FOOD QUALITY AND STANDARDS – Vol. II - Food Quality and Standards Pertaining to Fish - Zdzisaw E.

Sikorski

FOOD QUALITY AND STANDARDS PERTAINING TO FISH

Zdzisaw E. Sikorski
Gdansk University of Technology, Department of Food Chemistry and Technology,
Gdansk, Poland

Keywords: Appearance, aroma, contamination, ciguatera poisoning, color, flavor,

freezing, freshness, HACCP, heavy metals, histamine, insects, K-value, marine toxins,
off-flavor, nutritional value, odor, parasites, pesticide residues, product standards, rigor
mortis, fish, seafood, sensory assessment, storage life, taint, tenderness, texture,
waterholding capacity

Contents

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1. Introduction
2. Species Identity

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3. Freshness
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Sensory Examination
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3.3. Microbiological Tests
3.4. Chemical and Biochemical Tests
3.5. Physical Tests
4. Sensory Properties
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4.1. Color
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4.2. Texture
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4.3. Aroma and Taint

4.4. Flavor
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5. Biological Contamination
5.1. Microbial contamination
5.2. Marine Toxins
5.3. Parasites
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5.4. Insects
6. Chemical Contamination
6.1. Introduction
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6.2. Arsenic, Cadmium, Lead, and Mercury

6.3. Organochlorine Compounds
6.4. N-nitrosamines
6.5. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
6.6. Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines
7. Nutritional Factors
8. Technological Suitability
9. Conformation to Product Standards
Glossary
Bibliography
Biographical Sketch

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Summary

The quality indices of seafood regarding sensory attributes, health safety aspects,
nutritional value, functional properties, and conformation to product standards are
treated in this chapter. Poisonous fish of several families and fish products containing
biotoxins or visible parasites are not allowed for human consumption according to EEC
requirements. Freshness is the primary attribute used when deciding the market value of
an expensive variety of fish. It can be measured using sensory, biochemical,
microbiological, and physical tests.

The sensory, nutritional, and functional properties of fish and shellfish are species-
related, and affected by biological factors, and by handling and processing. Because of
their high protein content, polyenoic fatty acids of the n-3 family content, and vitamin
content, most seafood products have high nutritional value. The contamination of the
catch and fishery products by microorganisms, marine toxins, parasites, and insects is

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controlled by regulations and standards regarding fishing, handling, and processing on

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board a vessel and onshore. Chemical contamination is generally within allowable limits
and, being no higher than that of other foods on the market, generally affords no risk to
the consumer.
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1. Introduction

There is a large variety of fish and shellfish, belonging to hundreds of species fished
commercially and produced in aquaculture, that are offered for human food. They are
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used in many different ways, as fresh or frozen, served at home or in restaurants after
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culinary preparation; as raw dishes such as sashimi, fried, grilled, broiled, baked,
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barbecued, marinated, or boiled in seasoned liquids, or further processed industrially

into salted, dried, smoked, marinated, or canned products.
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The suitability of the catch for these various end uses, judged by the particular
customers, is reflected in the quality of seafood. The meaning of the term seafood
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quality is different for well-to-do connoisseurs, who select rare, expensive fish,
crustaceans, and esoteric mollusks for their cuisine, and for the people in need, who eat
cooked, dried, salted, or fermented fish as a supplement to the staple cereals in their
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daily diet.

The quality attributes of seafood comprise those that pertain to the species, sensory
expectations of consumers, health and safety aspects, nutritional value, functional
properties, and conformation to product standards regarding composition, proportions of
components, appearance, ingredients, packaging, labeling, and shelf-life. These
attributes can be quantitatively determined and the measured values used for assessing
the quality grade.

The initial values of the different quality attributes of just-harvested seafood depend on
the species’ characteristics, seasonal biological changes in the fish organisms, and
parasite infestation, and on the conditions applied in aquaculture and in fishing. The
species-related properties regard size, appearance, and shape, yield of edible parts,
content and distribution of dark muscles, flavor and texture of the meat, contents of

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valuable components (predominantly proteins, lipids, and vitamins), the activity of

enzymes, and the presence of toxins. The size of the fish affects the vulnerability of the
catch to damage during handling and processing. Appearance and shape influence the
appeal of the fish to the buyer, while the yield of edible parts has an impact on the
economy of processing.

