04 Frequency Domain Analysis of

Addis Ababa Science and Technology University
College of Electrical & Mechanical Engineering

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department
Signals and Systems Analysis (EEEg-2121)
Chapter Three
Frequency Domain Analysis of Continuous-Time
Signals and Systems
Frequency Domain Analysis of Continuous-Time
Signals and Systems
Outline
 The Continuous-time Fourier series (CTFS)
 Properties of the Exponential CTFS
 The Continuous-time Fourier transform (CTFT)
 Some Common CTFT Pairs
 Properties of the CTFT
 Frequency Response of Continuous-Time LTI Systems
 Frequency Domain Analysis
Semester-II, 2018/19 2
The Continuous-time Fourier series
 Continuous-time signals and systems can be analyzed in

frequency domain using:
 The Continuous-time Fourier series (CTFS)
 The Continuous-time Fourier transform (CTFT)
 The Laplace Transform
 The continuous-time Fourier series (CTFS) is used to analyze

periodic continuous-time signals and systems.
 The continuous-time Fourier series (CTFS) has two forms:

Trigonometric CTFS and Exponential CTFS
The Continuous-time Fourier series Cont’d…..
i. Trigonometric CTFS
 An arbitrary continuous-time periodic signal x(t) with
fundamental period T0 can be expressed as follows:
 
x(t )  a 0   a n cos(n 0 t )   bn sin( n 0 t )
n 1 n 1
where :
2
0  is the fundamental angular frequency
T0
a 0 , a n and bn are the trigonome tric CTFS coefficien ts

The Continuous-time Fourier series Cont’d….
 The trigonometric CTFS coefficients are calculated as follows:
1
a0 
T0  x(t )dt
T0
2
an 
T0  x(t ) cos(n t )dt
T0
0
and
2
bn 
T0  x(t ) sin(n t )dt
T0
0
CTFS Coefficients for Symmetrical Signals:
 If the periodic signal x(t) with angular frequency ω0 exhibits

some symmetry, then the computation of the CTFS coefficients is
simplified considerably.
 Some basic properties of the trigonometric coefficients of the

CTFS for symmetrical signals are listed below.
1. If x(t) is zero-mean, then a0 = 0. In such cases, one does not

need to calculate the dc coefficient a0.
2. If x(t) is an even function, then bn = 0 for all n. In other words, an

even signal is represented by its dc component and a linear
combination of a cosine function of frequency ω0 and its higher
order harmonics.
3. If x(t) is an odd function, then a0 = an = 0 for all n. In other

words, an odd signal can be represented by a linear combination
of a sine function of frequency ω0 and its higher order harmonics.
4. If x(t) is a real function, then the trigonometric CTFS coefficients

a0, an, and bn are also real-valued for all n.
Exercise:
1. Consider the continuous-time periodic signal x(t) shown in the

figure below.
a. Calculate the trigonometric CTFS coefficients.
b. Determine the trigonometric CTFS representation of x(t).

2. Calculate the trigonometric CTFS coefficients for the
continuous-time signal x(t) given by:
   
x(t )  3  cos 4t    sin10t  
 4  3
3. The CTFS of a continuous-time periodic signal x(t) is given by:

sin 4 (2m  1)t 
2 1
x(t )  
 m  0 2m  1
a. Determine the fundamental period T0 of x(t).
b. Comment on the symmetry properties of x(t).

The Continuous-time Fourier series Cont’d…..
ii. Exponential CTFS

 An arbitrary continuous-time periodic signal x(t) with
fundamental period T0 can be expressed as follows:

x(t )  n
c e jn0t
n  
where :
2
0  is the fundamental angular frequency
T0
c n is the exponential CTFS coefficien t

