ENGINEERING DRAWINGS

Purpose

The first step in the manufacture of an item is the production of a drawing - to

record and convey the requirements of a designer to those whose job it is to
manufacture, assemble, install, inspect, modify or check the particular piece of
equipment.
Drawings must convey ALL the information necessary for the intended
operation, in such a manner that it can be easily understood by any person
trained as an engineer.

Validity
All civil aircraft manufactured in the U.K. are constructed of parts made and
assembled IN COMPLIANCE with APPROVED DRAWINGS i.e. those produced
by an approved (by the C.A.A.) Design Organisation (Primary Company or
Design Organisation).
It is then the responsibility of an "approved" Inspection Organisation to ensure
that all available parts are "correct to drawing" unless suitable concessions are
obtained. Drawings are then certified correct by the chief draughtsmen.
Drawing practice in the U.K. generally conforms to B.S. 308. The particular
requirements for companies within the Aerospace Industry in the U.K. are
covered in the recommendations contained in S.B.A.C. Technical Specification
T.S. 88. Design organisations amend both B.S. and S.B.A.C. systems to suit
their own Design Office Standards so non standard symbols may be found in
aircraft drawings.
For current projects, the I.S.O. system for dimensioning and tolerancing of
drawings is used, but at the present time, Imperial Units, terms and tolerances
may be found on many drawings, particularly related to aircraft of American
manufacture.
Drawing symbols may also be used that are specified in ATA 100 (ATA = Air
Transport Association of America) but again the specification allows the use of
"local" national and manufacturers symbols.
 TYPES OF DRAWINGS

Single Part (Detail)

Shows all the information necessary to completely define an item to be

manufactured or inspected i.e. shape, size, material, treatments, finish, etc.

Collective Single Part (Tabular)

Shows essentially similar items which have only slight differences, i.e.
washers, differing in size, finish and/or material, rivets of differing length,
special bolts etc.

Assembly Drawing (Figure 1)

Shows the positioning of all the single parts necessary to make a component or
part of a component and gives all the information necessary for its correct
assembly.

An essential part of this drawing is a SCHEDULE OF PARTS which may be

incorporated on the drawing or as a separate sheet. Items within the schedule
will be referenced by "ballooning" on the drawing or by grid referencing.

Handed assembly drawings will be annotated RH or LH or PORT or STBD.

QUESTION: With reference to Figure 1. Why is the PARTS LIST

numbered from the bottom up? (. 5 mins)

ANSWER: This allows the draftsperson to add parts as he/she thinks

fit.

QUESTION: Can the list be numbered from the top down - and why?
(5 mins)

ANSWER: Yes - if the PARTS LIST is at the top of the drawing.

Installation Drawing

Issued whenever it is necessary to specify and clarify the exact installation of

components (e.g. fuel system) into a structure (e.g. wing). May be handed LH
or RH.
General Arrangement (GA) Drawing

Produced for main assemblies such as fuselage, systems, etc., or sometimes

parts of main assemblies. They usually indicate profile and overall dimensions
and often internal details as well (sectioned).

LAYOUT OF DRAWINGS

All drawings must bear the following information:

(a) Descriptive title.

(b) Drawing number.
(c) Issue number.
(d) Alterations list.
(e) Name of approved issuing company.

Drawing Number

This identifies each drawing and appears at least once on the drawing. Its
composition is up to the individual company design drawing office. When a
drawing comprises several sheets each bears the same number, but is
annotated Sheet 1 of 3, Sheet 2 of 3, etc.

The drawing number may also be the part number of the item it describes.

QUESTION: The drawing number often appears in the top left hand
corner of the drawing up-side-down. Do you know the
reason for this? (5 mins)

ANSWER: Drawings are stored flat in drawers and when searching for
a particular drawing number the whole sheet does not need
to be disturbed as all the numbers are on the bottom right
hand corner - INCLUDING ANY DRAWING PUT IN THE
WRONG WAY ROUND.

