HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

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- The first ground communication road were simple paths
Trails created by animal species displacement (ants, mammals, etc.).
- Built up of travois by human between 3000 or 3100 years Before Christ.

- 3500 or 3000 years BC : Wheel invention

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- 2000 years BC .: Pharaohs laid out in Egypt a road between the valley of the Nile and
the Red Sea.
Battle tanks and wagons drawn by men, donkeys and buffaloes.

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- 500 years BC : Roman Empires and Persians developed roads to connect the
conquered provinces.
- large stone covered by smaller ones
- 80,500 km of paved roads.

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- 1400: Road network of the Incas in Peru.

A millennial royal road, the Paths of the Incastoday

link Peru, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Argentina and
Bolivia in of roads sometimes culminating at more
than 5000 meters above sea level.

- 1660 : First diligence.

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- 1806 to 1837: Construction of the first National Pike in the United States.

Graveling of a road in 1823.

- 1830 to 1869: Cessation of road construction in the United States for the
benefit of the railroad.

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1896: Henry Ford started of mass production of automobiles

Major problem:
Car tires suck up fine particles that stabilize
the stones.

Solution:
The roads had been paved with bitumen.

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- 1914: First traffic light in Clevland.
first traffic light for trains in London in 1868

- 1909: birth of the concept of the motorway in Germany

In 1909, the company "automobile traffic and road training")
began the studies of a fast automobile road of 10km long with
two separate lanes, which will be built in a sand heath in a
suburb west of Berlin. Its entry into service took place on
September 25, 1921. (close circuit = F1 ancestor)

- 1924: but the First highway construction in Italy (77Km).

Between Milan and Varese

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 CLO – 1
IDENTIFY AND DESCRIBE CONTROLS AND CRITERIA
WHICH AFFECT HIGHWAY DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

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Plan
1. INTRODUCTION
2. TRAFFIC ELEMENTS
3. DESIGN CRITERIA

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 Because vehicle numbers, sizes and speeds
are increasing every year, highway engineers
need to carefully examine all the factors that could
affect performance of the traffic over the
1.INTRODUCTION
design life of the highway.

The factors that need to be examined by the highway engineer before

he can start designing the roadway can be divided into two general areas:

and

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Plan
1. INTRODUCTION
2. TRAFFIC ELEMENTS
3. DESIGN CRITERIA

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2. TRAFFIC ELEMENTS :

The number of vehicles that use a highway over its design life has a
major impact on the standards that will be applied to its design, much
in the same way as the loads which are carried by a beam or column
affect its design.

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2. TRAFFIC ELEMENTS :

Not only does the highway designer have to determine what the current
traffic volume is, but he also has the added responsibility of having to
predict its growth over the design life of the road.

He also needs to take into consideration what different types of vehicles

are likely to use the road i.e. the split between passenger and commercial
vehicles etc.,

as well as the directional split of traffic in opposite directions during the

peak periods of traffic flow.

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2. TRAFFIC ELEMENTS : that should be considered

Design period : New roadway facilities designed in the U.A.E are

based on estimated traffic 20 years after construction

Traffic volume : the number of vehicles that pass a given point along
a roadway/traffic lane per unit time (vehicle/hour)

Traffic forecasting : from information on current traffic we

estimate future traffic volumes

Directional distribution : the one-way volume in the predominant

direction of travel

Traffic composition : percentage of trucks present in the traffic

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2. TRAFFIC ELEMENTS :

2.1 Design period : New roadway facilities designed in the U.A.Eare

based on estimated traffic 20 years after construction

Safety, resurfacing, restoration and operational improvement projects

are current traffic volumes increased by growth factors that take into
account the remaining life span of the road.

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2. TRAFFIC ELEMENTS :

2. Traffic volume :
Information on traffic volumes, traffic composition and traffic
loading are important factors used to select the appropriate design
standards for a road.
Traffic volumes are needed for the following design criteria:
- Selection of road class
- Geometric design elements
- Pavement design standards
- Roadway maintenance

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2. 2 TRAFFIC VOLUME :

How to measure the traffic

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 The unit measure of the traffic flow volume is
usually expressed as "vehicles per hour"
Two VOLUME
2. 2 TRAFFIC measures
: of traffic volume of
important to the highway engineer :

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2. 2 TRAFFIC VOLUME :

2.2.1 Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) and average Daily Traffic (ADT)

AADT is defined as the number of vehicles that pass a particular point on a

roadway during a period of 24 consecutive hours averaged over a period of
365 days (one year).