 The exponential CTFS coefficient cn is calculated as follows:
1

 jn0t
cn  x (t ) e dt
T0 T0
 The basis functions corresponding to the trigonometric and

exponential CTFS are related by Euler’s identity as:
e  jn0t  cos(n0 t )  j sin(n0 t )
 The exponential and trigonometric CTFS coefficients are also

related to each other.
 The relationship between exponential and trigonometric CTFS

coefficients is derived by expanding the trigonometric CTFS
series as follows:
 
x(t )  a0   a n cos(n 0 t )   bn sin( n 0 t )
n 1 n 1
   
 
a n jn0t bn jn0t
 a0   e e  jn0t
 e e  jn0t
n 1 2 n 1 2 j
 Combining terms with the same exponential functions, we

obtain:
1  1 
x(t )  a0   a n  jbn  e jn0t
  a n  jbn  e  jn0t
2 n1 2 n1
 The second summation can be expressed as follows:

 1

 n n
a  jb  e  jn t0
  an  jbn  e jn0t
n 1 n  
 This leads to the following expression:
1  1 1
x(t )  a0   an  jbn  e jn0t
  a n  jbn  e jn0t
2 n1 2 n
 Comparing the above expansion with the definition of
exponential CTFS gives:

a 0 , n0

1
c n   a n  jbn  n0
2
1
 a  n  jb n  n0
2
 The exponential CTFS provide a more compact representation

compared with the trigonometric CTFS.
 However, the exponential CTFS coefficients are generally

complex-valued.
 For real-valued functions, the coefficients cn and c-n are

complex conjugates of each other.
Existence of the CTFS:

 The CTFS representation (trigonometric or exponential) of a
periodic function x(t) exists if all CTFS coefficients are finite
and the series converges for all n.
 In other words, there is no infinite value in the magnitude

spectrum of the CTFS representation.
 For the CTFS representation to exist, the periodic signal x(t)

must satisfy the following three conditions.
i. Absolutely integrable
• The area under one period of |x(t)| is finite, i.e.
 x(t ) dt  
T0
ii. Bounded variation
• The periodic signal x(t) has a finite number of maxima or

minima in one period.
iii. Finite discontinuities
• The period x(t) has a finite number of discontinuities in one

period. In addition, each of the discontinuity has a finite
value.
 The above conditions are known as the Dirichlet conditions.
 If these conditions are satisfied, it is guaranteed that perfect

reconstruction is obtained from the CTFS coefficients.
 Most practical signals satisfy these three conditions.
Properties of the Exponential CTFS
 The exponential CTFS has several interesting properties that are

useful in the analysis of continuous-time signals.
1. Symmetry property
 For real-valued periodic signals, the exponential CTFS

coefficients cn and c-n are complex conjugates of each other, i.e.,
1
c n  (a n  jbn ) for n  0 and
2
1
cn  (a n  jbn ) for n  0
2
Properties of the Exponential CTFS Cont’d……..
2. Linearity
x1 (t )  c n and x 2 (t ) 
CTFS
 d n
CTFS
 a1 x1 (t )  a 2 x 2 (t )  a1c n  a 2 d n
CTFS
3. Amplitude scaling
x(t )  cn  ax(t ) 

CTFS
 acn
CTFS
4. Time shifting
x(t )  cn  x(t  t 0 ) 

CTFS
 cn e  jn0t0
CTFS
5. Time scaling
 t  CTFS
x(t )  cn
CTFS
 x   can
a
6. Time reversal
x(t )  cn  x(t ) 

CTFS
 cn
CTFS
7. Differentiation in the time domain
dx(t ) CTFS
x(t )  cn
CTFS
  jn0 cn
dt
8. Integration in the time domain
cn
x(t )  cnCTFS
  x(t )dt 
CTFS
T0
jn 0
9. Parseval’s theorem
 The power of a periodic signal x(t) can be calculated from its

exponential CTFS coefficients as follows:

1
Px   x(t ) dt   cn
2 2
T0 T0 n  
 For real-valued signals, |cn| = |c-n|, which results in the

following simplified formula:
 
Px  c  c0  2 cn
2 2 2
n
n   n 1
Exercise:

figure below.
a. Calculate the exponential CTFS coefficients.
b. Determine the exponential CTFS representation of x(t).

