Polymer Testing 8 (1989) 119-130

On the Determination of Fracture Toughness in

Polymers

B. H. Kim, C. R. Joe & D. M. Otterson

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst,
Massachusetts 01003, USA

(Received 10 August 1988; accepted 24 September 1988)

ABSTRACT
A method for finding the critical J-integral value, Jc, utilizing the locus
line of crack initiation points, is found to be useful in determining the
fracture toughness of polystyrene (PS), modified polymethyl-
methacrylate (PMMA), and polypropylene (PP) homopolymer. This
method is also shown to be useful in determining the fracture energy at
other critical points, such as the maximum load points which can occur
in the nonlinear region of the load and load-point displacement curves.
A theoretical equation for the calibration factor ~ for linear elastic
materials is utilized in determining Jc values of polycarbonate (PC),
nylon, and vinyl ester from a single test specimen. The critical J-integral
values calculated using • or based on the locus line of crack initiation
points which occurred in a fairly linear elastic range are compared with
the values obtained using the critical stress intensity factor Kc.

1 INTRODUCTION

Much research has been done utilizing linear elastic fracture mechanics
(LEFM) to characterize the fracture toughness of polymers. 1-3 How-
ever, L E F M methods become inappropriate with appreciable plastic
deformation in the specimen. Studies have shown that the J-integral
approach proposed by Rice 4 can be used to evaluate fracture toughness
for materials exhibiting a nonlinear elastic stress-strain relationship?
This path-independent line integral, J, can be used to characterize the
crack initiation points in nonelastic materials. Furthermore, J can
119
Polymer Testing 0142-9418/89/$03-50O 1989 Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd, England.
Printed in Northern Ireland
120 B. H. Kim, C. R. Joe, D. M. Otterson

characterize crack extension provided that the J-control and J-

dominance requirements are met. 6 The J-integral is then a much more
useful and universal parameter for characterizing the crack tip stress
and strain fields.
A method developed and reported earlier by Kim and Joe 7 has been
found to yield easily reproducible values of fracture toughness for
polymeric materials. This method determines the critical J-integral
based on the following equation:

-1AU¢
J~ = S Aa (1)

where B is the specimen thickness, a is the initial crack length, and Uc

is the area bounded by the loading curve, the crack initiation locus line,
and the x-axis.
Equation (1) can be used to find Jc using sets of load and load-point
displacement curves obtained from specimens which vary only in initial
crack length. In deriving eqn (1), it has been assumed that there is a
constant Jc at crack initiation irrespective of initial crack size and this
assumption can be validated when Uc is linear with respect to a. This
method can determine the critical Jc value independent of specimen
lengths and initial crack sizes provided that the crack initiation point on
the load and load-point displacement curves can be determined. 8
The crack initiation point is often used as a fracture characterizing
parameter. For clear and translucent materials, the crack initiation
point is usually easy to determine, but opaque materials present a
problem. Standard testing procedures sometimes assign arbitrary points
as crack initiation points in order to assure uniform results. ASTM
E3999 standard for metallic materials recommends that crack initiation
be identified as the point where the load-displacement curve crosses a
5% compliance intercept, as shown in Fig. 1.1° However, crack
initiation may not necessarily occur at this point and care must be taken
when adopting this guideline for metals directly to polymers.
J¢ fracture toughness values can be converted to the critical stress
intensity factor Kc for linear elastic materials using the equation

K~z = J~E' (2)

where E' is Young's modulus E for plane stress conditions and

E / ( 1 - v 2) for plane strain conditions, and v is Poisson's ratio. Thus, J
values can then be compared with K values obtained through L E F M by
means of Srawley's 11 equation given below, which is reported to be
 Fracture toughness in polymers 121

T P
max
--<1.1
P P
5%

Pmax

w
U
Fig. 1. ASTM E399 criteria for determining the crack initiation point. ~6

accurate to within 0.5% over the entire a / W range.

