General trends in Periodic table

• Atomic radius increases top to bottom due to increase in number of shells while decreases from left to right due
to increase in effective nuclear charge.
• Ionic radius also increases from top to bottom for both cation and anion. In a period isoelectronic ions radius
decrease from left to right
• I.P decreases from top to bottom due to increase in atomic size and decrease in effective nuclear charge and vice
versa in a period. Group IIA and IIIA as well as VA and VIA shows anomalous trend.
• Electronegativity and electron affinity behaves same as I.P in periodic table.
• Metallic character increase from top to bottom vice versa for non metallic character.
• The M.P increase from IA to group IV and then exceptionally fall form N and then steady from N to Ne.
• The oxidation state is from +1 to +4 from IA to IVA. The oxidation state of VA is either -3 or +5
• The oxidation state of VI is either -2 or +6 while for VIIA its is either -1 or +7
• The electrical conductivity of IA and IIA increases from top to bottom. Group IB have exceptionally high electrical
conductance. The trend of conductivity in transition metals is not regular.
• Group IA
• Atomic radius, cation radius , density of IA elements increases from top to bottom
• E.N . I.P , M.P , B. P and E.A all decreases down the group.
• Li, Na and K are lighter than water
• Most reactive metals in periodic table
• Very high second I.P values due to +1 oxidation state
• Due to low lattice energies, their salts are soluble in water.
• They react with hydrogen to form ionic hydrides.
• Only lithium can react with N2 and C.
Reactivity with water: (Hydroxides)
• They react with water to form base with hydrogen gas. These reactions are very vigorous and high exothermic.
• These hydroxides are crystalline solids as well as strongest base and highly soluble in water except LiOH which is
slightly soluble. The solubility increases from Li to Cs due to lowering of lattice energies.
• Reactivity of alkali metals increases from top to bottom. Cesium can react with water at -100C
• These hydroxide are all crystalline solids.
• They are stable to heat except LiOH which decompose to form oxide.
Oxides:
• Lithium form normal oxide , sodium form per oxide while remaining elements form super oxide when reacted with
water.
• Other alkali metals then Li can form normal oxides by indirect methods.
• Normal oxides reacts with water to form base, per oxide form base with hydrogen peroxide while super oxide
form base with hydrogen peroxide and oxygen gas
• Normal oxides reacts with dilute acid to form salt and water, per oxide form salt with hydrogen peroxide while
super oxide form salt with hydrogen peroxide and oxygen gas
• Hydrogen peroxide form in all above reactions dissociated into water and oxygen gas.
• The solubility and basicity of oxides increases from Li to Cs.
• The reaction of such oxides with water is an acid base reaction.
Carbonates:
• All carbonates are soluble in water except Li2CO3. Solubility increases from top to bottom.
• Li2CO3 also decomposed on heating to form oxide. Others are stable
Nitrates:
• Nitrates of alkali metals are soluble in water. Solubility increase down the group
• Their nitrates decompose on high heating to form nitrites except Li which form oxide.
Sulphates:
• All sulphatess are soluble in water. Solubility increases from top to bottom.
• Group IIA
• Atomic radius, cation radius of IIA elements increases from top to bottom
• E.N . I.P , B. P and E.A all decreases down the group.
• M.P of IIA elements is greater than IA elements but no specific trend from top to bottom.
• Density ist decrease upto Ca then increases
• Be is least reactive element of group IIA
• They form hydrides when reacted with hydrogen. BeH2 and MgH2 are covalent while other form ionic hydrides.
• They can also form nitrides while reacted with nitrogen which hydrolyzed to form ammonia gas.
• They form sulphide when Sulphur and halides with halogens with general formula MS and MX2.
• Be is non reactive towards water while Mg reacts at high temperature.
Reactivity with water: (Hydroxides)
• Be do not react with water
• Mg reacts with water to form Oxide
• Other IIA elements reacted with water to form base with hydrogen gas.
• Ca, Sr and Ba reacts with cold water
• Be(OH)2 and Mg(OH)2 are almost insoluble in water. Solubility increases from top to bottom
• The hydroxides of IIA elements decomposed on heating.
• The suspension og Mg(OH)2 is called milk of magnesia.
Oxides:
• Be is resistant to complete oxidation and reacts with oxygen at very high temperature to form BeO.
• BeO and MgO are insoluble in water. Solubility increases down the group.
• BeO is covalent while all other oxides are ionic in nature.
• The basic character of oxides also increases from top to bottom.
• BeO is amphoteric in nature as reacts with both acid and base to form salt and water.
• Heavier element Sr , Ba can also form peroxide which react with acid to form salt with hydrogen peroxide.
Carbonates:
• All carbonates are slightly soluble in water while solubility decreases down the group. They can be soluble in the
presence of CO2 to form bi carbonates.
• The thermal stability of carbonates increases down the group as smaller ions have greater charge density which
facilitate its decomposition.
• Their solubility and thermal stability is lesser than corresponding carbonates of IA elements.
Nitrates:
• Nitrates of alkaline metals are soluble in water. Solubility decrease down the group
• Their nitrates decompose on high heating to form oxide. Thermal stability increases down the group.
