FISH

PROCESSING
AND
PRES ERVATION
METHODS
B y:Honey Lyn R.Gomez
W H AT W E W ILL LEAR N
TODAY

KEY DISCUSSION POINTS

Fish as food
Process of fish spoilage
Processing vs.Preservation
Methods of fish processing and preservation

Fish Processing and Preservation Methods

Why is fish highly
perishable?
It contains considerable amount of water
and has high water activity which makes it
prone to microbial growth
 minerals
(1-2%)
PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS OF FISH fat
(0.1-22%)
FLESH

protein
(15-24%) water
(60-84%)

Fish as Food
W ATER

predominant constituent of fish

supports chemical reactions and also reactant in

hydrolytic processes

interacts with other constituents, like proteins,

polysaccharides, lipids, and salts

Preparing and Handling Fish |Group 1A

 FREE W ATER
water that can literally be squeezed out of
food; supports microbial growth, and
participates in chemical and enzymatic
reactions and spoilage processes
Easily lost during freezing/ thawing, muscle
storage, and handling

BOUND WATER
fraction of water present in food materials
which is either physically or chemically
attached with other compounds and solid
structural matrix
Is not easily lost during processing
M OIS TURE CONTENT

amount of water in the product

determined by weight loss upon drying
B ound water + free water

WATER ACTIVITY

is the ratio between the vapor pressure of the food itself, when in a completely undisturbed
balance with the surrounding air media, and the vapor pressure of distilled water under
identical conditions
is a measure of how much of that water is free, and thus available for microorganisms to
use for growth
value not exceeding to 1
WATER ACTIVITY OF FRESH FISH

Fish as Food
Fish contains high level NPN (non-protein
nitrogen) such as free amino acids, bases,
creatine, urea, TMAO actively utilized by
microorganisms
N O N -PR O TEIN N ITR O G EN O U S
COMPOUNDS

found mostly in the fiber sarcoplasm

include free amino acids, peptides, amines, amine oxides,
guanido compounds, nucleotides, urea, and ammonia/
quaternary ammonium molecules
account for a relatively high percentage of the total nitrogen in
the muscles of some aquatic animals

10–20% in teleosts
about 20% in crustaceans and mollusks
30–40% (and in special cases up to 50%) in elasmobranchs

Preparing and Handling Fish |Group 1A

It has lesser amount of connective tissue
proteins compared to mammals, resulting
to faster muscle degradation
 Stroma/ connective tissue proteins
(2-3%)

TYPES OF MUSCLE PROTEINS

Sarcoplasmic proteins
(20-30%)

Myofibrillar proteins
(65-75%)

Fish as Food
SARCOPLASMIC PROTEINS

water-soluble proteins
enzymes, pigments, parvalbumins, etc.

MYOFIBRILLAR PROTEINS

soluble in solutions of hig her ionic streng th (>0.5 M )

myosin, actin, tropomyosin, troponin, connectin, paramyosin
(invertebrates)

S TR O M A / C O N N EC TIV E TIS S U E
PROTEINS

insoluble in solutions of higher ionic strength

can be solubilized only by subjecting to high temp. and pH
collagen and elastin
Preparing and Handling Fish |Group 1A
It has neutral pH and high level of soluble
nutrients
WHY DO FISH SPOIL?
 FRES H FISH
one whose original characteristics/
properties remain unchanged

SPOILED FISH
indicative of post-harvest change
FISH SPOILAGE
a result of a series of complicated changes
brought about mainly by enzymatic and
bacterial action
is a process of deterioration in the quality of
fish, which changes its appearance, odour
and taste
due to breakdown of biomolecules like
proteins, amino acids and fats in the fish

Preparing and Handling Fish |Group 1A

S T A G E S OF F I S H S P O I L A G E

RIGOR MORTIS AUTOLYSIS PUTREFACTION

Preparing and Handling Fish |Group 1A

R IG O R M O R TIS

progressive stiffening of fish muscle after death

may range from an hour to 3 days or more depending upon
species, size, catching method, handling of fish, temperature,
physical condition of fish
starts from tail to head
delay on its onset prolongs the keeping time of the fish
its end marks the start of autolysis and bacterial spoilage

blood circulation stops -> absence of oxygen -> ATP production

stops -> onset of rigor mortis
conversion of glycogen to lactic acid through glycolysis
decrease in pH

Preparing and Handling Fish |Group 1A

W H A T C A U S E S FI S H
SPOILAGE?

action of microbes
-present in the surface, gills, and gut of the fish
-originating from the environment where fish is taken
-picked up during post-harvest handling

enzymatic activity
-caused by enzymes present in the muscle and gut of the fish
-released by microorganisms

oxidation of nutritive elements

- such as lipids/ fats
-leads to rancidity

Preparing and Handling Fish |Group 1A

FA C T O R S R E S P O N S I B L E
FOR FISH SPOILAGE:

improper handling
high moisture content of fish

weak muscle tissue

ambient temperature

Preparing and Handling Fish |Group 1A

FA C T O R S R E S P O N S I B L E
FOR FISH SPOILAGE:

improper handling
high moisture content of fish

weak muscle tissue

ambient temperature

Preparing and Handling Fish |Group 1A

M O D E S O F FIS H
• caused by enzymes in the muscle and gut of the fish
SPOILAGE
and produced by bacteria
AUTOLYTIC SPOILAGE • enzymes - breakdown components into smaller units
• autolysis - self-breakdown or self-digestion
- results to muscle weakening, softening,
and discoloration
• cathepsins - lysosomal proteases present in fish
muscle
 ATP Degradation in Fish
M O D E S O F FIS H
SPOILAGE

AUTOLYTIC SPOILAGE
M O D E S O F FIS H • the lower the K value, the better
SPOILAGE
Standard Values
AUTOLYTIC SPOILAGE
Fresh Fish < 20%
Rejected value > 60%
Shrimp > 50% rejected
 The breakdown of fish tissue affects the ff:
M O D E S O F FIS H FLAVOR
SPOILAGE loss of sweet, meaty flavor of fish due to the breakdown of
inosinic acid
AUTOLYTIC SPOILAGE development of bitter taste due to conversion of ATP to
hypoxanthine

TEXTURE
softening of fish muscle due to breakdown of myofibrillar
and connective tissue proteins
e.g .g aping and belly bursting
 The breakdown of fish tissue affects the ff:
• APPEARANCE
M O D E S O F FIS H discoloration due to the interaction of sugars (from enzymic
SPOILAGE action) and amino compounds (inherent in the fish)
black spot formation in shrimps due to formation of
AUTOLYTIC SPOILAGE melanin pigment caused by enzymatic action on amino
acids
• ODOR
production of foul smell by degradation of muscle proteins into
amino acids and other compounds like ammonia, carbon
dioxide, amines, fatty acids, etc., and by production of
secondary metabolites which produces indole, skatole, etc.
 • caused by the action of bacteria present on the
M O D E S O F FIS H surface, gills, and in the gut of the fish
SPOILAGE o freshwater fish - has large number of mesophilic
gram-positive bacteria (Micrococcus, Bacillus,
BACTERIAL SPOILAGE
coryneforms)
o marine fish - contains psychrotrophic gram-
positive bacteria (Pseudomonas,
Alteromonas, Moraxella, Acinetobacter,
Flavobacterium, Cytophaga, and Vibrio)
 • the flesh of healthy, live fish is sterile (free
M O D E S O F FIS H from bacteria)
SPOILAGE • bacteria begin to invade the flesh of dead fish
through the skin, lining of the body cavity, and
BACTERIAL SPOILAGE
punctures in the body
• bacteria in the gut is influenced by how much food
the fish has taken
• the greater the quantity of food in the gut --> the
more bacteria --> the quicker the onset of spoilage
M O D E S O F FIS H • could lead to "belly bursting" due to the production

SPOILAGE of gases and digestion of gut wall by bacteria

• rate of spoilage depends on microbial load
BACTERIAL SPOILAGE and temperature
• bacterial load and type are determined by the
quality of water where the fish is taken
• does not start until the passage of rigor mortis
 The bacteria cause fish spoilage by the following means:
• Reduction of TMAO to TMA
M O D E S O F FIS H
o produces offensive odor
SPOILAGE
o high concentration of TMAO can be found in marine
species, esp. in elasmobranches -> used for
BACTERIAL SPOILAGE osmoregulation
• Degradation of amino acid to primary amines
o can cause food poisoning
o his tidine -> his tam ine (scombroid species)
o g lutam ic acid -> arg inine
• Degradation of urea to ammonia
o produces offensive ammoniacal odor
 TYPES OF BACTERIA THAT CAUSES FISH SPOILAGE

M O D E S O F FIS H • Psychrophilic (cold-loving) bacteria – grow at temp. as low

as 0ºC
SPOILAGE
o occur in iced-stored fish
BACTERIAL SPOILAGE o Pseudomonas sp., Achromobacter sp., Flavobacter sp.

• Mesophilic bacteria – loves ambient temp.

o Escherichia sp., Proteus sp., Serratia sp., Sarcina sp.

& Clostridium sp.

• Thermophilic (heat-loving) bacteria – 35ºC-50ºC

o Bacillus sp., Micrococcus sp.

