addition of antifoaming agent ex-castor oil.
By removal of oil form boiler water.
ii) Boiler Corrosion-
 Boiler corrosion is decay or distortion of boiler material due to chemical or
electrochemical reaction with its environment.
 Disadvantage of boiler corrosion is shortening of boiler life, leakage from the joints,
rivets etc.
Causes of Boiler Corrosion -
 The main causes of boiler corrosion is dissolved oxygen .As the water is heated the
dissolved oxygen is set free and the boiler starts corroding. Dissolved oxygen is react with
the iron in presence of water and at high temperature and form rust(Ferric Oxide).
Prevention-
Boiler corrosion is prevented by using acid as boiler water is alkaline in nature hence to
neutralize this we added acid.
IV) Caustic Embrittlement-
 Caustic embrittlement is the phenomenon during which the boiler material become brittle due
to the accumulation of caustic substance.
During softening by lime soda process residual Na2CO3 is still present in the softened water.
In high pressure boiler sodium carbonate decompose to give sodium hydroxide and carbon
dioxide. Sodium hydroxide makes boiler water caustic.
Causes-
Caustic embrittlement is due to setting of a concentration cell, Where iron is act as a anode
and NaOH acting as the cathode. The iron get dissolved or corrode.
Prevention-
By adding tannin to boiler water which blocks the hair cracks in the boiler walls.
By adding sodium sulphate to boiler water.
Internal Treatment-
The addition of certain chemicals directly to the water to remove the scale forming salts, either by
precipitation or by converting these salts into soluble complexes is called internal treatment.
The methods used for internal treatment of water are as follow-
I) Carbonate conditioning
II) Phosphate conditioning
III) Colloidal conditioning
IV) Calgon conditioning
i) Carbonate Conditioning-
Scale formation can be prevented in boilers by sodium carbonate in boiler water. Scale
foaming salt like calcium is converted into calcium carbonate which can be removed easily.
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 → CaCO3 + Na2SO4
ii)Phosphate Conditioning-
In boiler scale formation can be avoided by adding sodium phosphate.
The phosphate react with calcium and magnesium salts and forming soft sludge of calcium and
magnesium phosphate.
3CaSO4 + Na3PO4 → Ca3(PO4)2 + 3Na2SO4
iii)Collodial conditioning-
Scale formation can be removed by introducing colloidal substance like tanning,kerosene,etc to
the boiler water. These substance act as protective coating over the scale forming particles.
iv)Calgon conditioning-
In this process we add calgon or sodium hexametaphosphate to the boiler water. These chemicals
interact with the calcium ions and forming a highly soluble complex and prevent the precipitation
of scale forming salts.

Water softening techniques-

The process by which we remove the hardness of water or removal of temporary and permanent
hardness is termed as softening of water. Water softening process can done by three processes-
Water Softening
Lime-Soda process Zeolite process Ion –Exchange process
1) Lime-Soda process- In lime-soda process we add calculated amount of lime Ca(OH)2 and
soda Na2CO3. Lime remove temporary hardness permanent hardness, dissolved iron,
aluminium salts and other gases. The precipitate of CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2 are formed that
can be removed by filtration.
 Removal of temporary hardness-
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 → 2CaCO3 + 2H2O
 Removal of permanent hardness-
MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCl2 + Mg(OH)2
Magnesium chloride Lime Calcium Chloride Magnesium Hydroxide.
 Removal of dissolved CO2 gases-
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 +H2O
 Removal of dissolved iron and aluminium-
FeSO4 + Ca(OH)2 → Fe(OH)2 + CaSO4

Lime-Soda process are quit slow .

Lime-Soda process are of two types.
i) Cold Lime-soda process
ii) Hot Lime-soda process
i) Cold Lime-soda process-

 In this process we take calculated amount of lime and soda and mixed this chemical in
water at room temperature.
 In this process hard water, calculated amount of lime, soda and coagulant are fed into the
inner chamber fitted with rotating paddles.
 When the waterand chemical mixture flow down in inner chamber and mixed by stirrer so
that the finely divided precipitates get entraps in coagulant and and settle down at the
bottom and soft water rises upward through the outer chamber. The softened water is
passed through the wood fibre filter.
 We add small amount of coagulant like sodium aluminate or aluminium sulphate
(Al2SO4)3. These coagulant get hydrolysed and form gelatinous precipitate of aluminium
hydroxide which entraps the fine particles and settle down.
 ii) Hot Lime-Soda process-

 In this process we maintained the temperature at 80-150 °C, due to the high
temperature we don’t need to add any coagulant. In this process
We used sand filter for filtration.
 In this process hard water,lime and soda are fed into the reaction tank than we
passed the steam through the inlet steamer and the temperature of water rises
reactions takes place in the tank and water get softened.
 After this the softened water enter the conical sedimentation where sludge
settle down and water rise up into the vessel and transferred to the sand
filtered. It remove the sludge particles completely and form soft water.