PS
K=
B W 3/2
x 3 ( a / W ) ~ a [ l ' 9 9 - ( a / W ) ( 1 - a / W ) ( 2 . 1 5 - 3 . 9 3 a / W + 2 . 7 ( a / W ) 2] (3)
2(1 + 2 a / W ) ( 1 - a / W ) 3/2

where P is the applied load, W is the specimen width, and S is the span
of the three-point bending test.
For linear elastic materials, Jc can also be determined with a single
specimen once a calibration factor • is known for the material.

U
J = • (4)
B(W -a)

where U is the work done on the specimen (the area under the loading
curve). A theoretical equation for • has been derived 12 which takes
into account both the bending and shear components and can be used
for any linear elastic material once Poisson's ratio is known.
122 B. H. Kim, C. R. Joe, D. M. Otterson
can be calculated for linear elastic materials from the equation

{ 9~ ( I _ w ) ( I _ f l2) ( ~S) ( ~2 ) a [1 "99 _ (W)(1 _ a~ )

a a 2 2
(2"15 3 " 9 3 ~ + 2 " 7 ( ~ ) )] } / { ( 1 a 2
=
I(__S~3 3 (S 9 (S) 2 (5)
+ (1 + v) ) -
4 \ W: -5 ~,"
xt a a a a 2 2
""/w(2 a ~[1"99-
" 7 ( ~() ( 1 -~ ~ ))( 2 " 1\ 5 - ~3"93 /~ + )]
a 2 d(a/W)
0

where v is Poisson's ratio, fl = v for plane strain, and fl = 0 for plane

stress conditions. The • value found using eqn. (5) is more accurate
than previously reported eqns (13)-(15) which assumed a single value
or did not consider the shear component. Studies by Srawley 13 adopted
a • value of 2.02 4-0.02 for linear elastic materials with a / W >0.5.
Williams 14 and Turner 15 determined • based on the strain energy due
to bending only.

2 EXPERIMENTAL

The materials used were polystyrene (PS), modified polymethylmeth-

acrylate (PMMA), polypropylene (PP) homopolymer, polycarbonate
(PC), nylon, and vinyl ester. These polymeric materials were some of
the materials used in rounds one and two of ASTM D-20 round robin
testing (project no. X-10-128) ~6for the fracture toughness measurement
protocol. All test materials were provided on behalf of the task force
committee.
Three-point bending specimens were made as shown in Fig. 2. The
width and the span of the specimens were 19 and 76 ram, respectively.
PS, PMMA, and PP were tested during round one. The initial crack
lengths were 3.5, 3.8, 6-5, 6.8, 9.5, 9-8, 12.5, 12.8, or 15.8 mm. The
length of the initial crack includes the length of the machined notch and
the sharp crack created by pushing a razor blade into the tip of the
machined notch. The radius of the tip of the machined notch was
0.8 ram. The tests were performed 1 week after razor notching the
specimens to minimize the compressive residual stresses caused by the
 Fracture toughness in polymers 123

I RO.8 i
__IL o.o
. S=76 --I B .._

UNIT:mm
Fig. 2. Dimensions of three-point bend test specimen.

razor. The cross-head speed was 5 m m m i n -', the temperature was

maintained between 25 and 26°C and the relative humidity was
between 60 and 64% during the round one tests. PC, nylon, and vinyl
ester were tested during round two, in which the cross-head speed was
10 m m rain -~ and the initial crack length was 9.5 mm.
Crack initiation points were marked on each loading line during the
test. The crack was observed to start propagating from the center of the
crack tip and this was taken as the crack initiation point. The crack
initiation points were easily observable in the transparent materials with
the aid of a low-power magnifying glass. For the translucent materials
a bright light was placed behind the specimen to detect the crack
initiation by means of its shadow. The areas under the curves were
calculated numerically from the data points taken from the load and
load-point displacement records.