 • mainly occurs during ice or frozen storage
M O D E S O F FIS H • chemical changes in the lipids/ rancidity
SPOILAGE o lipid autolysis - enzymatic hydrolysis of fat
forming free fatty acids and glycerol
CHEM ICAL SPOILAGE o auto-oxidation - reaction of unsaturated lipid with
oxygen
• protein denaturation during frozen storage
• darkening of red meat in fresh fish due to change of
myoglobin from bright red to red-brown or dark
brown
M O D E S O F FIS H
SPOILAGE

CHEM ICAL SPOILAGE

https://biologyreader.com/spoilage-of-fish.html
 CHEMICAL INDICATORS OF SPOILAGE
M O D E S O F FIS H • denote the end product of the spoilage
SPOILAGE (indicator) and do not give any idea about the
degree of spoilage
CHEM ICAL SPOILAGE o Chemical tests Trimethylamine (TMA)
o Total volatile basic nitrogen (TVBN)
o Volatile reducing substance (VRS)
o Indole
o Skatole
o Hydrogen sulphide
M O D E S O F FIS H LIPID INDICATOR OF SPOILAGE
SPOILAGE • Peroxide index
• Thiobarbituric Acid test (TBA)
CHEM ICAL SPOILAGE • Rancidity
• Texture
• Refractive Index
• Electrical conductivity
 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase3

Eyes Bright, convex Flat Cloudy, sunken

ORGANOLEPTIC Skin Glossy with thin

slime
Lost gloss and
cloudy slime
Bleached with thin
slime
CHANGES IN Gills Red or bright pink
with clear slime
Dark red or partly
bleached
Bleached, dark
brown, very slimy
FISH Odor Fresh, clean, Earthy→ neutral Objectionable
seaweedy
Texture Firm, elastic No elasticity Very soft, spongy

Flavour Sweet, meaty Neutral Sour, bitter,

rancid, itchy
Texture Firm, juicy Less juicy, Dry, chewy
(cooked) crumbly
pH 6.2-6.8 6.8-7.0 7.5-8.0
HOW CAN WE SLOW
DOWN/ STOP SPOILAGE?

PRESERVATION
• keeping the fish in a fresh state so that the changes in
texture, taste and appearance, etc. are minimized

PROCESSING
• changing the properties of the fish so that deterioration is
slowed or halted, but its characteristics also alter according
to the processed used

Preparing and Handling Fish |Group 1A

 • the bacterial flora of the fish and the enzymes
PRESERVATION present in the tissues are adapted to the
METHODS temperature at which the fish lives (5-10ºC in cold
waters and 25-30ºC in the tropics)
TEMPERATURE
CONTROL • the bacterial and autolytic spoilage rates can
therefore be reduced by lowering or raising the
temperature

• the lower the temperature, the slower the

bacterial and enzyme activity will be and
consequently, the longer the storage life
 CHILLING
PRESERVATION
• Most common practice in keeping the freshness
METHODS
of the fish
TEMPERATURE • Reduction of temperature to some point below
CONTROL (-1.1 to -2.2ºC) or above (0ºC) the freezing
point of the fish muscle
• it does not stop spoilage but slows it down
considerably
• main objective is to cool the fish as quickly as
possible, to as low temperature as possible,
without freezing
 ICE
PRESERVATION • ideal medium for chilling
METHODS • simply solid water which has been changed from

TEMPERATURE liquid to solid state by the removal of heat energy

CONTROL o Latent heat of fusion- defined as the

amount of energy which must be removed
from 1g of water to change it from liquid to
solid at 0ºC
o Specific heat – amount of heat required to
raise the temp. of 1g of a substance by 1ºC)
PRESERVATION
METHODS
• Latent heat of fusion for water = 334.7 J/g
TEMPERATURE or 80 cal/g
CONTROL
• Specific heat of water = 4.2 J/g or 1 cal/g
 HO W MUCH I CE I S N EED ED ?
PRESERVATION If it is assumed that wet fish has a specific of 4 J/g, the amount of

METHODS heat which would need to be removed would be equivalent to :

weight of fish x temperature change x specific heat
TEMPERATURE
CONTROL Therefore, the energy required to chill 60 kg of fish from 30ºC to 0ºC
would be:
60,000 x (30-0) x 4 = 7,200,000 J or 7,200 kJ

As 1 kg of ice will absorb 334.7 kJ when it melts, the amount of ice

required can be calculated as:

7200 kJ
= 21.5 kg
334.7 kJ/kg
 HO W MUCH I CE I S N EED ED ?
PRESERVATION If it is assumed that wet fish has a specific of 4 J/g, the amount of

METHODS heat which would need to be removed would be equivalent to :

weight of fish x temperature change x specific heat
TEMPERATURE
CONTROL How much energy is required to chill 30 kg of fish from 20ºC to 0ºC
would be:
30,000 x (20-0) x 4 = 2,400,000 J or 2,400 kJ

As 1 kg of ice will absorb 334.7 kJ when it melts, how much ice is

required?

2400 kJ
= 7.17 kg
334.7 kJ/kg
PRESERVATION • Normal ratio of ice to fish (used in the tropics) = 1:1 by weight
METHODS • If the storage container is insulated, the ratio could be as low
as 1:5
TEMPERATURE • Re-icing is needed to keep the fish chilled for a prolonged
CONTROL period.
• If insulation is inadequate, it could be augmented by
refrigeration --> to remove the heat entering the container
wall, and not to chill the fish
PRESERVATION STO RAGE LI FE O F FI S H I N I CE
METHODS • Storage life – the length of time that the fish will remain

TEMPERATURE edible if stored in ice

CONTROL
• Ice storage is relatively short-term method of
preservation, with storage lives varying between a few
days and about 4 weeks
PRESERVATION FACTO R S AFFECTI N G THE LEN GTH
METHODS O F STO RAGE O F FR ES H FI S H

✓ Species
TEMPERATURE
✓ Size
CONTROL
✓ Method of capture
✓ Fat content
✓ Breeding condition
✓ Feeding regime
✓ Method of killing
 FA C TO R S A F F E C T I N G T H E L E N G T H O F
S TO R A G E O F F R E S H F I S H
PRESERVATION
• Species
METHODS

TEMPERATURE ✓ Non-fatty keep longer than fatty fish

CONTROL
• The higher the fat content of the fish flesh, the softer
and more delicate the texture and structure of the fish

• fatty fish contains high concentration of lipid which is

prone to degradation and oxidation
 FA C TO R S A F F E C T I N G T H E L E N G T H O F
S TO R A G E O F F R E S H F I S H
PRESERVATION
• Species
METHODS

TEMPERATURE ✓ Freshwater keep longer that marine fish

CONTROL
• The flesh of freshwater fish contains an antibacterial
substance (which inhibits invasion of the flesh by spoilage
bacteria) that is not found in marine fish

• Freshwater fish do not generally contain any appreciable

quantities of trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) present in
marine fish
 FA C TO R S A F F E C T I N G T H E L E N G T H O F
S TO R A G E O F F R E S H F I S H
PRESERVATION • Species
METHODS ✓ Fish from warm waters keep longer that fish from temperate waters
• Studies show that there is some correlation between environmental
TEMPERATURE
temperature and spoilage rate
CONTROL
• Evidence suggests that the bacteria and enzyme systems in the live
fish are adapted to normal environmental temperatures ; as there is
much greater drop from tropical ambient temp. to ice temp. than
there is from temperate conditions to ice temp., the inhibitory effect
of the ice is much pronounced and therefore the biological processes
are slowed to a greater degree
PRESERVATION METHODS OF CHILLING

METHODS
• Wet Icing

TEMPERATURE • the most common and useful way of chilling the fish catch

CONTROL • Cooling is effected by the direct contact between the melted ice
and the fish
• Heat transfer is from warm fish to ice -> melting of ice
• The fish is cooled down by melted ice
 THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN ICING FISH

PRESERVATION ✓ Sufficient ice must be used to maintain fish temperature at 0ºC

o 1:1 ice to fish ratio
METHODS
o more ice than fish (for longer trips)
TEMPERATURE ✓ Arrangement of fish -> easy draining of accumulated water, blood, and slime

CONTROL ✓ Ice and fish should be placed alternately to avoid localized heating. Fish
must be surrounded with ice on sides, top, and bottom.
✓ When packing mixed fish:
o Big fish and fish with scales at the bottom; small fish and those with
delicate skin on top
✓ For gutted fish:
o Fill belly cavity with ice and arrange with belly down in a slanting
position
PRESERVATION METHODS OF CHILLING

METHODS
• Chilled Seawater (CSW) or Ice Slurry

TEMPERATURE • Also termed as “slush ice”

CONTROL • Mixture of seawater and crushed ice

• The amount of ice depends on the initial temp. of the water and
the fish, the container size and insulation quality, and the length
of trip
PRESERVATION
Advantages Disadvantages
METHODS
CSW chills fish much faster than CSW chilled fish do not
TEMPERATURE wet ice necessarily keep longer than
wet iced fish
CONTROL Fish in CSW do not suffer from
physical damage due to crushing
or pressure from other fish

Fish in CSW are washed in slurry

PRESERVATION Other Methods

METHODS
• Refrigerated air (air chilling)

TEMPERATURE • Employed in big commercial boats

CONTROL • Uses air blowers -> for air circulation

• Fish are packed in containers and stacked in the fish hold
• Chilling is much slower than that of icing and CSW
• Cooling time generally exceeds 24 h
• Slow heat transfer from stacked cases of fish to the chilled air
PRESERVATION Other Methods

METHODS
• Dry ice

TEMPERATURE • Solid carbon dioxide

CONTROL • Colling is effected by the evaporation of dry ice

• Should not be used in direct contact with fish due to very low
temp. used (-78.9ºC) -> may result to cold burns
• Preferred for air shipment of fish as this does not cause leakage
• Use of dry ice is subject to restrictions because it expands from
solid form into gas and may expel oxygen, posing hazard to the
safety of airplanes