Issue Number and Alterations List

The first drawing issued is assumed to be Issue 1, but when an alteration is

made to the drawing the alteration is noted in the Alterations List with the date
of entry, and the issue number is changed to Issue 2. Thus a drawing must be
identified by:-

(a) Drawing number.

(b) Issue number.
Unaffected parts retain old issue number. New parts take new issue number.

However, if the change affects interchangeability, new parts must be identified

from old by a new part number, and the drawing must be re-issued with a new
drawing number and revert to Issue 1.

The drawing office must make provision for recording all drawings produced
and all changes made to them. This is often called the Master List. In some
drawing offices this is a large book and in other drawing offices it is recorded
on a computer - as are the actual drawings.

DRAWING QUERIES

Raised on "Drawing Query Forms" - result in:

(a) Immediate, provisional answers on query form.

(b) Temporary, fully approved answers in the form of a drawing office
instruction.
(c) Permanent answer by means of a new or re-issued drawing.

"Drawing Query Form" and "Drawing Office Instructions" should be suitably

identified and referenced on the appropriate amended drawing. Other drawings
and stock affected should also be amended as detailed in the answer to the
query above.

New or re-issued drawings should be completed as soon as possible to limit the

number of amendments on any drawing.

In an emergency or where speed is of the essence the drawing

office/manufacturer may be contacted by telephone, fax or e mail.

REFERENCE SYSTEMS (Figure 1)

Around the outside of the drawing a GRID REFERENCE system exists for area
identification purposes.

QUESTION: With reference to Figure 1 can you identify the part

identified by GRID REFERENCE D5? (2 mins)

ANSWER: It is the U shaped channel.

Those drawings which contain a schedule of parts also use BALLOON

REFERENCING to relate items in the schedule to their position on the drawing.
The schedule gives no other information (except the number of each item,
required) other than that required for the assembly, unless the item is N.D.,
i.e. no drawing exists - shims for instance - in which case the material spec, is
usually provided.

Scale

Rarely shown since all dimensions are actual, but scaled up or scaled down
drawings are indicated.

Remember you should not take dimensions straight off a drawing by the use of
a rule (it's called scaling). Drawings are prone to shrinkage and warping during
the manufacturing process so all dimensions must be read from the drawing -
not scaled from the drawing using a rule.

Handed Parts

Drawings of handed parts usually have the left hand (port) part drawn, this
item taking the odd number, and the opposite hand the consecutive even
number. Parts which are not handed have an odd drawing number - usually.

PROJECTIONS

Several types of projections are used e.g.:

(a) Orthographic.
(b) Isometric.
(c) Oblique.
Orthographic Projection (Figures. 2 & 3)
Orthographic projection is predominantly used in engineering. There are four
angles of projection - 1st, 2nd, 3rd, & 4th. But a great deal of confusion is
avoided by only using 1st and 3rd angle orthographic projection. These are
based on a framework of planes at right angles. Both are approved
internationally and have equal status. The system of projection used on a
drawing should be indicated by the appropriate symbol. Up to six views may be
shown.
In FIRST ANGLE projection the view that is looked at is projected on the
OPPOSITE side. e.g. the plan is shown underneath the front elevation and an
end view is shown on the opposite side.
In THIRD ANGLE projection the view that is looked at is shown on the SAME
side of the projection e.g. the plan is shown on the top of the front elevation
and an end view is shown on the same side.
Note the symbol that is used to indicate angle of projection.
(See also Figure 1).

Isometric Projection (Figure 4)

This is a pictorial drawing and shows more readily the shape of the object but
it is difficult to project more views from the one drawing and dimensioning
presents problems. It is also difficult to put on a great deal of detail
information.

One edge of the object is put in the plane of the paper and all sides are drawn
into the paper at 30°.

The verticals stay vertical.

Oblique Projection (Figure 5)

This system has the same advantages and disadvantages as the isometric
system - except that circles in the plane of the paper are easy to draw (using a
compass). Oblique circles are difficult to draw by hand.
One of the faces of the object is drawn in the plane of the paper, and the other
faces are drawn into the plane of the paper to the right at 45°. The actual
length of the edges going into the plane of the paper are usually halved.