The color, flavor, and texture of the meat are important factors affecting the suitability
of the fish for different methods of culinary preparation and use in the food industry.
The contents of proteins, lipids, vitamins, and mineral components affect the sensory
properties of the products and the nutritional value. The activity of various enzymes
influences the susceptibility of the catch to storage changes, such as rapid postmortem
softening of the flesh of fish and squid rich in active proteolytic enzymes, or freezing
denaturation in proteins of frozen stored fish of the Gadidae family, abundant in
trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) demethylase. Enzyme activity also has an impact on the
suitability of raw material for producing different kinds of products, such as mild salted

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maatjes herrings or marinades.

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Various nonprotein nitrogenous compounds affect the sensory properties, safety, and
suitability of the fish for different end uses; TMAO is involved in undesirable greening
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of canned albacore, and biogenic amines may cause health hazards. Endogenous toxins
make the meat of the fish of several species unfit for human consumption. The seasonal
biological changes are responsible for fluctuations in the contents of proteins and lipids
in fish muscles, and for the activity of endogenous proteases.
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The biological condition of the fish also affects the gel-forming ability of the muscle
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proteins. In migratory salmonid fishes during spawning, the flesh may have a paste-like
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appearance because of enzymatic degradation of the muscle fiber integrity. Infestation

with parasites may decrease the technological value of the catch, or constitute severe
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health hazards for the consumers of raw fish and aquatic invertebrates of various
species. Aquaculture and fishing operations affect the technological suitability of the
catch.
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The quality attributes of seafood change on the way to the consumer because of time
and the impact of post-harvest treatment, sanitary conditions during handling, storage,
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and processing, and the procedures and materials used for preservation.

2. Species Identity

The flavor, color, and texture of the meat of fish and shellfish are important quality
attributes. They are characteristic for each species and have a high impact on the market
price of seafood. Many characteristic features affecting the suitability of fish for
manufacturing various products or preparing certain dishes are shared by fish of a group
of species. Examples are whitefish, such as cod and other gadoids; herring and several
other similar species of fatty, pelagic fish; mackerel and tuna; or salmon and trout.

It is not easy to identify fish species or even the family in many fishery products, if the
original structure of the muscles cannot be recognized because of the cutting, breading,
mincing, and forming applied in processing. Furthermore, compositions of several

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different raw materials, including vegetable protein and polysaccharides, with a

selection of additives affecting the flavor and texture of the products, are made. The
determination of the species identity of the fish contained in these products can be made
by isoelectric focusing of sarcoplasmic proteins extracted from such commodities.

3. Freshness

3.1 Introduction

In the quality grading of seafood, strict attention is paid to the attributes characterizing
the state of freshness. In countries with old traditions in fish consumption, such as
Japan, freshness is, with respect to rare species, the fundamental and almighty
determinant of acceptability and price on the market. Fish of valuable species and of
prime freshness, suitable to be eaten raw, may have a price ten times higher than the
same fish after several days of storage on ice, which is still fit for human consumption.

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Just-caught fish and shellfish have a vivid, intensive hue, silver or any other color of the
rainbow characteristic for the species, light-red gills, firm and elastic body, and delicate,
typical, predominantly seaweed or shellfish aroma. The cooked fresh fish has a pleasant
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flavor, typical for the species, and springy texture; the myomeres of the fillets are held
together by intact myosepta. Due to post-harvest biochemical changes in saccharides,
nitrogenous compounds, and lipids, and because of chemical lipid oxidation, the
freshness attributes deteriorate gradually, and signs of putrefaction appear. The initial
loss of the attributes of prime freshness in fish and marine invertebrates is caused
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primarily by catabolic reactions in nucleotides and saccharides, which are soon followed
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by degradation of nitrogenous compounds, as well as by hydrolysis and peroxidation of

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lipids. At this stage, the reactions are catalyzed predominantly by endogenous enzymes.
During further storage of the catch, the deteriorative processes result mainly from
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microbial activity. The rate of freshness loss and spoilage is controlled by endogenous
factors related to species, condition, infestation with parasites, and initial bacterial
contamination of the catch, and by handling and preservation of the fish on board the
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vessel and on shore.

The state of freshness can be determined by sensory assessment, and by using chemical
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assays of products of biochemical reactions, or by measuring physical properties of the

fish muscles. There is no universal chemical or physical test applicable to assessment of
the freshness of seafood of various species and at different stages of post mortem
changes. The results of the tests have to be significantly correlated to those of sensory
analysis.

