HISTORY OF PLANE SURVEYING

Geodesy (/dʒiːˈɒdɨsi/), sometimes known as geodetics, is a scientific subject that focuses on measuring
and representing the Earth. (Source: Wikipedia.)

Surveying advanced at a faster rate throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. The necessity for
maps and the identification of national boundaries prompted England and France to conduct enormous
surveys requiring precise triangulation, resulting in the birth of geodetic surveys. In 1807, Congress
passed an act establishing the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. Initially, its mission was to
conduct hydrographic studies and create nautical charts. Later, its operations were expanded to include
the installation of control monuments around the country.

Increased property prices and the significance of accurate borders, along with the desire for
public works throughout the canal, turnpike, and railroad eras, propelled surveying into prominence.
More recently, the high pace of general building, numerous land subdivisions requiring better records,
and demands from the disciplines of exploration and ecology have necessitated an expanded surveying
program. Surveying remains a symbol of progress in the development and utilization of the earth's
resources.

The Earliest Surveying Instruments

The fact that a heavy object hanging on a string causes the string to hang perpendicular to the earth is
simple to understand.
This discovery made the plumb bob the first surveying device.

By 2600 BC, we know that the Egyptians had taken this principle and invented the first surveying
instruments: the plumb board, A-Level, T-Level, and plumb square. This was the first plumb bob, placed
against a wood frame parallel to the surface being measured. The worker might then make a more exact
visual decision about the accuracy of the plumb horizontal level.

These early bobs were made of stone, and their form, which was frequently egg-shaped, made little
difference. For the next 4400+ years, these most basic tools remained mostly unaltered.

The advent of the spirit level, along with the start of the Industrial
Revolution, which enabled the level to be made accurately and cheaply, marked the end of the old plumb
tools. For determining plumb and correct horizontal, a level is just a better instrument. It is faster, easier
to operate, and equally accurate. However, the level cannot readily transfer a precise point from one
height to another. The plumb bob is a vital equipment in modern building.
Body measurements served as the foundation for early length standards. The cubit measured from elbow
to fingertip, whereas the foot, palm, and finger units are self-explanatory. The foot was one of the first
length measurements, which naturally varied by district and came in two typical sizes. The first is the
unshod foot of a man, which measures 246 to 252 mm. The second foot measures between 330 and 335
mm and is based on hand measurements. Other units are derived from the Romans, Saxons, Angles, and
Jutes, who all conquered England at some point. The rod, furlong, and acre are all Saxon in origin. The
mile is a compromise between the French-derived Old British mile and the Roman milliarius.

Early Surveying Units:

 Link – 7.92 inches

 Fathom – 5.5 feet
 Rod/Perch – 3 fathoms or 16.5 feet
 Chain 66 feet
 Furlong or Furrowlong – 660 feet
  Mile – 5280 feet or 1760 yards
 League – 3.125 miles

The magnetic compass has been one of the most essential surveying devices throughout history.
The Chinese apparently devised the compass during the Quin dynasty (221-206 BC). Chinese fortune
tellers made their fortune telling boards out of lodestones (a mineral comprised of iron oxide that aligns
itself in a north-south orientation).
Someone eventually observed that lodestones were better at pointing in the right direction, which
led to the invention of compasses. They created the compass on a square slab with marks for the cardinal
points and constellations. The pointing needle was a lodestone spoon-shaped tool with a handle that
always pointed south. Magnetized needles used as direction pointers instead of spoon-shaped lodestones
first emerged in China in the eighth century AD, and they began to become ubiquitous as navigational
equipment aboard ships between 850 and 1050. Zheng He (1371-1435), from China's Yunnan region, was
the first person reported to employ a compass as a navigational tool. He completed seven ocean journeys
between 1405 and 1433.

