MACA (Lepidium peruvianum) MONOGRAPH

SYNONYMS

 Lepidium peruvianum G. Chacon

 Lepidium sp.
 Lepidium peruvianum Chacón sp. nov.

COMMON NAMES

Peruvian Ginseng, maca-maca, maino, macca, maha, Dr. macasi, Ayak, chichira, Ayuk
Willku, huto-huto, Small flake.

USED PART

Root

HISTORY

The cultivation of "maca", a native Peruvian plant that grows in the Andes, specifically
in the tropical Andes, dates back to approximately 3800 B.C. (or before). Evidence of
this is found in archeological sites left behind by local inhabitants of that period, as well
as from the Chaupihuaranga river sub-basin, in the Department of Pasco. Agriculture in
the Andes, over 4000 meters a.s.l., was determined by climatic factors, the adaptation by
certain species, among which are "maca", "shiripapa" and "mauna".

Jorge León in 1964 (10) pointed out that ancient Peruvians had a well-developed
agriculture. Based on their creativity and labor, theirs is comparable to modern
ecological agriculture. This is how they achieved the domestication of Andean species
that still are so today, and how they propitiated the formation of microclimates, adequate
for high-altitude cultivation. Proofs of this are the vestiges of irrigation channels, fences,
ridges and terraces found today.

In the plateau of Junín or Bonbón one can find the remains of this intensive agriculture
activity, at altitudes where there is no present cultivation. We can state, without a doubt,
that the Central Peruvian Andes was a center for domestication and cultivation of plants
with particular characteristics, such as "maca". Their agricultural management style dates
back to the oldest of the high Andean plateau, which could have existed even before
"shiripa" and potato were planted.

It is believed that around the years 1200 and 100 years B.C., wild primitive groups called
"Pumpush " traveled to the riverbanks of lake Chinchaycocha (Junín) and they settle in
that region, possibly looking for better lands for their subsistence. It is believed that this
hardened race is the one who domesticated "maca"; starting a cultivation that, because of
the uniqueness of its traditional technology, is thought to be the product of "God and
man's patient hand through the centuries", who had to face the harshest weather typical
of those altitudes, suffocating mid-day heat and extreme nighttime cold.

According to some authors, around the years 1100 at 1470 D.C., Aymara shepherds,
called Yarovillcas, invaded the areas of the high plateau and Jalca in the central
mountain range. Waldemar Espinoza refers to the Yaros as "farmers and outstanding
ranchers, who were extraordinary "maca" farmers, a much sought-after tuber for its
fabulous aphrodisiac and fertility properties".

The historian María Rostworowski (17), in her work "The Ayamarcas" (primitive
inhabitants of Cusco), comments that this ethnical trajectory of the Ayamarcas is not
common in the Peruvian history. Similarly, while analyzing the significance of their
name, which derived from the words Ayar and "maca", indicates that Ayar means "wild
quinoa" while "maca" was known in the Tahuantinsuyo Empire as an Andean plant of
great importance that grew in elevated ecological steps, where corn did not grow.

According to this author, the name " Ayar " could have been given by the Incas as a
justification for continuity between primitive and Inca ethnicity, after gaining control
over them; and "maca", attributed to the root utilized since prehistoric times, whose
magical origin was attributed to its fertility properties.

The Inca Empire adopts the cultivation of "maca" after general Pachacútec invades the
lands of Chinchaycocha in the central mountain range. However, it was not until Huaya
Capac, the last Inca ruler, who after conquering the Pumpush through the "mitimaes"
(prestigious pacifying colonists sent to warring regions) that they devote themselves
exclusively to the cultivation of "maca" in the Bonbon plateau, vital crossroad between
Cusco and the Chinchaysuyo region.