3 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Figures 3-8 show the load and l o a d - p o i n t displacement curves for the
tested materials. Solid dots indicate the crack initiation points for each
initial crack length.
Calculation of the yield stress and Kc for each material indicated that
all fractures occurred under plane strain conditions according to the
ASTM E399 thickness requirement given below.
B> 2 2
2"5(Kc/oy) (6)
Table 1 shows the pertinent material data and it can be seen that the
thickness used in these experiments was well above the thickness
specified in eqn (6).
 124 B. H. Kim, C. R. Joe, D. M. Otterson

4001

~ : 0.20

0.36

Z
~V=0,18

800

~5
OISPLACEMENT(mm)
1
¢ ds ,S
DISPLACEMENT Imm:l
,.. ,'.s

Fig. 3. Load and load-point displace- Fig. 4. Load and load-point displace-
ment curves for polystyrene. ment curves for polymethylmethacrylate.
800-

500-

W : 018
B=6.4
600-
= .

0.34
Z z
a 30O" o 400-
<
0

200-

100' 0.66

DISPLACEMENT mini DISPLACEMENT (ram)

Fig. 5. Load and load-point displace- Fig. 6. Load and load-point displace-
ment curves for polypropylene. ment curves for polycarbonate.
 Fracture toughness in polymers 125

8001
600

= /

~ 400

z =.
v

o
2OO 25"

o>~ J5
DISPLACEMENT (ram) DISPLACEMENT (ram)

Fig. 7. Load and load-point displace- Fig, 8. Load and load-point displace-
ment curves for nylon. ment curves for vinyl ester.

The energy Uc was based on the load and load-point displacement

records. Plots of Uc/B versus a are shown in Fig. 9. This plot is linear;
therefore the assumption of a unique Jc value for constant specimen
thickness is upheld.
Crack initiation in the clear and translucent materials was easily
observed using a magnifying glass or shadow techniques. It can be seen
in some instances that crack initiation occurred well in advance of
TABLE 1
Experimentally Determined Material Data Showing ASTM E399 Re-
quired Thicknesses for Plane Strain and the Actual Thicknesses Used in
Testing

Material Oy (MPa) E (GPa) v B,L~ed(mm) Breq.(mm)

PP 33 1"7 0"3217 6"4 4"8
PS 52 2"8 0"35" 6-2 4'6
PMMA 49 t6 1"6 0"35" 12"6 2-9
PC 56 2-1 0-38 12-7 7-3
Nylon 76 2-4 0-40 12-2 7-4
Vinyl ester 57 2.7 0-35" 3.0 0-97

"Estimated.
126 B. H. Kim, C. R. Joe, D. M. Otterson

20

O
18

16 " ,...

E" 14- "~ . . . . ~ ..... O PP

"~"~ ~ - - O PS
~. .... ~ ........... <> PMMA

I0-

8"

6-

4-

'2-

0 i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 i0 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

CRACK S I Z E (mm)

Fig. 9. UJB versus a. Slopes for PP, PS, and PMMA are -1.04, -1-36, and -1.09
respectively.

the 5% slope decrease specified by the ASTM E399 standard for

determining Ko in metallic materials. The present protocol 1° would not
have accurately determined the initiation point had the tested materials
been opaque.
Figure 10 shows the experimentally determined values of • for PS,
PMMA, and PP. Theoretical lines plotted using eqn. (5) and Poisson's
ratios of 0.3 and 0.5 are shown for comparison. It can be seen that the
experimental values follow the expected lines fairly well despite some
scattered data for the range of a / W values tested. It is possible to
obtain more accurate Jc values based on eqn (1), but a greater number
of specimens would have to be tested.
 Fracture toughness in polymers 127

3.0

2.8-

2.6-

2.4-

2.2-

2.0

1.8- 0 .,..... 0
0 ..."" 0
..,/ 0
~ ) 1.6-
0 /-/ 0

i.¢

../ D
1.2-

1.0

0.8-

0.& I//
o
O
<>
PP
PMMA
PS
0.4-

0.2

0.0 I + t I I I I ---q I
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

~/w
Fig. 10. Experimentally determined values of the correction factor 4) for PP, PS, and
PMMA. The solid and broken lines represent theoretical (I) values for Poisson's ratios
of 0-3 and 0-5 respectively.