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PRESERVATION OTHER METHODS

METHODS
• Gel ice mat

TEMPERATURE • Made by freezing a water-based gel

CONTROL • The advantage is that all water is bound with no chance of water
leakage during thawing
• Suitable for air transport of fish

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 PRESERVATION TYPES OF ICE

METHODS
• Block ice

TEMPERATURE • made by freezing water in forms (cans or moulds) of the desired

CONTROL size, depending on the requirement

• Rarely used directly for cooling fish because of their size and
weight
• Must be crushed into small pieces
• melts slowly but is easy to transport in insulated containers to
the villages

https://www.idea2makemoney.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Comp2-14.jpg
PRESERVATION TYPES OF ICE

METHODS
• Crushed ice

TEMPERATURE • Usually comes from blocks or slabs broken down through

CONTROL mechanical crushers or manually

• Irregular in size with sharp edges
• Can cause physical damage to the flesh of the fish

https://www.wintereffects.com/medi
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PRESERVATION TYPES OF ICE

METHODS
• Flake ice or “scale”

TEMPERATURE • Commonly produced from freshwater as thin flakes

CONTROL • Advantage: small particles -> give good ice-fish contact because
of a large surface area
• Disadvantages:
o denser than crushed ice so more flake ice has to be used to
achieve the same cooling as crushed ice
o tends to clump and it melts very rapidly making it less

https://www.eurotec.co.nz/wp- practical for longer transport

content/uploads/2017/12/Flake-Ice.png
PRESERVATION TYPES OF ICE

METHODS
• Tube ice

TEMPERATURE • made by freezing water on the inside surface of a tube

CONTROL • lasts longer and melts more evenly than the other shaped ice
• useful for transporting fish in insulated containers
• bulk density is midway between that of flake ice and crushed ice
• not practical for icing due to its cylindrical shape
• could bruise the fish because of its relatively large size

https://ice.com.ph/wp-content/uploads/sites/37/2020/11/ice-tube.jpg
 M E T H O D S O F S TO R I N G F I S H I N I C E
PRESERVATION
1. Bulking
METHODS
• done by layering the ice and the fish to achieve intimate contact,

TEMPERATURE which will insure maximum storage life in ice

CONTROL • usually utilized in the hold of fishing boats to economize the space
• Disadvantages:
• Fish can be physically damaged through the pressure of the fish
above and the pressure of ice
• Bulked fish are of poorer quality that shelved or boxed fish after
the same storage time
• Unloading of catch is difficult, which could result to rough
handling
 M E T H O D S O F S TO R I N G F I S H I N I C E
PRESERVATION
2. Shelfing
METHODS
• applicable to larger species which are gutted

TEMPERATURE • done by storing fish in single layers, gut cavity down on a bed of ice;

CONTROL sometimes a little ice is spread on top

• designed to ensure bleeding through the cut surface of the fish to
retard spoilage by chilling
• shelved fish, if well iced on top, are of better or at least of equal
quality of bulked fish
• the fish can be separated easily into different catches
 M E T H O D S O F S TO R I N G F I S H I N I C E
PRESERVATION
3. Boxing
METHODS
• preferred method of storing fish in ice

TEMPERATURE • done by layering fish and ice in specially made boxes

CONTROL • Boxes can easily be moved for transport to market or permanently

fixed on board the fishing vessel
• Advantages:
o Segregation of fish can be easily achieved
o Handling is kept to a minimum and with a good boxing practice
fish will not be damaged physically
• Disadvantages:
o occupies greater space than bulking
 T Y P E S O F C O N TA I N E R S
PRESERVATION
Things to consider when selecting a fish container:
METHODS
• Insulating properties
TEMPERATURE • Proper shape and dimensions for the fishery product
CONTROL concerned
• Easy to handle, fill and empty
• Easy to clean and stack
• Constructed from non-poisonous materials
• Adequate provision for drainage of melt-water
 T Y P E S O F C O N TA I N E R S
PRESERVATION Plastic box
METHODS • Plastic- term used to describe a wide range of materials such
as polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP)
TEMPERATURE
CONTROL • composed of very large molecules (polymers)
-these polymers are made up of building blocks called
monomers
• High density polyethylene (HDPE) and polypropylene are
widely used in the manufacture of modern day containers
e.g. containers made of injection molded HDPE which resist
impact, moisture, ang chemicals
 T Y P E S O F C O N TA I N E R S
Plastic box
PRESERVATION
• Polyethylene (PE)
METHODS
• made by subjecting gaseous ethylene monomer to heat and

TEMPERATURE pressure in the presence of a metallic catalyst

CONTROL • Itis classified into:

• low density – 0.910 to 0.925 g/cm3
• medium density – 0.926 to 0.940 g/cm3
• high density – 0.941 to 0.959 g/cm3 (type III)
- 0.960 g/cm3 and above (type IV)
• advantages:
✓ has excellent toughness
✓ resistant to chemicals, oil, and grease
✓ inert to food
✓ has extremely low water vapor transmission properties
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 T Y P E S O F C O N TA I N E R S
PRESERVATION Plastic box
METHODS • High density polyethylene (HDPE)
• proven to be very useful in chilling of fish
TEMPERATURE • very expensive but will last long
CONTROL • can withstand extreme heat or cold
• easy to clean because of their smooth and non-absorbent surface
• usually built with proper drains
• can very well retain coldness inside
 T Y P E S O F C O N TA I N E R S
PRESERVATION Plastic box
METHODS • Polypropylene (PP)
• homo-polymer of propylene
TEMPERATURE • Low density (around 0.902 g/cm3)
CONTROL • Superior processability
• One of the lightest plastics
• Has good resistance to grease and most chemicals
• Provides good barrier to water vapor
• Can withstand high temperatures due to its high softening point
• More rigid, stronger, and lighter than polyethylene
 T Y P E S O F C O N TA I N E R S
PRESERVATION Plastic box
METHODS • Polystyrene (styrophore)
• has a density of 1.0 to 1.1 g/cm3
TEMPERATURE • resistant to weak acids and bases, vegetable oils, and others
CONTROL • can be attacked by compounds containing aromatic and chlorinated
hydrocarbons
• Very pervious to water vapor, oxygen and carbon dioxide
• Low water absorption (usually 0.04 to 0.05%)
 T Y P E S O F C O N TA I N E R S
PRESERVATION Plastic box
METHODS • Polystyrene (styrophore)
• Expanded polystyrene
TEMPERATURE o produced by the addition of blowing agent and usually
CONTROL nucleating agent into the resin
o widely adopted due to its distinct properties relative to its
density, thickness, cell type, and other variables
o extremely resistant to bacteria and mold growth, has very
low water absorption, quite inert, lightweight and
nonabrasive, possess superior cushioning properties, and has
a low thermal conductivity -> prolongs ice life and may
eliminate the need for re-icing
 T Y P E S O F C O N TA I N E R S
PRESERVATION Plastic box
METHODS • Polystyrene (styrophore)
• Expanded polystyrene
TEMPERATURE o Disadvantages:
CONTROL ✓ difficult to clean
✓ do not last long
✓ do not have drainage for melt-water
✓ lack handgrip -> difficult to move
✓ dirt can easily accumulate in the damaged pores
 T Y P E S O F C O N TA I N E R S
PRESERVATION Galvanized Iron (GI) sheet tubs (Bañera)
METHODS • Conical in shape
• The most commonly used container by fishers in the Philippines
TEMPERATURE • Not provided with drains
CONTROL • Corrodes easily
• Have poor insulating property
• Quite difficult to handle due to their fill capacity (around 40-50 kg)
• Becoming less popular locally and are slowly being replaced by
polystyrene boxes
 T Y P E S O F C O N TA I N E R S
PRESERVATION Wooden boxes
METHODS • Can withstand rough handling
• Have relatively good insulating property
TEMPERATURE • Not easily to clean
CONTROL • Slightly difficult to handle because of their weight
• Become hazard to handlers when not properly maintained

Coconut, bamboo, or rattan baskets

• Cheap and easy to handle due to light material
• Difficult to clean
• Do not last long
• can keep fish for 24 h when insulated with coconut fiber pillows
 T Y P E S O F I N S U L AT I O N
PRESERVATION • Insulation in containers - used to slow down rate of heat exchange
between two bodies at different temperatures
METHODS
• Thermal conductivity (k) – measurement of container’s insulating
TEMPERATURE efficiency in preventing heat flow
CONTROL • amount of heat (in kilocalories) passing every hour through one
square meter of material, one meter thick when there is a 1ºC
temp. difference bet. the 2 surfaces of the material
• The lower the k value, the more efficient the insulation of the
material
 T Y P E S O F I N S U L AT I O N
PRESERVATION • Insulation in containers - used to slow down rate of heat exchange
between two bodies at different temperatures
METHODS
• Thermal conductivity (k) – measurement of container’s insulating
TEMPERATURE efficiency in preventing heat flow
CONTROL • amount of heat (in kilocalories) passing every hour through one
square meter of material, one meter thick when there is a 1ºC
temp. difference bet. the 2 surfaces of the material
• The lower the k value, the more efficient the insulation of the
material
o Cork and fiber glass mat
o rice hull, kapok, coconut fibers, sawdust
o Polystyrene
o polyurethane
 T H I N G S TO C O N S I D E R W H E N H A N D L I N G
CHILLED FISH
PRESERVATION
• no form of processing will improve the quality of a spoiled or partially spoiled
METHODS
fish --> “trash in, trash out”

TEMPERATURE ✓Temperature – maintaining low temperature at all stages of fish

preparation
CONTROL
✓Time – all delays must be kept to minimum
✓Contamination – avoid contamination during chilling and storage of
chilled fish
✓Damage – physical damage (bruises, cuts, punctures, etc.) must be
avoided
 FREEZING
PRESERVATION
• Keep fish for several months
METHODS
• A way of stopping, either partly or entirely, the deteriorative activities of