According to XVI and XVII century chronicles, the Inca troops were fed "maca" because
it was believed to give vitality and physical strength to the warriors. It is said that during
the Inca period it was cultivated in the entire plateau, being sent to Cusco as a tribute
from the Pumpush to the Tahuantisuyo Incas. Vasquez Espinoza mentions as "a root
with so much firethat it leaves the ground sterile wherever it is planted, leaving little
strength in it to plant again...". Rostworowski shares the opinion of the peasants that
plant it nowadays, who say that "maca" impoverishes the soil in the high plateaus. This
is why it is planted by accumulating humic soil, in virgin soil, or in soil that has been left
unused for several years. This tells us that here we have a plant that on the one hand is
offered as a native nutritional supplement, and on the other depletes the soil of nutrients
in very high proportions.

When the Spaniards arrived in Peru, according to their chronicles, "maca" turned out to
be the most important product being produced, consumed and marketed by the
inhabitants of the high plateau. The settlers themselves did not value its fertility power,
but they did use it successfully to improve the fertility of the mares. The Pumpush
people paid approximately 15 MT of "maca" annually to the agent in Chinchaycocha; the
oddity of which draws attention to the intrinsic value and importance of this plant.
Around the middle of the XIX century there were extensive "maca" plantations in that
area.

Not much was written on "maca" during the XIX century. However, it is noteworthy
that, for the first time, in 1843, this plant was described scientifically; taxonomically
denominated Lepidium meyenii Walp, based on a Peruvian specimen collected in
Pisacoma, in the Department of Puno (Walpers 1843)

The German scientist Augusto Weberbauer, in 1945, pointed-out the existence of

Lepidium meyenii Walp specimens at 4000 meters a.s.l., considering it to be a high
plateau grass. It is in the decade of the 60s that scientific papers, by mostly Peruvian
biologists chemists, engineers, zoologists, pharmacists and physicians, begin to appear in
popular publications. Not much research has been done on "maca" in foreign countries
(15).

MACA PROPERTIES IN THE ANDEAN TRADITION

1. TO ENERGIZE, REVITALIZE AND REGULATE: Used by Tahuantinsuyo Empire

troops before battle, to increase their physical strength. To regulate menstruation, lessen
menopause symptoms and help with insomnia. Recommended as well for malnutrition,
convalescence, memory loss, fatigue and mental weakness.

2. TO AID IN FERTILITY: This is the main quality attributed to this plant by the Incas,
before the arrival of the Spaniards, and the reason why it was considered magical and
used in sacred rites by them and their descendants.

3. AS AN APHRODISIAC: This property is second in importance and parallel to

fertility. Much has been written about this property, as an aid to overcome frigidity.

4. ANTI-ARTHRITIC: It was possibly used for this purpose because shamans and
herbalists categorize it as a "hot plant".

5. RESPIRATORY ILLNESSES: Also probably used for this purpose because of it

being considered a "hot plant"

DESCRIPTION

Annual, tuberous, herbaceous plant that belongs to the Brassicaceae, family. During the
vegetative stage it presents a small rose-like cluster of leaves; during the growth stage it
presents a large rose-like cluster of leaves and flowers, with a large, fleshy root, in the
shape of a radish.

"Maca's" fleshy axis color can be light yellow, purple and almost black or with the
topside purple and the lower yellowish. The Indians, who prefer the first kind, identify
these three types. Internally, by making a cut lengthwise, there are two well-defined
parts: the cortical region, which is light and soft, and presents dark areas; most of this
cortical areas has rich-in-starch "parenquima" and the center cylinder, which is harder
and is formed by radial edges of "xilema", separated by broad "parenquima" sections.

Four varieties of "maca" are identified according to the color of their axis: "cream",
"purplish", "purple" and "black". These colors are due to the intensity of the
"antocianines" of the external layers. Yellow "maca" is preferred because of its color.
Some researchers, such as Juan Tello, Michael Hermann and Abelardo Calderon, found
in 1992 up to 13 different ecotypes in a 758 sample from the Department of Junin;
47.8% of which were yellow, 16.5% were reddish-white and 9% were purple-white.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION

ROOT: Tuberous, of spherical, rounded form, axonomorphe and "napiforme". A variety

of colors, from light yellowish, through whitish pink, to spotty, all the way to purple and
black; about 3-6 cm across and 4-7 in length.