TYPES OF LINE

Different types of lines are used on technical drawings to convey information to

the reader. The lines may be thick or thin, or broken in some way to form a
chain. In general the majority of lines are thin except for the outlines of
components.

By studying Figure 6 and Table 1, you will appreciate the range of lines that
can be used.
 DIMENSIONING
When drawings are dimensioned B.S. 308 lays down a general set of rules. It is
usual for most drawing offices to follow these rules but some variations may be
found from time to time.
1. The whole drawing should be dimensioned in the same units
e.g. mm or ins.

2. Dimensions should be clear unambiguous and not duplicated.

3. They should be read from the bottom of the drawing or from the right -
see Figure. 1 and Figure. 7.
4. Dimensions may be placed on top of a dimension line or within a
broken dimension line - BUT the drawing should be all the same style.
5. Dimension lines are thin continuous lines and should have narrow filled
in arrows, and should run between projection lines.
6. Dimensions should be measured from a datum if possible to help
prevent accumulated errors (Figure 8).
7. Tolerancing with dimensions can be shown as in Figure 9 but the
drawing should be all the same style.
8. Any S3rmbols used in dimensioning should be in accordance with
B.S. 308 and usually placed in front of the value to which they refer.
9. Screw threads should be dimensioned as shown in Figure 10.
 SECTIONING

Drawings are often sectional to show more detail - see Figures 6 & 10. The
section lines or hatching are usually drawn at an angle but may be horizontal
or vertical depending on the part being sectioned (Figures 11 & 12).
The lines are thin and continuous and the spacing generally depends on the
size of the object being sectioned (Figure 12).

Some items are NOT usually sectioned.

These include:

(a) Nuts and bolts.

(b) Washers.
(c) Rivets.
(d) Taper pins.
(e) Webs - across their thick section.

ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

Abbreviations and symbols are used widely in drawings and associated

documents. Also in aircraft manuals. The range is vast and tables 2 and 3
show at least some of those that are recommended. You should be able to
recognise most of these.
ATA 100 specifies that standard electrical/electronic symbols should be used
in aircraft wiring diagrams though countries/companies often use their own
standards. Table 5 shows electrical/electronic symbols generally considered to
be to ATA 100 standard. (Though if you check ATA 100 you will find no actual
drawings of symbols) You should be able to recognise most of the standard
symbols.
Screw Thread Drawing Symbols - Legend (figure 13)

External threads
(a) stud side view
(b) stud end view
(c) stud sectioned side view
(d) stud sectioned end view

Internal threads
(e) hidden detail end view
(f) blind hole hidden detail side view
(g) sectioned end view
(h) blind hole sectioned side view
(i) hidden detail side view (thread passes all the way through)
(j) end view
(k) sectioned side view (thread passes all the way through)
 TABLE 5 - ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS

The symbols to be used on drawings and in manuals should conform to

standards laid down in ATA 100 or standards applicable to those specified in a
particular country, or those that conform to standards laid down for a particular
manufacturer.

When looking at different manufacturer's maintenance manuals various

symbols will be found representing a particular component. In some drawings a
legend is provided while in others a drawing standard is specified.

It is interesting to note that ATA 100 does note show actual drawing symbols
but states that standards must be followed according to specified published
standards.
Position 1 - Unit number, used where components have identical
circuits.
Position 2 - Circuit function letter and circuit designation letter which
indicate circuit function and the associated system.

Positions - Cable number, allocated to differentiate between cables

which do not have a common terminal in the same circuit.
Generally, contacts of switches, relays, etc., are not
classified as common terminals. Beginning with the
number one, a different number is given to each cable.