It is not always possible (feasible) to make continuous traffic count on

365 days a year, especially in the case of highly trafficked roads.

AADT is therefore only used as a design control for low volume roads.

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2. 2 TRAFFIC VOLUME :

31 Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT, 2019, Vancouver, Canada)

2. 2 TRAFFIC VOLUME :

2.2.1 Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) and average Daily Traffic (ADT)

In the case of route that have high seasonal and daily variations in traffic
volumes, the design control is the Average Daily Traffic (ADT).
This is the measure of the number of vehicles that pass a particular point
on a roadway averaged over the number of days during which measurement
was taken.- high volume variation

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2. 2 TRAFFIC VOLUME :

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2. 2 TRAFFIC VOLUME :

2.2.2 Design Hourly Volume (DHV)

For design purposes it is necessary to express traffic volume in terms of a
shorter period than a day, and in nearly all cases the period of one hour is
used. This is where the term "Design Hourly Volume" comes from and it is
the traffic volume expected to use the facility.

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2. 2 TRAFFIC VOLUME :

2.2.2 Design Hourly Volume (DHV)

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2. 2 TRAFFIC VOLUME :
The difference between "volume" and "rate of flow" is illustrated by an
example in the table below. Suppose the following traffic counts were
made during a study period of 1 hour:

The total volume is the sum of these counts over the full hour =4000 vehicle/hr.
The rate of flow varies however for each 15 minute period 
During the peak it is 4400 vehicle/hr
Note that 4,400 vehicles did not actually pass the observation during the study,
but they did pass ”at that rate” for one 15-minute period.

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2. 2 TRAFFIC VOLUME :

For design purposes it is important to check design capacities against the peak rate
of flow. Suppose roadway section given above can handle a maximum rate of only
4,200 vehicles/hr. In other words its capacity is 4,200 vehicles per hour.

Since the peak rate of flow is 4,400 vehicles/hr, an extended breakdown in the
flow would likely occur even though the volume averaged over the full hour is less
than the capacity i.e. 4,000 vehicles/hr.

It is not economical to design a roadway to be congestion-free every hour

throughout the year.
As a rule it is therefore considered acceptable to design roads to carry Design
Hourly volume (DHV).

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2. 2 TRAFFIC VOLUME :
Design Hourly Volume (DHV) is therefore expressed as :

ADT :AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC

AADT : ANNUAL AVERAGE DAILY
TRAFFIC

The factor K can vary for different types of traffic (table below) :

The highest ratios refer to

roads high concentration of
traffic during rush hours

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2.3 TRAFFIC FORECASTING :
For improved or new highways, it is necessary to have information on current
traffic and estimates of future traffic volumes (in UAE – 20 years after
completion of a new roadway).

2.3.1 Current Traffic

Is the number of vehicles that would use a new or improved roadway if it were
opened at the time that initial traffic volume measurements were taken.
It is sufficient to base current traffic volumes on the existing highway
volumes (in the case of an improvement), and the traffic that may be diverted
from parallel from other highways because of the improvements.
This information can be determined by :

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2.3 TRAFFIC FORECASTING :

2.3.2 Future traffic is made up of three components :

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2.3 TRAFFIC FORECASTING :

TRAFFIC DUE TO THE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT CLOSE TO

THE NEW ROAD

TRAFFIC DUE TO THE ATTRACTIVENESS OF THE NEW ROAD

TRAFFIC DUE TO THE INCREASE IN THE POPULATION

TRAFFIC COUNTED ON ROADWAYS (actual)

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2.4 Directional Distribution (D) :

The directional distribution of traffic on a road is very important.

Take a dual carriageway road designed to carry 4000 vehicles/hr.
For a 50/50 split in distribution two lanes may be sufficient,
however if the directional split was 70/30, three lanes would be
required to provide an equivalent level of service.

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2.4 Directional Distribution (D) :

Directional distribution can only be determined by field measurements.

For rural roads Directional Distribution ”D” ranges from 55 to 80 percent and is
typically 67%.

Traffic distribution by direction during peak hours is generally consistent from

year to year and from day to day except for highways serving recreational areas
(mall, parc, beach).
Actual field measurements are recommended on multilane facilities for the
determination of the directional distribution.