2. Consider the following continuous-time periodic signals which
are derived from x(t) given above.
 
a. x1 (t )  x t   c. x3 (t )  2 x2t 
 4
b. x 2 (t )  x t 
dx(t )
d . x 4 (t ) 
dt
Using properties of exponential CTFS, determine:
a. the exponential CTFS coefficients.
b. the exponential CTFS representation of the signals.

The Continuous-time Fourier Transform
 The continuous-time Fourier transform (CTFT) of a non-

periodic continuous-time signal x(t), denoted by X(ω), is
defined as:

X ( )   x(t )e  jt dt

 The inverse CTFT is given by:
1 
x(t ) 
2  
X ( )e jt d
The Continuous-time Fourier Transform Cont’d….
 We say that x(t) and X(ω) are CTFT pairs and denote this
relationship as:
x(t )  X ( )
CTFT
Existence of the CTFT:
 For the CTFT representation to exist, the continuous-time non-

periodic signal x(t) must satisfy the following three Dirichlet
conditions.
The Continuous-time Fourier Transform Cont’d…...
i. The signal x(t) is absolutely integrable


x(t ) dt  
ii. The signal x(t) has a finite number of local maxima, minima
and discontinuities in any finite interval.
iii. The signal x(t) has a finite number of discontinuities in any

finite interval. In addition, the size of each discontinuity is
finite.
Exercise:
1. Find the CTFT of the following continuous-time signals.
a. x(t )  e  at u (t ) , a0
b. x(t )  e at u (t ) , a0
c. x(t )   (t )
d . x(t )  cos( 0 t )
2. Find the inverse CTFT of:
1 ,   c

a. X ( )  
0 ,
 otherwise
b. X ( )   ( )
c. X ( )  2 cos(2 )
Some Common CTFT Pairs
Some Common CTFT Pairs Cont’d…....
Properties of the CTFT
1. Linearity property
x1 (t )  X 1 ( ) and x 2 (t ) 
CTFT
 X 2 ( )
CTFT
 a1 x1 (t )  a 2 x 2 (t )  a1 X 1 ( )  a 2 X 2 ( )
CTFT
2. Time scaling property
1  
x(t )  X ( )  x(at )  X  
CTFT CTFT
a a
Properties of the CTFT Cont’d….
3. Time shifting
x(t )  X ( )  x(t  t 0 ) 

CTFT
 e  j0t X ( )
CTFT
4. Frequency shifting
x(t )  X ( )  e j0t x(t ) 

CTFT
 X (  0 )
CTFT
5. Differentiation in the time domain

dx(t ) CTFT
x(t )  X ( ) 
CTFT
 jX ( )
dt
 By repeatedly applying the time differentiation property, it is

straightforward to verify that:
n
d x(t ) CTFT
x(t )  X ( ) 
CTFT
n
 ( j ) n
X ( )
dt
6. Differentiation in the frequency domain:
x(t )   X ( )
CTFT
dX ( )
 ( jt ) x(t ) 
CTFT
d
7. Time reversal
x(t )  X ( )  x(t ) 

CTFT
 X ( )
CTFT
8. Time integration
x(t )  X ( )
CTFT
t X ( )
  x( )d  CTFT
 X (0) ( )
 j
9. Convolution
x1 (t )  X 1 ( ) and
CTFT
x 2 (t )  X 2 ( )
CTFT
 x1 (t ) * x 2 (t )  X 1 ( ) X 2 ( )
CTFT
10. Multiplication
x1 (t )  X 1 ( ) and
CTFT
x 2 (t )  X 2 ( )
CTFT
 x1 (t ) x 2 (t ) 
CTFT 1
X 1 ( ) * X 2 ( )
2
11. Parseval’s energy theorem
 Parseval’s theorem relates the energy of a signal in the time

domain to the energy of its CTFT in the frequency domain.
 It shows that the CTFT is a lossless transform as there is no