TEMPERATURE microorganisms and enzymes

CONTROL • A form of partial, mild dehydration in which the water is removed as ice
o -10ºC and below – the microorganisms stop multiplying
o About -1ºC (below freezing point) – enzyme activity is rapidly reduced or
re-directed
o Between -1 to -3ºC – the water in the fish flesh begins to freeze
o At -5ºC – about 75% of water in the fish muscle is frozen
o Even at -65ºC – approx. 12% of water remains unfrozen

o
•
 S TA G E S O F F R E E Z I N G P R O C E S S
PRESERVATION • STAGE 1 – REMOVAL OF HEAT
METHODS • The stage where the temperature falls rapidly to just below 0ºC
• The freezing rate at this stage is influenced by air temperature
• High freezing rate is attained by lowering the air temperature
TEMPERATURE
CONTROL • STAGE 2 – CONVERSION OF WATER TO ICE (CRYSTALLIZATION OF WATER)
• At this stage, the temp. remains constant at about -1ºC as the main bulk
(around 75%) of the water in the fish freezes
• Zone of maximum crystal formation (bet. -1 to -5ºC)
• critical zone or period of thermal arrest (slow/ minimal temp. change
during this stage)
• The faster the product passes through the critical zone, the less quality
loss will occur
• Freezing rate is affected by air velocity
 S TA G E S O F F R E E Z I N G P R O C E S S
PRESERVATION • STAGE 3 – FURTHER COOLING OF FROZEN FISH

METHODS • The temp. of fish flesh drops again

• Most of the remaining water becomes frozen
TEMPERATURE • Frozen fish attains desired temp. for storage at around 30ºC
CONTROL
• Freezing time
• the time taken to reduce the temperature from its initial temp. to a given
temp. (around -20ºC) at its warmest (thickest part).
• The final temp. at the thickest portion of the fish must be close to the

required storage temp. of -30ºC.

 TYPES OF FREEZING
• SLOW FREEZING
PRESERVATION • Produce inferior quality products because of protein denaturation
METHODS • The longer the fish is allowed to be at -1 to -5ºC, the greater the extent
of denaturation due to maximum enzyme activity as well as maximum ice
TEMPERATURE
crystal formation
CONTROL • can result to bacterial spoilage
• QUICK FREEZING “SNAP FREEZING”
• General term applied to most freezing processes
• Gives rise to the term IQF or individually quick frozen
• Usually takes 2 h or less to go through the zone of maximum ice crystal
formation
• Warmest portion of the fish should be at -20ºC at the completion of
freezing
 FREEZING SYSTEMS
• AIR BLAST FREEZING
PRESERVATION • Produce inferior quality products because of protein denaturation
METHODS • The longer the fish is allowed to be at -1 to -5ºC, the greater the extent
of denaturation due to maximum enzyme activity as well as maximum ice
TEMPERATURE
crystal formation
CONTROL • can result to bacterial spoilage
• QUICK FREEZING “SNAP FREEZING”
• General term applied to most freezing processes
• Gives rise to the term IQF or individually quick frozen
• Usually takes 2 h or less to go through the zone of maximum ice crystal
formation
• Warmest portion of the fish should be at -20ºC at the completion of
freezing
 FREEZING SYSTEMS
• AIR BLAST FREEZING
PRESERVATION • Continuous flow of cold air is passed over the product
METHODS • Uninform freezing is attained only if the temp. and air speed are constant
• High air speed is necessary to avoid too long freezing times
TEMPERATURE
• Can be of continuous or batch type
CONTROL • Useful in producing IQF products
• Disadvantages:
✓ occupies a lot of space
✓ Consume more power than equivalent plate freezers
 FREEZING SYSTEMS
• CONTACT OR PLATE FREEZING
PRESERVATION • Product is placed in direct contact with hollow, metal, freezer plates
METHODS through which a cold fluid is passed
• Used for freezing products such as whole fish, fillets, shrimps, and other
TEMPERATURE
products into blocks
CONTROL • Vertical type
✓ suitable for freezing whole fish at sea and for bulk freezing
✓ Products are loaded directly into the freezer, not packed in trays,
etc.
• Horizontal type
✓ Require packing of products in trays or cartons before placing in the
freezer
 FREEZING SYSTEMS
PRESERVATION
METHODS • SPRAY OR IMMERSION FREEZING
• Product comes into direct contact with the fluid refrigerant
TEMPERATURE • Used for producing very high value and specialized IQF products
CONTROL • Include liquid nitrogen and carbon dioxide freezers
 FREEZING PROCEDURE
• Quality of raw material and fish preparation must be controlled for the freezing
PRESERVATION
process
METHODS
• Fish for freezing must be kept well iced or chilled before freezing (esp. when

TEMPERATURE slow freezers are used)

CONTROL • Dipping or immersion in iced water or chilled seawater (2 parts ice in 1

part water) for 1 to 2 h → can be used to lower the temp. of fish close to
0ºC
• Avoid overloading of the freezer
• Freezing time must be as short as possible
• For packed/ wrapped fish: the thicker the wrapping, the longer the freezing time
• For unpacked fish: glazing (dipping/ immersion in iced water, 0ºC) must be done
after freezing to prevent dehydration and oxidation of fish during storage
 FREEZING PROCEDURE
• Quality of raw material and fish preparation must be controlled for the freezing
PRESERVATION
process
METHODS
• Fish for freezing must be kept well iced or chilled before freezing (esp. when slow

TEMPERATURE freezers are used)

CONTROL • Dipping or immersion in iced water or chilled seawater (2 parts ice in 1 part
water) for 1 to 2 h → can be used to lower the temp. of fish close to 0ºC
• Avoid overloading of the freezer
• Freezing time must be as short as possible
• For packed/ wrapped fish: the thicker the wrapping, the longer the freezing time
• For unpacked fish: glazing (dipping/ immersion in iced water, 0ºC) must be done
after freezing to prevent dehydration and oxidation of fish during storage
• Recommended storage temp. for frozen products: -30ºC
 QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF FROZEN
PRODUCTS
PRESERVATION
• PROTEIN DENATURATION – changes in appearance and texture
METHODS
• loss of functional properties (solubility, water retention, gelling ability) and

TEMPERATURE lipid emulsifying properties

• gradual decrease in enzyme activities
CONTROL
• LIPID CHANGES – rusting and rancidity (in fatty fish)
• Rusting- movement of oil to the surface of fish during cold storage → yellow
to light brown discoloration
- ascribed to Maillard-type reactions of amino acids or free amino
group of proteins w/ reducing sugars or some lipid oxidation
products
• Rancidity- unpleasant odor and color due to lipid oxidation
 QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF FROZEN
PRODUCTS
PRESERVATION
• FREEZER BURN
METHODS
• Damage due to excessive drying resulting to matt (white patches on the

TEMPERATURE surface of frozen fish) and subsequent change in appearance of the thawed
product
CONTROL
• DEHYDRATION AND WEIGHT LOSS
• Flesh and thin parts become dry and porous
• Loss in weight due to physical damage from dehydration

• DEVELOPMENT OF COLD-STORE FLAVOR AND ODOR

• Due to improper and extended col storage
 T H AW I N G O F F R O Z E N P R O D U C T S
PRESERVATION • THAWING IN AIR
METHODS • Still air- fish is left overnight at room temp. (not higher than 20ºC)
• Moving air (air blast thawing)- air is blown over the fish at a temp. of 20ºC and
TEMPERATURE velocity of 8m/s
CONTROL
• THAWING IN WATER
• by immersion, by spraying, or by combination of the two
• Not recommended → fish might become waterlogged and may lose much of
their flavor
• Water should not be warmer than 18ºC at 5 mm/s thawing rate
 HANDLING FROZEN FISH
PRESERVATION
• ELECTRICAL METHODS
METHODS
• Do not pry fish apart during thawing
TEMPERATURE • Do not put frozen fish on the floor

CONTROL • Use clean containers to thaw fish

• Do not subject frozen fish to repeated freezing and thawing (resistance of
bacteria)
 HANDLING FROZEN FISH
PRESERVATION
✓ Do not pry fish apart during thawing
METHODS
✓ Do not put frozen fish on the floor
TEMPERATURE ✓ Use clean containers to thaw fish

CONTROL ✓ Do not subject frozen fish to repeated freezing and

thawing (resistance of bacteria)
 TECHNICAL PROBLEMS IN FROZEN PRODUCTS
PROCESSING
✓ Browning or blackening of tuna and bonito meat
METHODS
o Oxidation of hemoglobin and myoglobin
TEMPERATURE ✓ Green discoloration of tuna meat

CONTROL o due to TMAO in the flesh

o Other factors like myoglobin content, cysteine
concentration, and cooking conditions
✓ Browning or black spot in shrimps and prawns
o Termed as melanosis
o Due to oxidation of tyrosine and similar substances
into melanin by tyrosinase
 SALTING
PROCESSING • One of the earliest techniques for preserving fish
METHODS • Often used in combination with drying, smoking,
fermenting, canning, and marinating
Preserves by lowering the moisture content of the fish
SALTING •
through osmosis (from low concentration to high
concentration)→ reduced water activity
• 6 to 10% salt content – spoilage organisms generally
cannot survive long
• 26% - saturated brine solution (has 0.75 Aw)
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF SALT
PROCESSING
• SOLAR SALT
METHODS
o Produced by evaporation of water by sun