STEM: Short and not very visible, "acaule".

LEAVES: Rose-like growth, made up of an enlarged sheath, long petiole, composed

smooth surface, 6 to 9 cm. in length

FLOWERS: Flowers grow in clusters, however can sometimes be simple,

hermaphrodites, axilary, actinomorphes, light green and small.

FRUIT: Ovoid shape, 1-2 cm wide yellowish-red in color, with a single seed in each cell.

The root of the "maca" is not a tuber. The floral formula given to this plant is as follows:
K4, C4, A2-4, G-2.

PHYTOCHEMICAL STUDIES (15)

Following are key research projects that shed light on the most important "secondary
metabolites of "maca"":

1. Gloria Chacón R. In her thesis "Phytochemical Studies of Lepidium meyenii Walp",

San Marcos University, Lima-Peru 1961 summarizes:

- Alkaloids (up to 4 fractions)

- Starch, glucosides, fatty acids, tannins and scarce saponines.

2. Timothy Johs, in his thesis "Etnobotany and Phytochemistry of Tropaelum tuberosum

and Lepidium meyenii from Andean of South America", U.British Columbia -Canada
1980, mentions the following conclusions:
- Bencil and p-methoxibenzile glucosinolates, the author mentions that there is a
relationship between the presence of aromatic glucosinolates and the process of human
reproduction.

3. Virginia Garró, Enrique León and Betty Julca in their research paper: "Extraction,
separation and identification of "maca" alkaloids through chromatography", University
of San Marcos, Lima-Peru 1993, were able to separate four alkaloids and fractions.

4. María G. Yllesca Gutierrez presents in her thesis: "Chemical and Phytochemical

comparative study of 3 Lepidium meyenii echotypes" reports the presence of the
following compounds

- three alkaloids and one flavonoid

- steroids and/or trypterphenes
- phenolic compounds
- flavonoids and/or coumarins
- tannins
- glycosides
- saponins
- free amino acids
- secondary aliphatic amines
- tertiary amines.

5. Virginia Garró, Enrique León, Cesar Fuerte and Eriberto Carrasco, in their paper:
"Chemical and biological studies of Lepidium meyenii" reported:

- chlorophormic phase: alkaloids

- methanolic phase: fructose and alkaloids

6. Hugo Jeri Cardinal, in his thesis entitled: "Phytochemical study of Lepidium meyenii
Walp", Pasco, Peru 1995, reported the presence of:

Secondary Metabolites:

- alkaloids
- anthocyamines (responsible for the external coloration of the roots).
- flavonoides
- terpenoides/triterpenoides.
- Dextrine.

7. Dr. Cesar R. Fuertes, in his scientific paper: "Botanical and chemical study of yellow
and purple Lepidium peruvianum, "maca". Evaluation of their sharp toxicity"
Phytotherapy Institute of America, Lima, Peru, 1997, reported the following results:
Yellow "maca"

- 3 alkaloids
- 2 flavonoids
- saponins
- 3 glycosinolates

Purple "maca"

- 3 alkaloids
- 2 flavonoids
- steroidal saponins
- 3 glycosinolates

CHEMICAL- NUTRITIONAL STUDIES

The following tables show the results of different macro and micro elements of "maca"
as reported in the literature:

"Maca" Composition Based On 100 gr. Consumable Portions

Components Values (g)

Energy (calories) 314
Water 15,3
Protein 11,8
Fat 1,60
Carbohydrates 66,40
Fiber -
Ash 5,00
Minerals (mg)
Calcium 247
Phosphorous 183
Iron 14,70
Vitamins (mg)
Thyamine 0,20
Riboflavin 0,35
Niacine 0
Ascorbic Acid 2,50