loss of energy if a signal is transformed by the CTFT.
 1 
Ex   x(t ) dt   X ( ) d
2 2
 2 
Frequency Response of Continuous-time LTI Systems
 An important representation for a continuous-time LTI system

is obtained by calculating the CTFT of the impulse response
h(t), i.e.,
h(t )  H ( )
CTFT
 The CTFT H(ω) is referred to as the frequency response of the

continuous-time LTI system.
 In conjunction with the linear convolution property, the

frequency response H(ω) can be used to determine the output
signal y(t) of the system due to the input signal x(t).
Frequency Response of Continuous-time LTI Systems……
 We know that the output y(t) of a continuous-time LTI system

equals the convolution of the input x(t) with the impulse
response h(t), i.e.,
y(t )  x(t ) * h(t )

 Calculating the CTFT of both sides of the above equation by
applying the convolution property, we obtain:
Y ( )
Y ( )  X ( ) H ( )  H ( ) 
X ( )
Frequency Response of Discrete-time LTI Systems…..
 The above equation provides an alternative definition for the

frequency response as the ratio of the CTFT of the output signal
and the CTFT of the input signal.
 The relationship between the input signal x(t) and output signal
y(t) can also be described using a constant-coefficient
differential equation as:
N
d k y (t ) M d k x(t )

k 0
ak
dt k
 bk
k 0 dt k
Frequency Response of Continuous-time LTI Systems…..
 Taking the CTFT of both sides of the above equation by

applying the linearity and time-differentiation properties, we get:
N M
 k
a (
k 0
j ) k
Y ( )  k
b ( j
k 0
 ) k
X ( )
 Thus, the frequency response can be expressed as:

M
 b  j 
k
Y ( ) k
H ( )   k 0
X ( ) N
 ak  j 
k
k 0
Frequency Response of Continuous-Time LTI Systems…..
Exercise:
1. The input to a continuous-time system is given by:
x(t )  e 2t u(t )
The output y(t) of the system to the above input is found to be:
y(t )  e t u(t )
Find the frequency response H(ω) and the impulse response

h(t) of the given system.
Frequency Response of Continuous-Time LTI Systems…..
2. Consider a continuous-time LTI system whose input–output

relationship is described by the following second-order
differential equation:
d2 d d
2
y(t )  5 y(t )  6 y(t )  2 x(t )  5 x(t )
dt dt dt
Calculate the frequency response H(ω) and the impulse response
h(t) for the continuous-time LTI system.
Frequency Domain Analysis
 The procedure for evaluating the output y(t) of continuous-time

LTI system in the frequency domain consists of the following
four steps.
1. Calculate the CTFT X(ω) of the input signal x(t).
2. Calculate the CTFT H(ω) of the impulse response h(t) of the

The CTFT H(ω) is referred to as the frequency response of the

Frequency Domain Analysis Cont’d………
3. Based on the convolution property, the CTFT Y(ω) of the

output y(t) is given by Y(ω) = X(ω)H(ω).
4. Calculate the output y(t) by taking the inverse CTFT of Y(ω)

obtained in step (3).
 The CTFT-based approach is convenient for many reasons.

 The CTFT-based approach is simpler to use than the time-domain
approach which is based on the convolution integral.
 The CTFT-based approach provides us with a meaningful insight

into the behavior of many systems.
Frequency Domain Analysis Cont’d……
Exercise:
Consider a continuous-time LTI system with impulse response

given by:
sin(10t )
h(t ) 
t
Find the output y(t) of the system if the input is:
a. x(t )  sin(5t ) c. x(t )  sin(8t )  sin(20t )
b. x(t )  sin(15t )
Exercise
1. Determine the exponential CTFS representation for each of the

following continuous-time periodic signals.
a. x(t )  cos  0 t 
b. x(t )  sin  0 t 
 
c. x(t )  cos 2t  
 4
d . x(t )  cos 4t   sin 6t 
e. x(t )  sin 2 t 
Exercise Cont’d……..
figure below.
a. Calculate the trigonometric & exponential CTFS coefficients.
b. Determine the trigonometric & exponential CTFS