Because the crack initiation points were located on a fairly linear

portion of the load-displacement curve, it was possible to verify Jc
values obtained using the locus line of the crack initiation points or
using the calibration factor ~ with the values obtained using LEFM.
Table 2 shows the excellent correlation of fracture toughness values
obtained by the methods discussed here.
The real benefit of the J-integral is its ability to analyze the nonelastic
range. For some materials, resistance to crack propagation at maximum
128 B. H. Kim, C. R. Joe, D. M. Otterson

TABLE 2
Fracture Toughness Values Obtained Experimentally and the
Corresponding Values Obtained Using eqns (2) and (3) from
LEFM

Material K¢ (MPaVm) K2/E ' (kJm -2) J~ (kJm -2)

PP 1-5 1-1 1.1
PS 2-2 1-5 1.4
PMMA 1.7 1.5 1.1
PC 3-0 3.7 4-3
Nylon 4.1 6.0 6-4
Vinyl ester 1-1 0.41 0.45

100 J ~ I ! I I I --q- I

9(>

80

70

"• 6O

v
m
,50

0 PP
40

30

20

10-

I
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

CRACK SIZE (mm)

Fig. U . UL/B versus a using a maximum load point parameter. Slopes for PP and
PMMA are -4-36, and -3-32 respectively.
 Fracture toughness in polymers 129

load can be used as a fracture-characterizing parameter provided that

the resistance curve shows a sharp corner between the crack initiation
point and the point where plateau resistance begins.18 In Figs 4 and 5, it
is seen that the maximum load points for PP and P M M A are well into
the nonlinear portion of the load and load-point displacement curves.
LEFM should not be used in this region so the analysis is done using
the J-integral. Figure 11 shows the UUB versus a plots for the
maximum load points where UL is the area enclosed by the loading
curve, the iocus line of the maximum load points, and the x-axis. The
plots are fairly linear, leading us to conclude that the resistance at
maximum load is independent of initial crack length and that the
resistance at maximum load is a good fracture characterization para-
meter for this material. It is cautioned, however, that characterization
beyond the crack initiation point will not always bring about a single
fracture characterization parameter. It is speculated that P M M A and
PP must have sharp corners in their resistance to crack growth curves as
was the case for polyetherimide, which also exhibited a fairly linear
slope in its UL/B versus a plot for maximum load points. TM

4 CONCLUSION

Once a locus of crack initiation points is created using a set of

specimens which differ only in initial crack length, Uc for each initial
crack length can be found. By plotting these values in accordance With
eqn (1), Jc values for each material thickness have been determined for
PP, PS, and PMMA as 1.1, 1.4, and 1.1 k J m -2, respectively. These
fracture toughness values are in excellent agreement with values
obtained using LEFM. Also, judging by the excellent least squares fit of
the points, the assumption of a constant Jc for any initial crack length
appears to be justified. This method can be used for the analysis of
materials with large amounts of plastic deformation for which LEFM
analysis is not appropriate.
The parameter Ko would be inappropriate for materials exhibiting
crack initiation prior to the 5% slope decrease criterion even though
this criterion may yield a unique value. It is recommended that crack
initiation be confirmed visually or by some other method when
possible.
With theoretically derived • values, Jc is then determined from a
single load and load-point displacement curve. The resulting values are
4.3, 6.4, and 0.45 kJ m -2 for PC, nylon, and vinyl ester, respectively.
130 B. H. Kim, C. R. Joe, D. M. Otterson

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by

Massachusetts Center of Excellence Corporation and Monsanto Chem-
ical Company. They appreciate Dr George A d a m s for giving t h e m an
opportunity to participate in the A S T M round robin testing. Also they
wish to thank George Reid for his assistance in machining the test
specimens.

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