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2.4 Directional Distribution (D) :

EXAMPLE :
A rural highway has a 20 years forecast of Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)
of 30000 vehicle per day.
What range of Directional Design Hour Volume (DDHV) might be expected ?

Traffic volume factor (K) & Directional Distribution (D) general ranges

DDHV low = 30000 x 0.15 x 0.65 = 2925 vehicle/hour

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2.4 Directional Distribution (D) :

EXAMPLE :
A rural highway has a 20 years forecast of Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)
of 30000 vehicle per day.
What range of Directional Design Hour Volume (DDHV) might be expected ?

Traffic volume factor (K) & Directional Distribution (D) general ranges

DDHV high = 30000 x 0.25 x 0.8 = 6000 vehicle/hour

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2.5 TRAFFIC COMPOSITION :

• There are many different types of vehicles that use highways across the
world ranging from motorcycles, passenger cars, minibuses, buses, trucks
etc.

• Vehicles of different sizes have different operating characteristics.

Besides being heavier, thus exerting greater loads on the roadway
pavement, trucks and busses are slower and consequently impose a greater
traffic effect on the road than passenger cars.

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2.5 TRAFFIC COMPOSITION :

The percentage typically varies between 5% to 10%.

In urban areas, the percentage of trucks travelling within the overall flow of traffic
during peak hours tends to be considerably less than percentages on a daily basis.

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2.6 DESIGN DESIGNATION :

All the traffic elements mentioned above (Design period, traffic volume, Traffic
forecasting, Directional distribution, Traffic composition) are tabulated for the
highway design engineer and referred to as the "Design designation"

AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC

FORECAST
DESIGN HOURLY VOLUME
DIRECTIONAL DISTRIBUTION
TRUCKS
VELOCITY
EXAMPLE OF SUCH DESIGNATION

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Plan
1. INTRODUCTION
2. TRAFFIC ELEMENTS
3. DESIGN CRITERIA

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3. DESIGN CRITERIA :

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3. 1 ROAD CLASSIFICATIONS :
Roadways are divided into different classes that govern the standards that
are applied to the design of the road.
The roadway classification system is based on a hierarchy of roads.

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3. 1 ROAD CLASSIFICATIONS :

• Roadways are divided into different classes that govern the standards
that are applied to the design of the road.
• The roadway classification system is based on a hierarchy of roads.

• Local roads : provide access to adjacentland

• Collectors : provide a combination of land access as well as the movement of
through traffic

• Arterials and Expressways : provide for the movement of through traffic

• Freeways : provide unrestricted, fast moving traffic within major
urban centers or between different centers

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3. 2 DESIGN CAPACITY :
The capacity of a roadway is its ability to carry traffic, at maximum, under given
circumstances and during a given time period under prevailing roadway, traffic, and
control conditions.

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3. 2 DESIGN CAPACITY :
Factors affecting design capacity :

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3. 3 LEVEL OF SERVICE (LOS) :

Levels of service are the different operating conditions that occur on a lane or
roadway when occupied by different volumes of traffic.
It is a measure of the effect of traffic flow factors, such as speed and travel
time, interruptions, freedom to maneuver, driver comfort and convenience, and
indirectly safety and operating costs.

As the level of service decreases, so will the average speed.

The drivers will experience more delays, and platooning becomes intense
with little chance for overtaking.

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3. 3 LEVEL OF SERVICE (LOS):

There are 6 levels of service :

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3. 3 LEVEL OF SERVICE (LOS) :
The table refers to this figure :

F : Forced flow  A : Free flow

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3. 3 LEVEL OF SERVICE (LOS):

Design levels of service for various

conditions are shown in the table.
The highest feasible Level of service
(LOS) should be selected for design
except where unreasonable cost or
environmental conditions would require
a lower LOS to be selected.

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3. 3 LEVEL OF SERVICE (LOS):
The table below can be used as a rough guide of the number of lanes required on a
multi-lane freeway or expressway for a given level of service once the design year
peak hour traffic is determined.

URBAN  
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 RURAL
3. 4 DESIGN VEHICLE :

The size of the motor vehicles that will use the roadway will influence its design.
Vehicle dimensions affect the following design elements:

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3. 4 DESIGN VEHICLE :
Five standard vehicle types are applied to designs in the UAE.
The dimensions of vehicles using the highway system are controlled by legislation.
Any vehicles that are bigger than the maximum dimensions are classed as abnormal
vehicles and must obtain special permission from the traffic authorities to use the
roads.