SALTING • MINED SALT/ ROCK SALT

o From underground salt deposits or dried up salt lakes

• EVAPORATED SALT
• from deeply buried salt deposits which are brought to
the surface in brine solution and evaporated, usually
by heating
 SALT QUALITY
PROCESSING CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
METHODS • Pure common salt – 99.9% NaCl
• Impurities in commercial salts – magnesium and calcium chlorides

SALTING and sulfates, carbonates, copper and iron

• >30ppm iron and >0.5 copper – encourages development of
rancidity
• around 0.5% calcium and magnesium sulfates – impart desirable
whiteness and firmness of the product but causes wetness of salt;
• high concentrations of Ca and Mg– prevent the development of
bitterness and brittleness in salted fish
 SALT QUALITY
PROCESSING MICROBIOLOGICAL QUALITY

METHODS • Halophilic bacteria- result to “pinking” in cured fish

• Halophilic molds- can cause “dun” in salted/ dried fish
- present in rock/ mined salt
SALTING PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• Fine grain salt- suitable for brine solution
• Larger grain salt- more appropriate when dry salting fish
• Recommended salt mixture: 2/3 large grain and 1/3 fine grain

Salt burn – a condition where the fish surface becomes hard due to
(rapid removal of moisture) and prevents the entrance of salt to the
inside of the fish
 FACTORS AFFECTING SALT PENETRATION
PROCESSING • FAT AND PROTEIN CONTENT

METHODS o the higher the fat content, the slower the salt uptake
o Fat- act as barrier both to the entry of salt and withdrawal of
moisture
SALTING o High protein content (18-19%) – water holding capacity of the
proteins increased due to the attraction of negatively
charged Cl ions and positively charged sites of the protein,
thereby making water removal difficult

• THICKNESS OF THE FLESH

o the thicker the flesh, the slower the diffusion of salt to the
center
 FACTORS AFFECTING SALT PENETRATION
PROCESSING • PURITY OF THE SALT

METHODS o the purer the salt, the faster the salt penetration
o Impurities (Ca, Mg, etc.) bind with protein and form a barrier
to the passage of sodium (salt) ions to the thicker part of the
SALTING flesh

• TEMPERATURE DURING SALTING

o Salt uptake is faster at higher temp. but the rate of bacterial
spoilage is also accelerated

• FRESHNESS OF FISH
o The fresher the fish, the more slowly salt will be taken up
 METHODS OF SALTING
PROCESSING • DRY SALTING/ KENCH PROCESS

METHODS o carried out by rubbing fish with salt just before packing and
each layer of fish is sprinkled with salt
o removed water is allowed to drain
SALTING o Recommended for lean fish
o Salt:fish ratio – 3:10 w/w (30%)

• WET SALTING
o brining- placing fish in salt solution (usually saturated)
o pickle curing- starts as dry salting method (1:0.3-0.4
fish:salt ratio); liquid is retained inside the container
o appropriate for oily fish
 SALTED PRODUCTS
PROCESSING • KENCH-CURED FISH (BINORO)

METHODS o denotes a process by which mackerels, sardines, or other

small fish are brined, drained for several hours, and packed
in dry salt
SALTING
• VISAYAN SALTED/ FERMENTED FISH (TINABAL)
o May be classified under fermented products
o Since the fish retains its original shape, it is classified as
salted
o Most commonly used species – parrot fish and frigate tuna
 SALTED PRODUCTS
PROCESSING • SHRIMP CAKE (GUINAMOS)

METHODS o Shrimp added with salt (2:3 salt: fish ratio) and subjected to
tracing (pounding of shrimp-salt mass with mortar and
pestle), and drying
SALTING • SALTED SEA URCHIN
o Have high commercial value because of their gonads
o Tripneustes gratilla – species of commercial value
o color of gonads ranges from orange to yellow and from
greenish yellow to brown
o Bright orange gonads- most preferred in the Japanese market
 SALTED PRODUCTS
PROCESSING
METHODS

SALTING
 SPOILAGE OF SALTED FISH
PROCESSING • “PINK” OR REDDENING

METHODS o Caused by the presence of some species of halophilic bacteria

which have pink or rose color
o Causative agents: Pseudomonas salinaria and Sarcina littoralis
SALTING • Dun
o Characterized by peppering of light brown spots or frawn spots
o Causative agent: molds of the Wallemia genus
✓ Able to grow between 5 and 26% salt concentrations
✓ Optimum RH of 75%; temp. between 10-37ºC (optimum at
25ºC); pH of 4-8 with optimum between 6 and 7
✓ 0.1% sorbic acid- controls dun growth
 SPOILAGE OF SALTED FISH
PROCESSING • SLIMING

METHODS o Semi-greasy, sticky, glistening layer of yellow-gray or beige color

o Sour pungent off-odor
o Caused by slime-producing bacteria that can live in 6-12% salt
SALTING
• SOURING
o Due to improper salting
o results to uneven salt distribution
• SALT BURN
o Due to excessive amount of fine salt that draws moisture rapidly
• “PUTTY” FISH
o Related to sliming ; occurs in thickest part of fish where the rate of
increase of salt concentration is slowest
 DRYING VS. DEHYDRATION
PROCESSING • DRYING

METHODS o Removal of water from the product effected by exposure of

products to natural currents of air and the humidity being
dependent on the ambient prevailing climatic conditions
DRYING
• DEHYDRATION
o Drying by controlled and artificial means (use of mechanical dryers)

below 15% MC- growth of many spoilage organisms is prevented

10% MC- mold growth is completely suppressed
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRYING
• WATER ACTIVITY (aw)
PROCESSING
o Defined as the ratio of the vapor pressure in the product to that of
METHODS
pure water
o Amount of “free” (loosely bound) water or available water needed
DRYING to support biological activity
o Can be measured using Lufft aw meter or by calculation
✓ aw of 0.9 or below- most spoilage bacteria will not grow
✓ aw of below 0.8- most molds are inhibited
✓ aw of below 0.75- bacteria stop to grow
✓ below 25% MC (wet basis)- most spoilage bacteria cease to
grow
✓ below 15% MC (wet basis)- molds seldom grow
 FUNDAMENTALS OF DRYING
PROCESSING
• MOISTURE CONTENT
METHODS
o amount of moisture in the product
o Can be expressed as wet or dry basis or salt- or fat-free basis
DRYING o Commonly measured by drying sample for 24h at 105ºC (oven-
drying method)
 PHASES OF DRYING
PROCESSING 1. CONSTANT RATE PERIOD
METHODS o Water on or near the surface of the fish evaporates
o Rate of drying is influenced by:
✓ Surface are of the fish- the larger the exposed surface area, the faster
DRYING
the evaporation
✓ RH of the air- influences drying rate by limiting the amount of water
the air can absorb
✓ Temperature- affects the rate of heat transfer and the RH
✓ Product thickness- the thicker the fish, the slower the drying rate
✓ Salt content- the lower the salt content, the faster the drying rate
 PHASES OF DRYING
PROCESSING 2. FALLING RATE PERIOD
METHODS o Starts when the water on or near the surface of the fish has already
evaporated
o Characterized by slowly decreasing rate of drying
DRYING
o Drying rate is affected by:
✓ Product shape- the thicker the flesh, the longer the drying time
✓ Temperature- rapid drying with increasing temp.
✓ RH- high RH slows down drying rate
✓ Salt content- short drying time for strongly salted fish
 GROWTH RANGES OF MICROORGANISMS WITH
RESPECT TO WATER ACTIVITY
PROCESSING
METHODS

DRYING

https://www.fao.org/3/t0685e/T0685E04.htm
 TYPES OF DRIED FISHERY PRODUCTS
PROCESSING • DRIED IN THE ROUND OR WHOLE FISH (TUYO)
METHODS o Usually made from small species of pelagic fish (sardines or
anchovies)
o Composition of commercial tuyo:
DRYING
✓ MC: 40% max MC
✓ Salt content: 12%
✓ Aw: 0.78
✓ Histamine: 60mg/100 edible portion
 TYPES OF DRIED FISHERY PRODUCTS
PROCESSING • SPLIT-SALTED FISH (DAENG)
METHODS o Raw materials for this product are threadfin bream (bisugo),
mackerel, milkfish, rabbitfish (samaral), scads (galunggong)
o Physico-chem requirements for commercial “daeng” are similar
DRYING
with “tuyo”
 METHODS OF DRYING
• AIR OR CONTACT DRYING
PROCESSING
o Sun drying (usually take 2 to 3 days, turning fish every 1-2 h)
METHODS
o use of solar dryers
• VACUUM DRYING
DRYING o Uses conduction by contact with a heated surface or radiation to
evaporate water, which is removed by vacuum pump
o Allows rapid drying at low temp. (greater nutrient retention)
• FREEZE DRYING (LYOPHILIZATION)
o works by freezing the material, then reducing the pressure and
adding heat to allow the frozen water in the material to change
directly to a vapor (sublimate)
o At pressures below 0.64 kpa, ice sublimes and remove by vacuum
pump
 MANUFACTURED DRIED PRODUCTS
PROCESSING
METHODS