2. Zeolite process-
• Zeolite is hydrated sodium alumino silicate.
• Zeolite is capable of exchanging reversibly its ions
• sodium ions for hardness-producing ions (Ca+2 or Mg+2 )in water.
• Chemical Structure :
• Na2O.Al2O3.xSiO2.yH2O,where X=2-10 and Y=2-6.
• Principle- Zeolite is micro-porous mineral which is used as catalyst in many industrial
purposes such as water purification and air purification.
• The hardness causing ions(Ca2+,Mg2+,etc.) are retained by the zeolite as CaZ and
MgZ ; while the outgoing water contains sodium salts.
Process-
 In this process zeolite is fixed in a cylinder and when we passes hard water through the
zeolite bed it exchange its sodium ions with calcium and magnesium ions present in hard
water and form calcium and magnesium zeolite (CaZ and MgZ).
 Na2Z + Ca(HCO3)2→ CaZ + 2NaHCO3
Zeolite Calcium Bicarbonate Calcium Zeolite

Na2Z+ Mg(HCO3)2→MgZ + 2NaHCO3

Zeolite Magnesium bicarbonate Magnesium Zeolite

Na2Z + CaCl2→ CaZ + 2NaCl

Calcium Chloride Calcium Zeolite

Na2Z + MgSO4 →MgZ +Na2SO4

Magnesium Sulphide Magnesium Zeolite

Regeneration Process-
The regeneration process is carried out by washing the bed with concentrated solution of
sodium chloride. After regeneration process the zeolite bed is used again for water
softening purpose.

CaZ +2NaCl → Na2Z + CaCl2

Calcium ZeoliteZeolite
MgZ + 2NaCl → Na2Z + Mg Cl2
Magnesium Zeolite
Ion-Exchange Process-
  The process in which dissolved ions both cation and anion present in water like Ca+2,
Mg+2,Cl-, SO4-2 etc. are separated by the help of resins known as Ion-Exchange process or
demineralization process.
 Resins is a synthetic organic ion-exchange material that has high ion exchange capacity.
 Resins are of two types-
i) Cation exchange resins (RH+)
ii) Anion exchange resins (ROH-)
Process-
 In ion-exchange process there are two exchange columns, one is cation exchanger and
another is anion exchange.
 The hard water first passed through the cation exchanger column which absorb all cation
present in hard water
R−H2 + MgCl2 → R−Mg+2HCl
Cation resins Inactive Resins
R−H2 + CaCl2 → R−Ca+2HCl
Calcium chloride
 After this the cation free water is passed through the anion-exchanger column which
absorbs all the anion present in hard water.
R−(OH)2 + H2SO4→ R−SO4 +2H2O
Anion Resins Sulphuric Acid
R−(OH)2 +2HCl→ R−Cl2 +2H2O
Hydrochloric Acid
 The H+ ions present are released by cation exchanger and OH- ions are released by anion
exchanger column combined with each other and formed water molecule.
Regeneration process-
• After this the regeneration process is start-
• Cation exchange resins are regenerated by treatment with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid,
then washing with water.
Anion exchange resins are regenerated by treatment with sodium hydroxide (NaOH), then
washing with water.
RCa +2HCl →RH2 +CaCl2
Exhaust resin Active resin Impurity
RSO4 +2NaOH →R(OH)2 +Na2SO4

Water treatment (Purification of water)-

Actual treatment method depend upon the nature of impurities present in rawwater.
Purification of water for potable water use involve the following steps-
i) Screening-
By this process we remove the floating materials like leaves, wood pieces
etc. form water. Water is passed through screens having holes where floating
materials are removed.
ii) Sedimentation-
By the sedimentation process we remove the suspended impurities by
allowed to water stand in a 5 meter deep tank for 2-6hr. suspended
particles settle down at the bottom of the tank due to force of gravity.
iii) Coagulation-
By this process we removed the finely divided particles like silica, clay etc.
Such particles cannot be removed by sedimentation process such impurities
are removed by coagulation process.
 In this process for removing of fine particles we add coagulated amountof
chemicals called coagulants like alum (Al(SO4)3), ferrous sulphate
(FeSO4) etc.
When the alum is added to water it gets hydrolysed and form a gelatinous
precipitate of Al(OH)3. These precipitate entraps the finely divided and
colloidal impurities and settle to the bottom and can be removed easily.

iv) Filtration-
After sedimentation some matter and bacteria are left in water, so filtration
process is required for completely remove all suspended matter.By filtration a
clear and sparkling water is obtained.
In filtration filtering medium consist of three different layers of sand. Top
layer consist of fine sand, then course sand and gravels at the bottomof the
tank. In this process water is passed through the filtering medium (bed of
layers) by this the colloidal and few bacterial impurities are removed due to
the pores of sand bed.
After this cleaned the sand bed by scrapping.
v) Disinfection process-
By coagulation, filtration all suspended and some amount of bacterialimpurities
are removed.
Disinfection involve destruction of disease producing micro-organism to
make water safe for use.
Disinfection can be carries out by following methods-
Boiling Method- When water is boiled it become free from disease producing
bacteria. But it is costly and it is impossible to employ for municipal supply.
Chlorine or Bleaching powder method- Chlorine is a powerful germicide. The
process of adding chlorine to water is called chlorination. For the chlorination
process weuse chlorination apparatus.
Chlorine may be added in the form of bleaching powder of directly as a gas or in the
form of concentrated solution in water.
When bleaching powder is added to water, it produce Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) which
act as powerful germicide. produce Hypochlorous acid react with bacteria and inactivate
the enzymes.
CaOCl2 + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + Cl2
Bleaching powder
Cl2 + H2O → HCl + HOCl
Hypochlorous Acid
HOCl → HCl + [O]
HOCl → Kills the germs.
By Chlorination process- Chlorine is a powerful germicide. The process of
adding chlorine to water is called chlorination. For the chlorination process we
use chlorination apparatus.

Water for human consumption-

Water for human consumption is needed for domestic, Agriculture, industrial
purpose etc.
Domestic purpose such as drinking, cooking and washing.