Sulphates:
• All the sulphates are soluble in water but solubility decreases down the group as BaSO4 is almost insoluble in
water.
NOTE:
The decrease in solubility of nitrates , carbonates and sulphates of IIA elements is due to the fact that their hydration
energy decreases more rapidly as compared to their lattice energy down the group.
Peculiar Behavior of Lithium:
• Much harder than other A.M
• Salts are less soluble
• Can form complexes
SIR FAKHIR HASNAIN
 General trends in Periodic table
• Least reactive among A.M. Reacts very slow with water
• Salts are least stable
• LiH is most stable
• Mostly form covalent compound
• Its carbonates and nitrates can be decomposed on heating
• Its hydroxide can form oxide on heating
• Only Li can reacts with Nitrogen
• Only Lithium carbide can form by directs reaction
Peculiar Behavior of Lithium:
• Hardest element of IIA element
• Highest Melting and boiling point
• Form covalent compounds
• Can not form hydrides by direct reaction
• Be as well as its BeO Can react with base
• Be2C form merhane on hydrolysis , other carbide form ethyne
• Form volatile nitride
• Can have only 4 molecules of water of crystallization in salts but other have more. Can also form complex.
CHAPTER # 01
• Periodic classification is the management of elements with similar properties.
• The best classification in this regard is called periodic table.
• Initially the properties of element are relate with their atomic mass.
• In 1829, Doberenier discover a relationship in separate boxes containing three elements each called triad.
• In each triad, three similar elements are present in such a way that the mean of atomic masses of first and third
elements is equal to atomic mass of middle element.
• Doberiner failed to arrange all discovered elements in the triads.
• In 1864, Newland arrange the elements in ascending order of atomic masses.
• According to Newland every eight element has similar properties as the 1st one called Newland’s law of octave.
• It is the 1st tabular arrangement of elements.
• This arrangement did not include noble gases on heavier metal.
• Lother Mayer presented an incomplete periodic table in 1864.
• In his periodic table 56 elements are as present in VIII groups.
• To classify the concept of periodicity, he plotted a graph between atomic mass and atomic volume of elements.
• He observed that elements with similar properties occupy similar position on the curve like alkali metals occupy all
peak positions on the curve and halogen on ascending position.
• Lother Mayer’s periodic table failed because it is not based on any periodic law.
• In 1869 Mendeleev propose his periodic law i.e, properties of elements are periodic function of their atomic
masses.
• Mendeleev’s periodic table helps to establish relation between chemical properties of elements and their atomic
masses.
• Mendeleev’s arranged elements in ascending order of atomic masses in eight groups and periods with prediction
of unknown elements and their atomic masses.
• Mendeleev’s periodic table has problem like position of hydrogen, position of isotopes, placement of element
agents in ascending order, dissimilar element in same group.
• 1913, Moseley proposed that atomic number is the fundamental property of atom.
• According to Moseley, properties of element are periodic function of their atomic number.
• All problems of Mendeleev’s periodic table are corrected by modern periodic table.
• Elements on present in seven periods and eight groups. Which are further divided in sub group A and B. all
elements present in a group are similar in chemical properties.
• Elements with sub group A are called representative elements. They are also called typical elements due to their
fix oxidation state.
• P block active elements are called Normal elements.
• Elements with sub group B including f-block elements are called transition element.
• Elements are classified in s, p, d and f-block.
• D-block elements are called outer transition element.
• F-block elements are called inner transition element.
• 1st series of f-block is called lanthanide (Z = 58 → Z = 71)
• 2nd series of f-block is called actinides (Z = 90 → Z = 103)
• There are seven periods present in modern periodic table
• 1s period is smallest (2 elements both s-block staring from H till He) 2nd (starting Li till Ne)and 3rd (Starting Na till
Ar )are small (8 elements each) 4th (Starting K till Kr)and 5th (Starting Rb till Xe)are long (18 elements each) 6th
period longest (32 elements staring Cs till Rn) while last period is incomplete period where few p block elements
are undiscovered.
• Valance shell configuration
• S → ns1 → ns2
• P → ns2, np1 → ns2, np6
• D → ns2, (n-1)d1 → ns2, (n-1)d10
• F → ns2, (n-1)d1 ,(n-2)f1 → ns2, (n-1)d1 ,(n-2)f14
Groups
Properties IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA
Name Alkali metals Alkaline earth Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Halogens Noble gases
metals Family Family Family Family
Examples Li , Na etc Be , Mg , Ca etc B , Al etc C , Si etc N , P etc O ,S etc F , Cl ,Br etc He , Ne , Ar etc
Valence shell ns1 ns2 .ns2 ,np1 .ns2 , np2 .ns2 , np3 .ns2 , np4 .ns2 , np5 .ns2 , np6
configuration
Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
Block s S P P P p P p
Nature metallic metallic metallic Non Non metallic Non Non metallic Non metallic
metallic metallic
Bonding Ionic I/C C/I C C/I C/I I/C -
Electronegativit Low Low Moderate Moderte Moderate High High -
y
Radical Positive Positive Positive Cant form Negative Negative Negative -

SIR FAKHIR HASNAIN