DRYING
 SPOILAGE AND DEFECTS OF DRIED FISH
PROCESSING • CASE HARDENING
METHODS o Outer portion is dry, inner portion is still moist
o due to rapid drying
o Product has chalky white appearance and is hard and brittle
DRYING
• MOLD GROWTH
o Growth of black, blue, and green molds- due to high MC
• FREEZE DRYING (LYOPHILIZATION)
o works by freezing the material, then reducing the pressure and
adding heat to allow the frozen water in the material to change
directly to a vapor (sublimate)
o At pressures below 0.64 kpa, ice sublimes and remove by vacuum
pump
 SPOILAGE AND DEFECTS OF DRIED FISH
PROCESSING • CASE HARDENING
METHODS o Outer portion is dry, inner portion is still moist
o due to rapid drying
o Product has chalky white appearance and is hard and brittle
DRYING
• MOLD GROWTH
o Growth of black, blue, and green molds- due to high MC
• REDDENING
o Red halophilic bacteria- use of impure salt
• INSECT ATTACK
o Prevention: proper packaging, dipping in dilute “pyrethrum”, and
fumigation of storage spaces
PROCESSING • SMOKING OR SMOKE CURING
METHODS o Preserves through the combined effects of drying, salting, heat
treatment (if precooked) and deposition of chemicals produced
from burning wood
SMOKING
o Carried out using a smokehouse
 SPOILAGE AND DEFECTS OF DRIED FISH
• SMOKING OR SMOKE CURING
PROCESSING
o Carried out using a smokehouse
METHODS o Preserves through the combined effects of:

SMOKING ✓Salting- low salt content is used (around 2-5%)

✓Heat treatment (if precooked)- contributes to bactericidal effect

of smoking

✓Smoke deposition- responsible for the preservation and flavors of

smoked fish; has antioxidant and bactericidal properties (due to
carboxylic acids and phenols)

✓Drying- occurs simultaneously with smoke deposition

 FACTORS AFFECTING GENERATION OF SMOKE
• TYPE OF WOOD
PROCESSING o Softwood is not recommended (resinous and imparts acrid flavor)
METHODS o Sawdust, wood chips, and hardwood (preferred)
• TEMPERATURE

SMOKING o the quicker the product dries, the lesser smoke is absorbed
• RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH)
o High RH favors smoke absorption but slower drying
o Best RH for smoking: about 60%
• SMOKE VELOCITY, DENSITY, AND AIR FLOW
o Increased smoke velocities, improved smoke absorption
o The thicker the smoke, the faster the rate of smoking
o Higher airflows → more complete burning and promote higher
combustion temp. → faster generation of smoke
 TYPES OF SMOKING
PROCESSING • HOT SMOKING

METHODS o temp. may reach 70 to 80ºC

o Cooked product, can be eaten w/o further cooking
o Shelf-life:
SMOKING
o Has desirable characteristic flavor (due to eugenol, syringaldehyde,
acetosyringone, and acetovanillone) and sweet fragrant aroma (due to
furan derivatives)
o Main disadvantage: deposition of carcinogenic substances (PAH such as 3,4
benzo-pyrene → found to be mostly absorbed at 70 to 80ºC)
 TYPES OF SMOKING
PROCESSING • COLD SMOKING

METHODS o temp. usually does not exceed 30ºC

o Shelf-life:
o Product is uncooked (must be kept at low temperatures)
SMOKING
o Typical flavor is due to guaiacol, maltol, phenol, and m-cresol
 TYPES OF SMOKING
PROCESSING • LIQUID SMOKE APPLICATION

METHODS o Liquid that has been used to absorb smoke and then concentrated
o Rapid and easier compared to conventional methods
o Eliminates emission problems
SMOKING
o Can be used by direct addition to the product or by surface application
(wetting, dipping, spraying, and atomization)
o Disadvantage: difficulty in exactly duplicating the flavor and color of
traditionally smoked products
 TYPES OF SMOKING
PROCESSING • ELECTROSTATIC SMOKING

METHODS o negatively-charged product attracts the positively-charged smoke

particles
o Rapid smoking but induces smoke particle deposition on the product
SMOKING
o Hazardous to operators due to utilization of high voltage
 TYPES OF SMOKEHOUSES
PROCESSING concrete type
METHODS

SMOKING

Clay-type“pelon”

mechanical type

Drum type
 SPOILAGE OF SMOKED PRODUCTS
PROCESSING • MOLD AND BACTERIAL SPOILAGE

METHODS o Due to high MC of the product

o Low temp. storage → to prevent bacterial and mold growth

SMOKING
PROCESSING • FERMENTATION

METHODS o Breakdown of organic substances into simpler components mainly by

the action of enzymes aided by microorganisms
o Different to salted fish as it loses the original shape of the fish
FERMENTATION
o 1:3 salt: fish ratio
 FERMENTED PRODUCTS
PROCESSING • FISH SAUCE (PATIS)

METHODS o Produced by hydrolysis of small fish in

nearly saturated solution (usually 20% or
more)
FERMENTATION o fermentation time: 6 months to 1 yr or
more
o Nouc-mam in Cambodia and Vietnam,
nam-pla in Thailand and Laos, kecap
ikan in Indonesia, nga-pi in Burma, and
patis in Philippines
 FERMENTED PRODUCTS
PROCESSING • FISH PASTE (BAGOONG)
METHODS o Undigested residue of the partly liquified fish
o Trassi in Indonesia, belacam in Malaysia

FERMENTATION
 FERMENTED PRODUCTS
PROCESSING
• FERMENTED PRODUCTS ADDED WITH COOKED RICE (BURO)
METHODS
o Fish or shrimp with salt and rice added
o Burong isda (fish+rice); burong hipon or balo-balao
FERMENTATION (shrimp+rice)
o Angkak or angka – enhances fermentation
- a culture of Monascus purpureus
o Lactobacillus plantarum- hydrolyze starch
 METHODS OF HASTENING FERMENTATION
PROCESSING • PHYSICAL MEANS
METHODS o Elevated temp.- between 37 to 42ºC
o agitation- using wooden paddle or non-corrosive tool

FERMENTATION o Grinding- to increase surface area of the flesh → easy to digest by

natural enzymes
 METHODS OF HASTENING FERMENTATION
PROCESSING • APPLICATION OF ENZYMES
METHODS o Use of proteases (protein-digesting enzymes)
✓ Bromelin – pineapple

FERMENTATION ✓ Papain- papaya

✓ Pepsin and trypsin – animals
✓ Proteolytic bacteria (Brevibacterium sp., Bacillus sp., and
Micrococcus sp.)
✓ Proteolytic molds (Aspergillus oryzae)
 METHODS OF HASTENING FERMENTATION
PROCESSING • USE OF ACID
METHODS o Acid hydrolysis
o Addition of hydrochloric and acetic acids

FERMENTATION o Products must be neutralized before completion of the fermentation

process
 GENERAL PROCEDURE
• RAW MATERIALS
PROCESSING
o Sardines (tunsoy), scad (galunggong), mackerel (hasa-hasa), achovy
METHODS
(dilis), alamang, oyster and mussel meats
• MIXING WITH SALT
FERMENTATION o 3:1 – 5:1
• FERMENTATION:
o More than a month, usually 6 months or more
• SUITABLE CONTAINERS:
o Plastic buckets, concrete tanks, earthen jars, plastic/ oil drums, oils
cans, and wooden cats
• PACKAGING:
o Plastic, glass bottles w/ plastic caps
 • PICKLING AND MARINATING
PROCESSING
o Preservative action is due to combination of sugar and salt
METHODS
o commonly used for fatty fish (not cured well by ordinary salting
PICKLING AND method)

MARINATING o Products have short shelf-life (semi-preserves)

o Product quality is dependent on maturation

Maturation- stage when fish has acquired the characteristic tender

texture and distinct desirable pickle flavor
 PRESERVATIVE ACTION OF INGREDIENTS
• SALT
PROCESSING o Prevents growth of microorganisms
METHODS o Affects maturation: high concentration → firmer product
• VINEGAR

FERMENTATION o Gives flavor to pickles, makes product firm, and acts as preservative
(for short period only)
o Acetic acid- active component which accounts for its antiseptic
property
o 15% acetic acid- bacterial growth can be completely stopped
o 5% or more acetic acid- retard spoilage for weeks (possibly months if
chilled)
o Commercial acetic acid- 2-3% grain strength
o Distilled vinegar- high grain strength (usually used for pickling)
 PRESERVATIVE ACTION OF INGREDIENTS
PROCESSING • SUGAR
METHODS o Preserves by increasing the thickness of pickling solution → lower aw
o Adds sweetness to the product

FERMENTATION • SPICES
o Mask the product color and odor rather than inhibit spoilage
o Whole cloves, black pepper, bay leaves, onions, and “allspice”,
cinnamon
o some spices have antioxidant properties
 PICKLING PROCEDURE
PROCESSING • RAW MATERIAL
METHODS o Sardines/ herrings (containing 5-15% fat)
• PREPARATION

FERMENTATION o Soaking in 10% salt solution for 1 h to firm the fish

• MARINATING/ PICKLING
o Immersion in strong acetic acid(around 10%) for 3 weeks
o 1:1 to 1.5:1 fish: liquid ratio - open vats (usually applied)
o 2.3:1 fish: liquid ratio – closed vats
o Takes 1 (in warm room) to 3 weeks (in cold room)
o Can be stored for 6 months at 3ºC
 PICKLING PROCEDURE
• PACKING
PROCESSING
o Glass jars
METHODS
o Fish: liquid ratio = 1:1 and 2:1 (liquid should contain 1-2% acetic acid
and 2-4% salt)
FERMENTATION • STORAGE
o 3ºC (keep the products for at least 3 months)
 • MINCED FISH
PROCESSING
o Can be defined as deboned and unwashed fish flesh from fillets or
METHODS
frames and is produced at the initial step of surimi manufacturing
MINCED FISH o Product obtained after feeding the fish in the meat-bone separator
PROCESSING o Unstable during frozen storage due to enzymes, pigment, lipids, and
moisture