representation of x(t).
3. Find the frequency response and impulse response of the

continuous –time system described by the linear constant-
coefficient differential equation:
d2 d d
2
y(t )  3 y(t )  2 y(t )  2 x(t )  x(t )
dt dt dt
4. Determine the frequency response of a continuous-time system

with impulse response:
sin 2 (2t )
h(t ) 
t 2
5. Consider a continuous-time LTI system with impulse response

given by:
sin(2t )
h(t )  cost 
t
Find the output y(t) of the system if the input is:
a. x(t )  sin(4t ) c. x(t )  cos(2t )  sin(t )
b. x(t )  cos(t )  sin(6t )

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Addis Ababa Science and Technology University

College of Electrical & Mechanical Engineering

Signals and Systems Analysis (EEEg-2121)

 Continuous-time signals and systems can be analyzed in

 The Continuous-time Fourier series (CTFS)

 The Continuous-time Fourier transform (CTFT)

 The Laplace Transform

 The continuous-time Fourier series (CTFS) is used to analyze

 The continuous-time Fourier series (CTFS) has two forms:

a 0 , a n and bn are the trigonome tric CTFS coefficien ts

 The trigonometric CTFS coefficients are calculated as follows:

CTFS Coefficients for Symmetrical Signals:

 If the periodic signal x(t) with angular frequency ω0 exhibits

 Some basic properties of the trigonometric coefficients of the

1. If x(t) is zero-mean, then a0 = 0. In such cases, one does not

2. If x(t) is an even function, then bn = 0 for all n. In other words, an

3. If x(t) is an odd function, then a0 = an = 0 for all n. In other

4. If x(t) is a real function, then the trigonometric CTFS coefficients

1. Consider the continuous-time periodic signal x(t) shown in the

a. Calculate the trigonometric CTFS coefficients.

b. Determine the trigonometric CTFS representation of x(t).

3. The CTFS of a continuous-time periodic signal x(t) is given by:

a. Determine the fundamental period T0 of x(t).

b. Comment on the symmetry properties of x(t).

ii. Exponential CTFS

c n is the exponential CTFS coefficien t

 The exponential CTFS coefficient cn is calculated as follows:

 The basis functions corresponding to the trigonometric and

e  jn0t  cos(n0 t )  j sin(n0 t )

 The exponential and trigonometric CTFS coefficients are also

 The relationship between exponential and trigonometric CTFS

 Combining terms with the same exponential functions, we

 The second summation can be expressed as follows:

 This leads to the following expression:

 The exponential CTFS provide a more compact representation

 However, the exponential CTFS coefficients are generally

 For real-valued functions, the coefficients cn and c-n are

Existence of the CTFS:

 In other words, there is no infinite value in the magnitude

 For the CTFS representation to exist, the periodic signal x(t)

• The area under one period of |x(t)| is finite, i.e.

ii. Bounded variation

• The periodic signal x(t) has a finite number of maxima or

iii. Finite discontinuities

• The period x(t) has a finite number of discontinuities in one

 The above conditions are known as the Dirichlet conditions.

 If these conditions are satisfied, it is guaranteed that perfect

 Most practical signals satisfy these three conditions.

 The exponential CTFS has several interesting properties that are

 For real-valued periodic signals, the exponential CTFS

x(t )  cn  ax(t ) 

x(t )  cn  x(t  t 0 ) 

x(t )  cn  x(t ) 

7. Differentiation in the time domain

8. Integration in the time domain

 The power of a periodic signal x(t) can be calculated from its

 For real-valued signals, |cn| = |c-n|, which results in the

1. Consider the continuous-time periodic signal x(t) shown in the

a. Calculate the exponential CTFS coefficients.

b. Determine the exponential CTFS representation of x(t).

a. the exponential CTFS coefficients.

b. the exponential CTFS representation of the signals.