Position 4 - Cable segment letter, which identifies the segment of cable

between two terminals or connections, and differentiates
between segments of the circuit when the same cable
number is used throughout. Segments are lettered in
alphabetical sequence, excluding the letter I and O. A
different letter is used for each of the cable segments having
a common terminal or connection.
Position 5 - Cable size.
Position 6 - Suffix data, used to indicate the type of cable and to identify
its connection function. For example code NMS V indicates
nyvinmetsheath ungrounded cable in a single-phase
system.
Note - The cable can be identified with the wiring diagram by using the
AIRCRAFT MANUFACTURERS IDENT. CODE
 WIRING DIAGRAMS 86 SCHEMATICS

Issued by the manufacturer of the equipment/ aircraft/ engine to show

the layout of a circuit or system without regard to the actual appearance
of the components or their location in the aircraft. It is a line drawing
showing components as squares or blocks and pipework/cables as lines.

Each wiring diagram/schematic will have a title block similar to a

technical drawing. It will show details such as:

Title.
* Drawing number or code number.
* Issue number and/or date or amendment state or Change
Letter.
* ATA reference number.
* Number of sheets.
* Air craft/equipment applicability.
* Names of designers, draftsperson, approval signature etc.

They may be available in sheet form or on CD. Many are produced in

book form, for example the LAMM schematics (for McDonnell Douglas).

Should there be any conflict between a wiring diagram/schematic and

production drawings then the production drawings will to be taken as
authority.

Wiring diagrams /schematics usually come with a location list, location

drawings, master index, symbols legend, abbreviations list etc. The
master index is the same that is used for AMMs, IPCs, etc for cross
referencing purposes.
Schematics are drawn to ATA 100 standard and come in three levels.

First Level BLOCK DIAGRAM. System block diagrams with

broad scope and little depth.

Second Level SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC. Have a less broad

scope but more depth than the block diagram.
Contain schematic symbols but not individual
wires. Are intermediate between First Level and
Third Level.

Third Level SYSTEM SCHEMATIC. A detailed drawing with

limited scope but great depth. They show all
LRUs, all functional aircraft wiring, and all
functional interfaces with other sub-systems.

A second level drawing is only drawn if the complexity of the complete

system is such that an overview of its operation is not possible with the
third level drawing.

A block drawing is produced if the system and sub-systems are of major

complexity and it is the only way that a proper understanding of the
complete system can be obtained.

First and second level drawings are identified by a code (usually 4 digits)
with the third level having an additional digit. On the schematic, all LRUs
are identified by an ATA number which directs the reader to the
schematic where the LRU is shown in detail.

Wires will be coded using the ATA 100 codes.

 MANUFACTURER'S MANUALS

Published by the manufacturers of aircraft and equipments. To be used

during the maintenance, overhaul, and repair of aircraft, engines, and
equipment. Manufacturers also publish other manuals - Illustrated
Parts Catalogue, Overhaul Manual, Structural Repair Manual, Wiring
Manual.

Each must bear a "Statement of Initial Certification" - that it conforms to

BCARs (A5-3) - signed by the manufacturer.

All manuals must conform to ATA* 100 Specification as far as layout is

concerned. Many are also issued as an IBM Word For Windows
compatible disc (CD ROM - Read Only Memory).
* ATA = Air Transport Association of America.

THE ATA 100 SYSTEM

Prior to the introduction of ATA 100 the presentation of technical data in

the manufacturer's manuals was not laid out to any standardised format.

Consequently, for example, TOWING was found in chapter 9 of the

Vicker's manual, but in the De Haviland manual it was in a different
chapter. This meant confusion, time wasting, and inconvenience for
operators working with different types of aircraft.

With the introduction of the ATA 100 standard a particular subject could
be found in the same chapter irrespective of the aircraft manufacturer -
Airbus, Boeing, Fokker etc.

Every chapter in each manual for all aircraft will have an unchanging
chapter number and title. The chapter numbers are grouped under
headings, the order of which is largely alphabetical.

The chapters listed below do not necessarily occur in all manuals - for
example, chapters 5 to 10 will be in the AMM only.
Sections

Each chapter is broken down into SECTIONS. Each section deals with a
subject area within it's chapter eg, section 10 of chapter 73 deals with
"distribution" and is written as 73 - 10.
Subjects

Each section is divided into subjects eg, Subject 41 of Section 10,

Chapter 73 deals with "Fuel Pumps" and is written 73 - 10 - 41.