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3. 4 DESIGN VEHICLE :

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3. 4 DESIGN VEHICLE :

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3. 4 DESIGN VEHICLE :

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3. 4 DESIGN VEHICLE :
The figure below is a turning template for each of the five vehicles used to track
the turning radii for each of the design vehicles.

The templates are used for the

design of turning lane widths.

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3. 5 DESIGN SPEED :

Design speed establishes the minimum roadway design standards and therefore
affects the horizontal and vertical alignment as well as the sight distance.

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3. 5 DESIGN SPEED :

Design speed is influenced by the topography of the roadway, economic

considerations, environmental factors, type and volume of traffic.

A roadway carrying a large traffic volume may justify a higher design speed
than a less important facility in similar topography, particularly where the
saving in vehicle operating and accident costs are greater than the cost of
land and construction costs.

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3. 5 DESIGN SPEED :

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3. 5 DESIGN SPEED :

This table shows the maximum design

speeds that are applied to different
road classes.

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3. 6 DRIVER CHARACTERISTICS :

A driver decisions and actions depend on the information received through the senses
detected by the eyes, ears, and sensory nerves in the muscles, skin, joints etc.

The senses most used by drivers are:

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3. 6 DRIVER CHARACTERISTICS :

Researchers have found that about 90% of the information a driver receives is visual and the accuracy
of this information depends on the driver’s visual acuity.

Visual acuity :

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3. 6 DRIVER CHARACTERISTICS :
Visual acuity :

Best vision occurs within a 5°

cone, clear vision within 10°.
Traffic signs and markings
should fall into the 10° cone.

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3. 6 DRIVER CHARACTERISTICS :
Physical visual problems that affect drivers (and pedestrians) are:

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3. 6 DRIVER CHARACTERISTICS :

These are the sensations coming from the muscles, joints and nerves in the
skin when the body moves. Forward and sideway accelerations send signals to
the driver that will cause him to break, slow down or take avoiding action.
Drugs and alcohol seriously affect this sense.

These are the sensations received from the vestibular nerve located in the
inner ear. This sense allows a person to judge the direction of movement and
to maintain balance. Drugs and alcohol also affect it.

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3. 6 DRIVER CHARACTERISTICS :

This is the sense of hearing. Sounds of hooters, sirens and skidding tires
give important information to drivers. Highway engineers also use this sense
by placing rumble strip or rough surfaces to inform a driver to slow down.
Age, traffic noise and friction noise affect the drivers hearing ability.

The sense of smell also allows drivers to detect emergency situations like
fuel leaks, engine overheating and fire.

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3.6.1 Driver Perception and Reaction

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1. Driver Perception and Reaction

There are four stages that make up Perception/Reaction Time:

- Detection when a driver first senses that there is something is happening;

- Identification when the driver has received enough information to allow him to decide
on how to react;

- Decision is the point at which a driver must decide what action to take;
- Response is when commands are sent from the motor center of the brain to the
muscles to carry out an action.

Perception-reaction time varies from 0.5 to 3 seconds or more. It varies

with age, physical condition, distractions, and from person to person.

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3. 8 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS :

The physical and performance characteristics of vehicles are important to

highway design engineers. These factors have a major influence on the
safety and traffic flow characteristics.

3.8.1 Vehicle Type and Sizes

The type, size and weight influence design elements such as vertical clearances,
roadway and lane widths, degree of curvature, grade limits and pavement depths.
Many different types of vehicles ranging from motorcycles to large articulated
trucks use roads and highway facilities.

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3. 8 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS :

3.8.2 Vehicle Performance Characteristics

Vehicle performance affects traffic flow, required length of speed
change lanes, weaving lanes, no passing zones. And the design of traffic
control systems and therefore from an important part of the design
process.

• Resistance to motion
• Power Requirement
• Acceleration and deceleration performance

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3. 8 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS :

(a) Resistance to motion :

5 different forms

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3. 8 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS :

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3. 8 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS :

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3. 9 SAFETY CONSIDERATION :

The number of accidents occurring on roads and highways are causing great
concern to governments internationally.
The costs surrounding injury and loss to human life resulting from road accidents
are reaching alarming levels with worldwide estimates exceeding ¼ million deaths
and 10 million injuries yearly.