3.2 Sensory Examination

The sensory grading of seafood freshness involves examination of the appearance, odor,
and texture of the raw fish, and may additionally regard the odor and flavor of cooked
fish, with reference to special ratings describing the attributes at different states of
freshness for various types of products. In the European Community, freshness ratings
have been established for five groups of products: A. whitefish, cod and sole; B.
bluefish, albacore, and mackerel; C. selachii; D. cephalopods; and E. crustaceans (see

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FOOD QUALITY AND STANDARDS – Vol. II - Food Quality and Standards Pertaining to Fish - Zdzisaw E. Sikorski

Table 1), whereby reference is made to appraisal criteria specific to each group. In
computing total freshness ratings, the relative importance of different attributes is often
taken into account; in fish of various species and intended uses, the weight of different
attributes is not equal. Another type of grading is based on assessing the number and
intensity of defects and subtracting demerit points from the highest quality score.

Criteria
Not admitted
Freshness category
(1)
Extra A B
Bright,
Pigmentation
iridescent
Pigmentation in the process Dull
pigment (save
Skin bright but not of becoming pigmentation
for redfish) or
lustrous discolored or (2)
opalescent; no

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dull
discoloration

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Yellowish
Aqueous, Slightly
Skin mucus Milky gray, opaque
transparent cloudy
mucus
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Convex and
Convex
slightly Flat; Concave in the
(bulging); black,
sunken; black opalescent center; grey
Eye bright pupil;
dull pupil; cornea; opaque pupil; milky
transparent
cornea (2)
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opalescent pupil
cornea
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cornea
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Brown/gray
Less colored; becoming Yellowish;
Bright color; no
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Gills transparent discolored; milky mucus

mucus
mucus thick, opaque (2)
mucus
Smooth; bright; Slightly dull; Speckled;
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Peritoneum (in difficult to can be comes away Does not stick

gutted fish) detach from detached from easily from (2)
flesh flesh flesh
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Smell of gills and

abdominal cavity
No smell of
• Whitefish other Fermented; (2)
Seaweedy seaweed;
than plaice slightly sour Sour
neutral smell
Oily; Oily;
Fresh oily;
seaweedy or fermented;
• Plaice peppery; earthy Sour
slightly stale, slightly
smell
sweetish rancid
Slightly soft Soft (flaccid)
Firm and (flaccid), less (2); scales
Flesh elastic; smooth Less elastic elastic; waxy easily detached
surface (3) (velvety) and from skin,
dull surface surface rather

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wrinkled

(1) This column will apply only until a Commission Decision is made establishing
criteria for fish which is unfit for human consumption, pursuant to Council Directive
91/493/EEC
(2) Or in a more advanced state of decay
(3) Fresh fish prior to the onset of rigor mortis will not be firm and elastic but will still
be graded in category Extra

Table 1. Freshness rating of whitefish established by the European Community

(European Council Regulation EC No 2406/96)

3.3 Microbiological Tests

The advanced stages of undesirable post-harvest changes are related to the number of

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bacteria thriving on the fish. There is a direct relation between the number of bacteria

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present in the seafood and the quantity of products of their metabolism, regardless of the
temperature of storage. Attempts have been made to correlate the state of freshness with
the microbial contamination. Microbiological assays, however, are of little use for
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discrimination between prime freshness and a state corresponding to about three days’
to four days’ storage of the fish on ice. They can, however, be used to decide upon the
fitness of the fish for human consumption.

3.4 Chemical and Biochemical Tests

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Figure 1. Typical values of freshness indicators in fish stored on ice

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Soon after catch, post mortem degradation of nucleotides begins in fish muscles,
catalyzed predominantly by endogenous enzymes. The activities of endogenous ATPase
and lactic dehydrogenase decrease post mortem in the muscles of fish of several species.
This loss in activity has been suggested as a test for differentiation between extremely
fresh fish and those held for one or two days on ice. The concentrations of different
catabolites of ATP are good indicators of freshness in the early mortem stages (see
Figure 1).