*Source: National Institute of Nutrition Lima-Perú 1993

Starch Composition of "maca" Based on 100 g of consumable portions

Components Values
Energy (calories) 350
Proximate Analysis (g)
Water 11,0
Protein 6,10
Fat 1,2
Carbohydrates 80,1
Fiber -
Ash 1,6
Minerals (mg)
Calcium 175,0
Phosphorous 70,0
Iron 31,7
Vitamins (mg)
Thyamine 0,15
Riboflavin 0,07
Niacine 0
Ascorbic Acid 2,80

*Source: National institute of Nutrition Lima-Peru 1993

Comparative analysis of the protein components of raw and cooked "maca", of the light
and dark varieties show that there are no significant differences, as shown in (19):

Protein Components/Light and Dark Maca

Protein Light Dark

Components
Albumins & Globulins 74,01% 72,02%
Glutelins 15,3% 13,32%
Prolamins 10,68% 14,65%
True Protein* 42,19% 41,55%

* Protein constituted by essential amino acids.

 Comparative Analysis of Maca, Potatoes and Carrots Proximate Analysis (%)

Proximate Analysis Maca Potato Carrot

(%)
Protein 10,2 1,9 8,8
Fat 2,2 2,5 1,7
Carbohydrates 59,0 61,4 79,8
Fiber 8,5 1,8 8,8
Ash 4,9 ND ND
*Source: Adapted from Dini et al. /Naples University, Italy.

It is clear that the protein content in "maca" is much superior to that of other species.

Dini et al of the University of Naples and Salerno Italy, publishes a work titled Chemical
Composition of Lepidium meyenii which shows the following results:

Amino Acids (mg concentration / g protein)

1. glutamatic acid 156,5
2. arginine 99,4
3. asparatic acid 91,7
4. Leucine 91,0
5. Valine 79,3
6. Glycine 68,3
7. Alanine 63,1
8. Phenylalanine 55,3
9. Lisine 54,5
10. Serine 50,4
11.Isoleucine 47,4
12.Threonine 33,1
13.Tyrosine 30,6
14.Methionine 28
15.HO-Proline 26
16.Hystidine 21,9
17.Sarcosine 0,7
18.Proline 0,5
19.Cysteine undetermined
20.Tryptophane undetermined

The "maca" amino acid profile is optimal when compared to that of tubers, except for
tryptophane, which was not analyzed, and cysteine, which is formed from methyonine
and phenylalanine.

Similarly, "maca" shows a high iron content, crucial element for acclimatization at high
altitudes (Andes) due to oxygen deficiencies Some authors report the presence of iodine
in fresh "maca"; but this has yet to be confirmed.
 Mineral Content in ""maca"" Potato and Carrot (mg/100g dehydrated matter)

Minerals Maca Potato Carrot

Fe 16,6 3,6 7,4
Mn 0,8 0,8 2,0
Cu 5,9 0,7 0,9
Zn 3,8 - -
Na 18,7 3,6 387
K 2050,0 1850 2504
Ca 150 63 330

Major differences reported in the literature are not apparently due to differences in maca"
varieties, but rather as a result of the origin vis-à-vis the mineral content in the soil.

TOXICOLOGY

Toxicity studies conducted on maca in the U.S. showed absolutely no toxicity or adverse
pharmacologic effects. In animal studies, the more maca animals consume, the stronger
and more sexually active they become.

Studies carried out on 30-day old albino mice, weighing from 20 to 24 g, divided in 13
groups received different doses of micropulverized ""maca"", in doses of 11000 mg/kg
up to 15000 mg/kg. Observations were made from 8 hours after ingestion until 7 days
after the beginning of the trial. Results suggest that levels below 15,000 mg/kg are
innocuous to mice.

Williams' criteria for the scoring of the DL 50 results:

Toxicity DL50 mg/kg
Classification
Extremely toxic < 1
Highly toxic < 50
Moderately toxic < 500
Slightly toxic < 5000
Practically toxic < 15000
Relatively innocuous > 15000

Source: Lida Obregón (15).