Factors, which contribute to road accidents, can be broken down to 3 major

areas i.e.
(i) Road User Factors;
(ii) Road Environment Factors;
(iii) Vehicle Factors.

Statistics have shown that the road user contributed to the cause of 95% of
all accidents, the road environment 28% and the vehicle factors to 8.5%.

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3. 9 SAFETY CONSIDERATION :

3.9.1 Road user factors

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3. 9 SAFETY CONSIDERATION :

3.9.2 Road environment factors

3.9.3 Vehicle factors

The most common vehicle defects that result in accidents are faulty brakes
and smooth tires.

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3. 10 TOPOGRAPHY AND ROUTE SELECTION
The route should be as short and direct as possible; however this is not always
possible because of natural obstacles. The following are some of the obstacles
that could affect the location of the roadway:

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3. 10 TOPOGRAPHY AND ROUTE SELECTION

Safety also plays an important part in route selection and is ensured by good
geometric design. The factors which need to be considered to cover safety
aspects, are:

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3. 11 ACCESS CONTROL
Control of access is achieved by limiting the number and location of roadway access
points so that through traffic capacity and safety is not significantly affected.

Regulation Full control access

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3. 11 ACCESS CONTROL
Control of access is achieved by limiting the number and location of roadway access
points so that through traffic capacity and safety is not significantly affected.

There are 3 classes of access control:

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3. 12 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS :

The Highway Investment Cost is the cost of preparing for the construction of a
highway improvement and includes the costs of right of way, engineering design,
construction, traffic control devices and landscaping (aesthetic appearance).

The Maintenance Cost includes the cost of preserving the highway and supporting
facilities and keeping the highway in a serviceable condition, while the Operating
Costs includes the costs of traffic control, lighting etc.
The Highway User Costs include: Vehicle Operating Costs (fuel, lubrication,
tires), Travel Time Costs, and Accident Costs.

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3. 13 SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
There is a growing public awareness about the effects that highway construction
has on the environment. Governments around the world now require that planners
and designers assess the social and environmental impacts of a new highway as
part of the design process.

3.13.1 Traffic noise

Traffic noise is one of the biggest social and environmental impacts. The noise
comes from the working of vehicle engines, the friction between the tires and
the road surface, the movement of the vehicle body and the noise of the
brakes.

Noise levels can be reduced by restricting or banning trucks on certain routes;

reducing speed limits; changing horizontal and vertical alignment; constructing
noise barriers; providing buffer zones; providing noise insulation in surround
buildings.

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3. 13 SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
3.12.2 Visual Impact
Many kilometers of scenic areas are made accessible by highways, but the good
areas are forgotten when the public is exposed to the areas that are badly
affected by roads.

Visual impact may be classified into 2 general categories:

Visual Obstruction occurs when the road or some feature of it such as an
embankment, overhead bridge, or sign obstructs a view.

Visual Intrusion occurs when the highway has an overall negative impact on the
surrounding scenery.

To overcome this impact, designers need plan the highway and its facilities
carefully prior to construction. Computer software can be used to provide 3-
dimensional models of the highway that provide a preview of the visual impacts
that will be created.

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3. 13 SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
3.12.3 Air Pollution
The major sources of highway air pollution comes from vehicle exhaust gases,
evaporation from the fuel tank and carburetor; dust produced by the wearing
away of tires, brake linings and clutch plates.

Reducing highway air pollution is mainly achieved through legislation relating

to the standards of vehicle production and maintenance.
Vehicle manufacturers can be forced to modify engines to use more
environmentally fuels; provide exhaust systems that reduce the amount of
gases emitted; or to manufacture electric vehicles. Improvements to tire
and brake lining materials could be made etc.

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3. 13 SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
3.12.4 Water Quality

Highways can affect the water quality in certain areas. Fuel spillage can find
its way into streams and rivers causing pollution and affecting fish life as well
as being absorbed into the groundwater therefore spoiling water supplies.
Earthwork construction can result in damming of water supplies, concentrating
water flow and therefore causing flooding, or causing sedimentation of rivers
and streams due to soil erosion.

Careful consideration should be given to the design of drainage for pavement

surfaces, the prevention of erosion, and the damming and the concentration of
surface runoff during earthworks design.

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