COLONIAL SURVEYING – COMPASS & CHAIN:

 From colonial times until the 1800s,
surveying in this nation was done with a rudimentary transit or a compass and a "chain".
The most typical surveyor's chain was 66 feet long and consisted of 100 links. A link is
equivalent to 1/100 of a chain, or 7.92 inches. Many ancient deeds recorded at the courts
still utilize these units of measurement. Surveyors' current steel and fiberglass measuring
tapes are still referred to as "chains" in reference to these early surveying technologies.
Other early units of measurement were known as "rods" or "poles," each measuring 16.5
feet. The compass was either fixed on a tripod or a single pole known as a "Jacob Staff".
This early surveying equipment were not particularly exact, but they were adequate in the
days when land prices were 50 cents per acre or below. Eventually, the compass gave way
to transit, and the chain to steel tape. While the compass was only able to determine a line's
magnetic bearing to the closest one-quarter degree, a transit can measure angles between
lines to less than one minute of arc. The steel tape, which was typically 100 or 200 feet long
and graduated in hundredths of a foot, gave far higher precision than the Gunter's Chain.
The transit and tape enabled more exact measurements for land surveying.

Old time surveyor with stadia rod transit and tape.

Theodolite and Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM):
MODERN VS ANTIQUE THEODOLITE
 There are no exact standards that distinguish
between a "Transit" and a "Theodolite". In general, a theodolite is a more exact device. Some theodolites
can measure angles to within 1/10 of a second of arc (one thousandth of a foot in one mile), but most are
1 or 3 seconds. Furthermore, the angles on a transit were read from a circular metal plate calibrated in
degrees and minutes, but the theodolite replaced the metal plate with an internal etched glass plate and the
ability to read an angle via the eyepiece via a series of mirrors and lenses. Topcon's modern surveying
total stationBy the 1970s, relatively tiny, lightweight, and simple electronic distance measuring devices
known as EDMs were widely used. They were mounted on the theodolite and worked by transmitting a
narrow beam of infrared light to a reflector and measuring the time it took to return. As technology
advanced and electronic components became smaller, theodolites that measure angles electronically,
measure distances with their own internal EDM, and display a variety of data on an LCD screen became
possible. These super-theodolites are known as "Electronic Total Stations". In addition to increased speed
and precision, digital data may be immediately "downloaded" to an electronic data collector before being
sent straight to computers for computations or CAD design. In addition to the speed and precision they
provide, the low cost of electronic total stations has enabled them to nearly completely replace all prior
methods and instruments for most survey work. Pictured at right is a modern total station.

Leica FlexLine TS09

GPS – Global Positioning System

The GPS satellite system, also known as NAVSTAR, was created by the Department of Defense
for obvious reasons. There is now a nominal operational constellation of 24 satellites. The Department of
Defense purposely degrades satellite signals receivable by the general people. The system was never
intended for civilian usage. Despite the encryption, some really bright individuals discovered a way to
utilize the GPS carrier signal to compute a receiver's position on Earth. This is made feasible by the
employment of two receivers and exceptionally accurate clocks that timing the signals received from
satellite vehicles (SVs). The widespread availability of extremely precision clocks enables GPS. These
receivers can now determine three-dimensional locations at almost every location on the planet. However,
GPS has limits. The receivers are quite costly, but the price is steadily decreasing. Furthermore, the
receivers must have a pretty clear view of the sky. This means that the device is ineffective inside,
beneath tree canopy, or in canyon-like environments. The receivers cannot be utilized near buildings or
vertical surfaces owing to a phenomenon known as multipath. Multipath simply implies that a receiver
receives two signals rather than one due to the reflecting qualities of a vertical surface. Finally, the
available satellites must be in proper geometric configuration across the sky. If the satellites are "bunched
up" around a single spot, the data collected will not yield suitable results. Professional Land Systems uses
GPS for projects that we believe are appropriate candidates for the technology. Cellular tower locations
are an excellent example. The FAA needs know the precise position and height of all towers in order to
navigate aviation traffic. GPS is ideal for this type of application. GPS is also beneficial for areas that
have been cleared of most trees. Real Time Kinematic (RTK) GPS is extremely valuable for building sites
and shopping mall 'as-builts.'

Robotic Surveying Systems

Robotic "one-man" surveying devices are now widely accessible. These are total stations that can
be operated remotely using radios and servo motors. This is a very new and expensive technology to use,
however many surveying organizations find that automated technology is more cost effective than
increasing staff. A robotic surveying device typically costs between $30 and $35,000. [Update: This post
was written around five years ago. The cost of robotic technology has dropped significantly, and it
presently costs under $25,000 as of 2012.] Geodometer (now Trimble Navigation) created the first robotic
total station in 1990. PLS bought a Topcon robotic system in 2006.