The freshness index K-value is based on the determination of ATP and its degradation
products—adenosine diphosphate (ADP), adenosine monophosphate (AMP), inosine
monophosphate (IMP), inosine (Ino), and hypoxanthine (Hx):

[Ino] + [ Hx]
K(%) = × 100
[ATP] + [ADP] + [AMP] + [IMP] + [Ino] + [Hx]

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The rate of increase in the K-value depends on the species and on handling during

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capture.

In most fish, the K-value just after catch does not exceed 10%, 20% is the limit of high
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freshness, and 60% indicates the rejection point. To be used for freshness grading, the
K-value should be correlated with the results of sensory assessments for fish of different
species. An approximation of the freshness index is the K1 value:
[Ino] + [Hx]
K1 (%) × 100
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[IMP] + [Ino] + [Hx]

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which is easier to determine. Although a little less accurate, it can be used instead of the
K-value, because in the catch of commercial fisheries, the enzymatic degradation of
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nucleotides is usually somewhat advanced, and the amounts of ATP, ADP, and AMP
are low as compared with those of the further catabolites.
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The ratio of phosphocreatine to inorganic phosphate in the muscles has been proposed
as a sensitive index of the early post-mortem changes in fish, more sensitive than the K-
value.
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Chemical measurements of products of bacterial decomposition of meat components

reflect the level of bacterial development. These tests are usually not suitable for the
determination of the early stages of freshness loss, because at low levels of bacteria the
level of the metabolites is low. However, they are used for assessing the freshness of
fish after several days of storage and are well suited for determining the limit of
acceptability. Here belong the assays of ammonia, trimethylamine nitrogen (TMA-N),
total volatile base nitrogen (TVB-N), volatile reducing substances, and sulphides.
Ammonia is produced in seafood also, because of the activity of endogenous enzymes
in deamination of adenosine and AMP, whereas in sharks and rays it is a result of
hydrolysis of urea. Because of the high concentration of urea in the muscles of sharks
and rays, these fish have a distinct ammoniac odor, even early after catch. The
accumulation of TMA-N is predominantly related to the population of Pseudomonas
putrefaciens, and to bacteria of some other species capable of reducing TMAO. In the

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FOOD QUALITY AND STANDARDS – Vol. II - Food Quality and Standards Pertaining to Fish - Zdzisaw E. Sikorski

fish of many species, there is a linear correlation between the values for TMA-N and
TVB-N. The TVB-N determination is widely employed for the freshness assessment of
wet fish because of its simplicity.

The suitability of these tests is different for fish of various species and also depends on
the conditions of preservation that may selectively affect the development of various
microorganisms, the growth rate and metabolic capabilities, and thus influence the
spoilage changes. Typical examples of such treatments are vacuum or modified
atmosphere packaging, or application of ionizing radiation. For grading purposes,
numerical values of the test results have been proposed. They are different for fish of
various species.

The contents of TVB-N in canned fish can also inform us of the freshness grade of the
raw material. Generally the values of TVB-N in canned products are higher than in
fresh fish, above 250 mg/kg to 300 mg/kg, because thermal treatment leads to

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generation of volatile bases from TMAO and amino acids.

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The quantity of thus produced volatile compounds depends upon the time and
temperature of heating. However, for any specific product manufactured under given
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conditions of thermal processing, the TVB-N value can inform us of the initial freshness
grade of the raw material. If the time-temperature regime is unknown, high values of
TVB-N indicate either low initial freshness of the fish or overprocessing.

3.5 Physical Tests

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Different freshness tests based on measurements of the physical properties of fish

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tissues have been proposed. Quality inspectors routinely examine the texture of the fish
body or of the fillets during the sensory assessment of freshness.
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For rapid estimations, especially on board the vessel and in the fish market, different
electronic devices are available. The working principle of a portable instrument known
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as Fish Tester is based on measuring the capacitate component of the AC resistance of

the fish tissues. The resistance decreases during storage of the fish due to degradative
changes in the muscle cell structure.
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The instrument scale is calibrated in degrees of freshness for different species,

indicating the practical storage life of the fish on ice, in days. Another instrument, the
Torrymeter, measures the dielectric properties of fish that change during gradual loss of
freshness from degradative processes in the muscles. Significant linear correlation has
been established between the Torrymeter readings obtained by placing an electrode
probe on the skin of fish and the results of sensory freshness evaluation for fish of
numerous species.