PHARMACOLOGY

1. The effect of iron and other components of "maca" root on ferrophenic and
hyperlipidemic anemia were as follows:
 Error Coef.
Element Media DST Min. Max.
St delta
Fe mg/dl before 47 6.15 0,869 13,05 40 59
Fe mg/dl after 61 14.07 1,989 23,06 46 80

*Source: M. Lobaton, "Micronutrients in Lepidium meyenii and Activity in individual

with ferrophenic and hyperlypidemic anemia".

After 30 days with a daily consumption of 20 g of "maca" powder, an increase in the

levels of iron in 50% of the patients can be appreciated. Apparently, this is not only due
to the effect fro Iron in "maca", but to all of the wealth of components previously
described that aid in the anti-anemic action of "maca".

1. In this same study, it is demonstrated that the decrease of the levels of total cholesterol
of 44% of the patients treated. 90% for LDL - cholesterol and 100% of the cases the
triglycerides concentration, just as it is summarized in the following chart:

Analysis of the mean differences in concentrations of Cholesterol, LDL and serum

triglycerides before and after treatment with "maca".

Parameter Mean Mean Difference T P

Before After
Tot. Cholesterol 246 205,3 40,94 12,410 < 0,005
LDL 147 120,58 27,06 11,127 < 0,005
Triglycerides 82 67,70 14,54 7,976 < 0,005

*Source: Lobatón M. Micronutrients in Lepidium meyenii and activity in subject with

ferropheic and hiperlipidemic Anemia."

1. Numerous studies have been conducted to show the effect of "maca" on the fertility of
rats, rams, and guinea pigs.

Chacon (15) showed that the number of young, after a period of 6 months of feeding was
47 for the lot of rats fed with "maca" versus 37 for the group of rats fed a commercial
diets. In this same study an increase was shown in the sperm count in the seminal tubes,
as well as an increase in mitosis and sperm in male rats. In female rats they observed 25
cases of Graff with 6 ova, with augmented endometrium and prolific and active uterus.

Likewise, a significant increase in the volume of ejaculated semen as well as the

spermatic concentration and motility of the sperm was shown in Corriedle rams. (Yauri
and Valerio (15))

The studies demonstrate that "maca" is a natural product with satisfactory results on
fertility. G. Licks and U. Apumaita (15) concluded that "maca" extract has marked
estrogenic properties. Similarly, C. Alvarez (1) (15) showed guinea pigs fed "maca"
powder showed 100% fertility, higher number of young, larger litter weights and the
lowest mortality versus the controls.

Work groups according to diet.

Group "maca" Wheat midds

T-1 0% 100%
T-2 6% 94%
T-3 10% 90%
Results :

Parameter T-1 T-2 T-3

% Sterility 17,24 0,0 0,0
% True Fertility 78,57 96,67 100,0
% Abortions 4,55 0,0 3,33
%Practical prolificity 222,73 293,10 346,67
%Average weight at birth 103,12 105,47 108,62
% Average weaning weight 212,96 212,19 220,45

1. The study of "maca" in mammals and its effect on sexual behavior prove that the
results are positively significant in estrus onset and other reproductive indicators. Tony
Matos T(12) studied Holstein heifers, showing clear external and internal signs; as did
Dalmiro Condor (5) in ewes.

POPULAR USES

 For fertility
 As an aphrodisiac
 Against fatigue
 To strengthen the immune system
 Nutritional supplement
 Steroidal
 As a tonic
 To restore body homeostasis (balance)

RECOMMENDATIONS

Given the high potassium content in "maca", it is recommended not to be used by people
with renal insufficiencies.

RECOMMENDED DOSE:

To be consistent with Peruvian usage levels one should take 3,000-5,000 mg per day of
maca, but one can certainly take more. The more maca or maca extract that is consumed,
the more the likely benefit.