• MINCED FISH PROCESSING

o One way to attain maximum utilization of fish flesh
o Suitable for fish with low market value, seasonal, and caught in
abundance
 • MEAT-BONE SEPARATORS – equipment used for the production of minced

PROCESSING fish; uses the work principle of screw extrusion to squeeze meat into

METHODS mince and leak it out of the screen

MINCED FISH
PROCESSING
 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
PROCESSING
• Higher yield than filleting • Change in color, texture, and flavor
METHODS
• Able to separate 8-12% flesh from filleting waste • Smaller market
MINCED FISH • End product is free from bones → widely • Spoils faster than fillets
PROCESSING acceptable
• flesh from undervalued species (difficult to fillet)
can be removed by meat-bone separator
• exercise better control over flavor, appearance,
and keeping quality
• Rancidity can be controlled more easily by intimate
mixing with permitted antioxidants
• Can be molded into different shapes
 • SURIMI

PROCESSING o Minced fish paste

o Japanese term for semi-processed frozen minced fish protein
METHODS
o has undergone leaching by water and cryoprotectants (sugars and
MINCED FISH polyphosphates) have been added → lengthens the functional
PROCESSING properties of surimi during freezing and frozen storage
o Any fish can be utilized as raw material but white-fleshed fish are
preferred
 • CRYOPROTECTANTS
PROCESSING o protein stabilizer; anti-freezing agents
METHODS o reduce viscosity, improve moisture retention, and enhance the protein
stability during frozen storage
MINCED FISH o prevents protein denaturation and stabilizes its functional and
PROCESSING structural properties by bonding with functional groups of proteins
o Sucrose and sorbitol- cheap, easily available, and have low tendency to
impart browning (Maillard reaction), however, give strong sweet flavor to
products
o polyphostphates (sodium tri-polyphosphate and sodium pyrophosphate)-
enhance water holding capacity of frozen surimi → smoother paste
-recommended amount: should not exceed 0.3%
 HOW DOES CRYOPROTECTANT WORK?
PROCESSING
METHODS
MINCED FISH
PROCESSING
 SURIMI PROCESSING
PROCESSING
METHODS
MINCED FISH Cleaning
Meat-bone
separation
Leaching/
washing
Dewatering/
dehydration
Straining Mixing
PROCESSING
✓ Increase elasticity (gel-forming capacity
✓ Removes fat, skin, blood ✓ Removes remaining
✓ Removes off-odors scales, connective
✓ Produces bland tasting meat tissues, and small
✓ Improves resistance to damage bones
✓ Removes water-soluble proteins and
natural flavors
✓ 3-5% sugar
✓ Screw press, hydraulic press, ✓ Not more than 0.3%
or centrifuge polyphosphates
✓ For small-scale operation,
cheese cloth and nylon mesh
 QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF SURIMI
PROCESSING • GEL STRENGTH
METHODS o rheometer
o tensiometer
MINCED FISH
o sensory evaluation
PROCESSING
o folding and teeth-cutting tests

• COLOR (DEGREE OF WHITENESS)

o whiteness meter
 • THERMAL PROCESSING
PROCESSING o food sterilization technique done by heating food at a temperature
METHODS high enough to destroy microbes and enzymes
o A process that involves the application of heat to food inside a
CANNING/ THERMAL hermetically sealed container
PROCESSING • CANNING
o process which produces commercially sterilized product
o generic term used in the process of preservation for storage by
thermal treatment and removal of atmosphere
o one of the best methods of preventing spoilage that results from
microbial action
o carried out at temp. of 121.1ºC using steam under pressure or in
retorts
PROCESSING CANNING PROCESS
METHODS
Placing the fish in the freshest
CANNING/ possible condition into the can
THERMAL
Removal of air by heat
PROCESSING treatment

Hermetically sealing the lid

Sterilizing the fish by further

processing
 CANNER’S NO. 1 ENEMY
PROCESSING
METHODS • Clostridium botulinum
o Food poisoning organisms that are likely
CANNING/ THERMAL to produce lethal poisons inside sealed
PROCESSING cans
o Forms heat resistant spores → enable it
to survive mild thermal processing
 CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS BASED ON ACIDITY
PROCESSING
Does it support the
METHODS Classification Examples growth of C.
Type of heat
treatment needed
botulinum?
CANNING/ THERMAL HIGH ACID (pH below
CITRUS FRUITS,
Pasteurization
PINEAPPLE, NO
PROCESSING 4.5)
BLACKBERRIES
(5 min. at 80ºC)

Pasteurization
TOMATOES, PEACHES,
NO (15 min. at 100ºC)
PEARS
MEDIUM ACID (pH 4.5
to 5.3) FISH PRODUCTS
Sterilization (more
CANNED IN TOMATO YES
than 100ºC)
SAUCE
MEAT, FISH,
Sterilization
LOW ACID (pH above POULTRY, CORN,
YES (60 min. at 121.1ºC)
5.3) GREEN VEGETABLES,
POTATOES
 • PASTEURIZATION
PROCESSING
o Mild heat treatment
METHODS
o Given to foods that do not support the growth of heat-resistant
CANNING/ THERMAL microorganisms
PROCESSING
• STERILIZATION
o Severe heat treatment
o Given to foods capable of supporting the growth of resistant
microorganisms (e.g. low acid canned foods)
PROCESSING
• ABSOLUTE STERILIZATION
METHODS o Complete destruction of microorganisms

CANNING/ THERMAL o Not preferred for food processing → destroys the texture of the food

PROCESSING
• COMMERCIAL STERILIZATION
o Aims to destroy the contaminating Clostridium botulinum and other
heat sensitive microorganisms
 CONTAINERS USED IN THERMAL PROCESSING
PROCESSING
METHODS • TIN CANS
o Widely used containers for fish
o 99% steel with thin layer of tin (resistant to chemical attacks; protects
CANNING/ THERMAL base metal from corrosion)
PROCESSING o Should be C-enameled to prevent blackening of the product du to
ferrous sulfide formation

• ALUMINUM CANS
o Preferred by most canners nowadays due to the ff. reasons:
✓ Easy to manufacture
✓ Attractive appearance
✓ Lower transport cost (due to light weight)
✓ Good corrosion resistance properties
✓ Easy to open
 CONTAINERS USED IN THERMAL PROCESSING
• ALUMINUM CANS
PROCESSING o Disadvantages:
METHODS ✓ Have the tendency to bleach some pigments
✓ High manufacturing cost
CANNING/ THERMAL
• GLASS
PROCESSING o Used for home canning/ bottling
o Advantages:
✓ Reusable
✓ Easy to open and re-seal
✓ No special sealing equipment needed
✓ Easy to inspect product quality
✓ Minimized chemical reactions
o Disadvantages:
✓ Heavy and breakable
✓ Slower heat penetration and production speeds
✓ Not suitable for light-sensitive products
 CONTAINERS USED IN THERMAL PROCESSING
PROCESSING • RETORT POUCH PACKS
METHODS o Used as alternative to tin cans and glass containers
o Made from different films or layers
CANNING/ THERMAL o Advantages:
PROCESSING ✓ Easy to open and re-heat
✓ Reduced production time
✓ Retained desirable sensory characteristics→ minimized
overcooking
✓ Greater retention of heat labile ingredients
✓ Lower transport cost
 CONTAINERS USED IN THERMAL PROCESSING
PROCESSING • RETORT POUCH PACKS
METHODS o Disadvantages:
✓ Slow production speeds
CANNING/ THERMAL ✓ Difficulty in heat sealing
PROCESSING ✓ Reduced efficiency of thermal process due to irregularity in
pouch profile
✓ Requires regulation of counter pressure to prevent pouch
expansion and strain to heat seal

• PLASTIC CAN
o Thermoformed from multi-layered co-extruded plastics such as
polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC)
o Advantage:
✓ Microwaveable
 PACKING METHODS IN CANNING
PROCESSING
METHODS • COLD ORR RAW-PACK METHOD
o Fish is packed cold or raw in cans or glass jars
CANNING/ THERMAL
o Ingredients and suitable liquid are added after
PROCESSING
packing

• HOT-PACK METHOD
o Fish is pre-cooked and packed while still hot
 EQUIPMENT FOR THERMAL PROCESSING
PROCESSING • BATCH RETORTS
METHODS o For commercial sterility
o Uses saturated steam under pressure
CANNING/ THERMAL
o The greater the pressure, the greater will be the temp. at which the
PROCESSING steam condenses on the outer walls of the can
o Can be static vertical or horizontal

Horizontal retort

Static vertical retort

 EQUIPMENT FOR THERMAL PROCESSING
PROCESSING • CONTINUOUS RETORT
METHODS o Require that the container must be loaded in the heating chamber w/o
releasing the internal pressure
CANNING/ THERMAL
o Continuous rotary cooker, continuous agitating retort, and hydrostatic
PROCESSING
retorts

Static vertical retort

• STERIFLAMME
o french sterilizer using flames and cooling water
o Cooling is achieved by the cans rolling under water sprays
 GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR CANNING
• RAW MATERIAL
PROCESSING o Only fresh must be used
METHODS
• FILLING INTO CANS
CANNING/ THERMAL o Uniform and accurate filling to maintain uniform headspace (too small
headspace → bulging of can ends
PROCESSING
• EXHAUSTING/ SEALING
o To produce partial vacuum in the headspace
o Headspace vacuum - empty area left between the top of the jar’s
contents and the inside of the lid
✓ can be achieved by hot filling/ sealing, sealing under steam, and
vacuum sealing
✓ Standard for cans: 3/16 (4.76mm); Range: 2/16 to 4/16 (3.18 to
6.35 mm)
✓ Jars: less that 6% of the content volume
 GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR CANNING