The state of freshness, or the remaining shelf life of fish of a given species at a given
temperature, can be predicted on the basis of the time-temperature history of the batch
of fish after catch, if the temperature effect on the rate of spoilage caused by
endogenous enzymes, microorganisms, chemical reactions, and physical factors is
known.

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Bibliography

Cadwallader K.R. (2000). Enzymes and Flavour Biogenesis in Fish. Seafood Enzymes. Utilisation and
Influence on Postharvest Seafood Quality (ed. N.F. Haard and B.K. Simpson), pp. 365–383. New
York/Basel: Marcel Dekker, Inc. [An overview of enzymatic processes playing a role in flavor formation
in fish.]

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European Council (1991). Council Directive 91/493/EEC of July 22, 1991. [Gives health conditions for

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the production and marketing of fishery products.]

European Council (1996). Council Regulation (EC) No 2406/96 of November 26, 1996. Official Journal
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of European Communities No L 334/1. [Gives common standards for certain fishery products.]

Doe P. and Olley J. (1990). Drying and Dried Fish Products. Seafood: Resources, Nutritional
Composition, and Preservation (ed. Z. E. Sikorski), pp. 125–145. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Inc.
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Kołakowska A., Olley J. and Dunstan G.A. (2002). Fish Lipids. Chemical and Functional Properties of
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Food Lipids (ed. Z.E. Sikorski and A. Kołakowska), pp. 223−266. Boca Raton. FL: CRC Press, Inc. [A
critical review of the content, properties, and changes in lipids in fish.]
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Higashi G.I. (1985). Foodborne Parasites Transmitted to Man from Fish and other Aquatic Foods: the
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Quality and Safety of Fish and Fish Products. International Journal of Microbiology 15, 13–32.

Sikorski Z.E. (1988). Smoking of Fish and Carcinogens. Fish Smoking and Drying (ed. J.R. Burt), pp.
73–90. London, New York: Elsevier Applied Science. [Potential carcinogens in smoke.]
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Sikorski Z.E., Kołakowska A. and Pan B.S. (1990). The Nutritive Composition of the Major Groups of
Marine Food Organisms. Seafood: Resources, Nutritional Composition, and Preservation (ed. Z.E.
Sikorski), pp. 29–54. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Inc. [A review of nutrients of marine food organisms.]
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Sikorski Z.E. and Kołakowski E. (2000). Endogenous Enzyme Activity and Seafood Quality: Influence of
Chilling, Freezing, and other Environmental Factors. Seafood Enzymes: Utilisation and Influence on
Postharvest Seafood Quality (ed. N.F. Haard and B.K. Simpson), pp. 451–487. New York/Basel: Marcel
Dekker, Inc. [A comprehensive review of enzymatic changes during fish processing.]

Van Egmond H.P., Aune T., Lassus P., Speijers G.J.A. and Waldock M. (1993). Paralytic and Diarrhoeic
Shellfish Poisons: Occurrence in Europe, Toxicity, Analysis and Regulation. Journal of Natural Toxins 2,
41–83.

Wekkell M.M., Manger R., Colburn K., Adams A. and Hill W. (1994). Microbial Quality of Seafoods:
Viruses, Bacteria and Parasites. Seafoods: Chemistry, Processing Technology and Quality, (ed. F. Shahidi
and J.R. Botta), pp. 196–219. Glasgow: Blackie Academic and Professional.

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Biographical Sketch

Zdzislaw E. Sikorski, a “Scorpio” born in Wilno, received his B.S., M.S., Ph.D., and D.Sc. Degrees from
the Gdansk University of Technology (GUT), and Doctor honoris causa from the Agricultural University
in Szczecin, Poland. He gained practical experience in fish processing in several plants in Poland and
Germany and on a fishing trawler. He was organizer and head of the Department of Food Chemistry and
Technology and served as Dean of the Faculty of Chemistry at GUT. He worked also several years as a
visiting researcher/professor at Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio; CSIRO, Fish Research Unit in
Hobart, Australia; DSIR in Auckland, New Zealand; and National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung,
Republic of China.
He is professor at GUT and since 1996 chairman of the Committee of Food Technology and Chemistry of
the Polish Academy of Sciences. He has published about 210 journal articles, 13 books (in Polish,
English, Russian, and Spanish), 8 chapters on marine food science and food chemistry, and he holds 7
patents. His research deals mainly with food preservation, functional properties of food proteins, and
interactions of food components.

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