PROCESSING • HEAT PROCESSING

METHODS o Commercial processing/ heat sterilization

CANNING/ THERMAL • COOLING

PROCESSING o Products are cooled immediately after processing→ avoid greater
degree of overcooking
o Air, pressure, and water cooling
o Bottled products- air cooled
o Large cans, glass containers, and flexible pouches – pressure cooling
o Slow cooling → leads to germination and multiplication of
thermophilic spores (if they survive)
 MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS

PROCESSING
METHODS
CANNING/ THERMAL
PROCESSING
 SPOILAGE AND TECHNICAL PROBLEMS
• CURD FORMATION AND ADHESION
PROCESSING o Adhesion -fish meat sticks to the inner side of the can; common if raw,
METHODS previously frozen fish are canned
- prevention: moistening the inside of the can with distilled
CANNING/ THERMAL
water or 0.1% silicon resin
PROCESSING
o Curd – soft white, sometimes stiff gray coagulated mass on the surface
of the flesh
- prevention: soaking raw meat in brine (3% for 20- 30 min.
• GLASS-LIKE CRYSTAL/ STRUVITE FORMATION
o Common in marine canned foods
o Magnesium-ammonium phosphate
o Prevention: addition of citric acid to canned foods
 SPOILAGE AND TECHNICAL PROBLEMS

• HONEYCOMBING IN CANNED TUNA

PROCESSING
o Swelling of gelatinous part like soap bubbles
METHODS
o Due to the pressure of gases during evaporation
CANNING/ THERMAL
PROCESSING • BLACKENING OF TUNA MEAT
o Caused by iron-sulfide (salt impurities) and hydrogen sulfide (form the
meat)
o Prevention: refined salt

• BLACKENING OF CANNED SHRIMPS AND CRABS

o Hydrogen sulfide (form meat) + ferrous ion from tin imperfection
 SPOILAGE AND TECHNICAL PROBLEMS

• SOFTENING OF CANNED SHRIMPS

PROCESSING
o Decomposition of protein to soluble non-protein substances
METHODS
o Takes place when raw material is not fresh
CANNING/ THERMAL
PROCESSING • BLUE DISCOLORATION OF CANNED CRABS
o Due to haemocyanin/ copper-containing respiratory pigment in the
blood of arthropod and mollusk.
o Prevention: effective removal of blood
- rinsing of pickled meat w/ 1% citric, acetic, lactic, or
tartaric
 OTHER SPOILAGE PROBLEMS IN LOW ACID
FOODS
• FLAT SOUR
PROCESSING
o due to B.stereothermophilus; can usually flat with possible lost of
METHODS
vacuum; lowered pH with souring odor.
CANNING/ THERMAL
PROCESSING • THERMOPHILIC ANAEROBE
o due to C. saccharolyticum; can swells then burst, has fermented,
butyric smell.

• SULPHIDE STINKER
o due to C. nigrificans, can can usually flat; has foul smell; H2S
production; produce black spores
 OTHER SPOILAGE PROBLEMS
IN LOW ACID FOODS
PROCESSING
• PUTREFACTIVE ANAEROBES
METHODS o due to C. sporogenes, C. botulinum; can swells then burst; has product

CANNING/ THERMAL digestion with putrid odors and pH increase

PROCESSING
• THERMOPHILIC ANAEROBE
o due to C. saccharolyticum; can swells then burst, has fermented,
butyric smell.

• SULPHIDE STINKER
o due to C. nigrificans, can can usually flat; has foul smell; H2S
production; produce black spores
 • ADDITIVES
PROCESSING
o refers to any substance the intended use of which results or may
METHODS
reasonably be expected to result, or indirectly, in its becoming a
USE OF FOOD component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food

ADDITIVES (including any substance intended for use in producing, manufacturing,

packing, processing, preparing, treating, packaging, transporting, or
holding food; and including any source of radiation intended for any such
use), if such substance is generally recognized, among experts qualified
by scientific training and experience to evaluate its safety, as having
been adequately shown through scientific procedures to be safe under
the conditions of the intended use. (PFAD, 1987)
 PURPOSE OF ADDITIVES
PROCESSING
METHODS ✓ Maintenance of nutritional quality of the food
✓ Improvement of keeping quality or stability of food
USE OF FOOD
✓ Making food attractive to consumers
ADDITIVES
✓ Giving essential aids in food processing
 ADDITIVES IN FISH PROCESSING
PROCESSING
CODE FOOD ADDITIVE
METHODS
100-199 COLORING AGENTS

USE OF FOOD 200-299 MAINLY PRESERVATIVES

ADDITIVES 300-399 MAINLY ANTIOXIDANTS AND FOOD

ACIDS
400-499 THICKENERS, VEGETABLE GUMS,
EMULSIFIERS, STABILIZERS AND
HUMECTANTS
500-599 MINERAL SALTS, FLOUR TREATMENT
AGENTS, ANTI-CAKING AGENTS,
ACIDITY REGULATORS, COLOR
RETENTION AGENTS
600-699 FLAVOR ENHANCERS

900-999 GLAZING AGENTS, BLEACHING AGENTS,

ARTIFICIAL SWEETENERS
 TYPES OF ADDITIVES

PROCESSING • ANTIBIOTICS
METHODS o Chemical substances produced by certain microorganisms

USE OF FOOD o can inhibit or entirely stop the growth of several kinds of
microorganisms
ADDITIVES
o Some antibiotics that are found to be applicable in aquatic products
✓ Chlortetracycline from Streptomyces aureofaciens
✓ Oxytetracycline from Streptomyces rimosus
✓ Biostat or oxytetracycline hydrochloride
 TYPES OF ADDITIVES

PROCESSING • ANTIOXIDANTS

METHODS o Extend shelf-life of food by preventing oxidation

USE OF FOOD • NATURAL ANTIOXIDANTS

ADDITIVES o Tocopherol (Vit.E) – deposited in the adipose tissue of the fish
o Ascorbic and citric acid (Vit. C) — mainly from citrus fruits and usually
combined with other antioxidants

• SYNTHETIC ANTIOXIDANTS
o Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) — soluble in oil or alcohol but not in
water
o Butylated Hydroxyanisole (BHA) — potent in animal fats, not affected
by high temp under alkaline condition, stable in metals, insoluble in
water, soluble in ethanol and propylene glycol.
o Propyl Gallate (PG) — most widely used antioxidant
 How do they work?
PROCESSING
METHODS ✓ Oxidizable (reactive to oxygen)
✓ oxygen reacts preferentially
USE OF FOOD with BHA or BHT rather than
ADDITIVES oxidizing fats or oils
✓ Fat soluble

https://www.thoughtco.com/bha-and-bht-food-preservatives-607393
PROCESSING
METHODS
USE OF FOOD
ADDITIVES
PROCESSING
METHODS
USE OF FOOD
ADDITIVES

https://www.fao.org/gsfaonline/docs/CXS_192e.pdf
 TYPES OF ADDITIVES

PROCESSING • PRESERVATIVES
METHODS o Added to foods to prevent or inhibit the growth of spoilage organisms.

USE OF FOOD o Benzoic acid, sodium benzoate, citric acid, sorbic acid, sodium
citrate, polyphosphates
ADDITIVES
 TYPES OF ADDITIVES

PROCESSING
METHODS • EMULSIFIERS/ STABILIZERS
o Emulsifiers - Added to food to ensure that oil and water mixtures do
USE OF FOOD not separate layers (e.g. Polysorbates, lecithin, mono/diglycerides of
ADDITIVES fatty fish, etc._
o Stabilizers — make possible the maintenance of uniform dispersions of
two or more substances in a food which are incapable of being mixed.
(e.g. Mg stearate, etc.)
 TYPES OF ADDITIVES

PROCESSING • THICKENERS AND VEGETABLE GUMS

METHODS o Enhances texture and ensure uniform consistency.
o Usually extracted from seaweeds.
USE OF FOOD
✓ Alginic acid and its salts (Na, K, NH4, Ca, and propylene glycol
ADDITIVES alginates)
Three basic types of carrageenan
o Kappa-carrageenan — contributes strong and bitter flavor
o Iota-carrageenan — gives soft and elastic gel
o Lambda-carrageenan — mainly adds viscosity and body to the product
 TYPES OF ADDITIVES

PROCESSING
METHODS • FLAVOR ENHANCERS
o Improves the existing flavor and or
USE OF FOOD o aroma in food
ADDITIVES ✓ Monosodium L-glutamate (MSG)
✓ Monopottasslum and monoammonium
✓ L-glutamate
 TYPES OF ADDITIVES

PROCESSING
METHODS • FOOD COLORS
o Imparts color or shade to a food; to make them
USE OF FOOD attractive or restore color
ADDITIVES o Natural— curcumin, turmeric, xanthophyll;
o Artificial — tartrazine, azorubine, etc.
 TYPES OF ADDITIVES

PROCESSING
• HUMECTANTS
METHODS
o hygroscopic substance that is used to keep things

USE OF FOOD moist.

ADDITIVES o The purpose of including humectants in original

products is to control water activity within foods.
o By drawing in moisture in the air, humectants prevent
foods from drying out, crystallizing, and breaking
apart.
o This helps food hold its shape and texture.
 ADDITIVES PERMITTED IN THE PHILIPPINES
PROCESSING
• GROUP 1
METHODS
o Directly added to food

USE OF FOOD o anti-microbial agents, antioxidant synergists,

ADDITIVES antioxidants, emulsifiers, anti-caking agents, etc.

• GROUP 2
o Processing aids
o Anti-foam agents, clarifying agents, contact freezing
agents, etc.
• GROUP 3
o Flavoring agents