Composition

The three elements discussed above - Chapter, Section, and Subject are
each made up of 2 digits and go to make up the ATA 100 page numbering
system, eg,

Page Numbering (topics)

In addition to the "three element" system, the subjects are further broken
down in order to provide "topics". This makes for easier referencing.

The system uses standard page numbering but the numbers are grouped
in blocks.

TOPIC PAGE BLOCKS

Description & operation 1 to 100

Trouble shooting 101 to 200
Maintenance practices 201 to 300

Each topic is made up of several sub-topics, ie, "Maintenance Practices"

is made up of the following sub-topics: Servicing; Removal/installation;
Adjustments/tests; Inspection/checks; Cleaning/painting; Approved
repairs.

Where these sub-topics are brief they will all be dealt with under the
topic heading "Maintenance Practices" and found in page block number
201 -300.
Where the sub-topics are lengthy and their combination would require
many pages, then each sub-topic is treated as a topic.

The standard page numbering would then be as follows:

Amendments

Manufacturers review their manuals frequently, and in the light of

experience, modifications etc issue amendments as required.

Holders of manuals are responsible for ensuring that their copies are
kept up to date. Users of manuals are also responsible for ensuring they
are up-to-date before issuing any certification (CRS) (AWNS).

Amendments for books are issued on:

Yellow paper - temporary

White paper - permanent

They are also accompanied by a "Letter of Transmittal" on which the

issuer certifies the accuracy of the information and gives instructions as
to what to do. Holders should check authenticity of these "letters".

Cassette/CD Rom Systems

Used by many organisations instead of hard copy to include AMMs, IPCs,

FIMs, manufacturer's drawings etc. CDs are usually used with a PC, lap-
top, or similar computer incorporating a CRT screen and printer.
Cassettes use film and a film projector.

Cassette/CD systems reduce storage space (the CD/cassette can be put

away in a drawer whilst manuals for a large aircraft will take up a lot of
shelf space) and are more convenient to use - though if you have trouble
with the hard-ware this will not be the case.

(AMM = Aircraft Maintenance Manual. IPC = Illustrated Parts Catalogue.

FIM= Fault Isolation Manual)

Film Systems

Microfilm cassettes are used with a Cassette Reader using a lens and
lamp system to project the images (pictures and text) onto a built in
screen. The film (simply pages of text and pictures in black and white) is
wound forward or backwards (similar to a video) using an in-built electric
motor. Some cassette readers have a facility to print hard copy via a
printer.
Microfiche is another method of storing technical information - drawings
or otherwise. Again it is a film system where photographs are taken of
each page of the manual (as for microfilm) and miniaturised. These are
put onto a negative microfiche film about 10cm by 15cm. Each
microfiche film will contain hundreds of pictures and the films are stored
in indexed boxes.

To view a film it is placed on a glass platter within a lamp and lens

system and the pictures are projected onto a screen. The screen enlarges
the pictures so they are readable. The platter is moveable so it can be
moved up and down as well as sideways to view the appropriate image.
The platter is moved a very small amount to move from one page to
another.

An index of pages is provided to assist in location.

These do not normally have printer facilities attached.

Both film systems above are old and not used much.

Computer Systems

These allow the user to view the pages of the manual (including
drawings) on the screen and print what-ever hard copies he/she wishes
for use at the work location.

Hard copies (from the printer) obtained by this system are usually used
once only, and therefore handling damage/deterioration is not a problem,
as with hard copy manuals.

Amendments
Amendments are carried out by the issue of a new CD/cassette/fiche.

Each CD/cassette/fiche must be clearly marked as to its amendment

state and more recent amendments must be recorded and kept in a
folder which should be kept next to the viewer.
Engineers, using these systems, must ensure that they have checked
both the CD/cassette/fiche and the folder to ascertain the correct
amendment state. For computer systems, some manufacturers only allow
access after inputting the operator's access code and user code, for
others, assess codes are not required.

Check your company's system.

NB. Aircraft constructors may produce their own systems which require
that users are trained in their use.
 ENGINEERING STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS

There is a vast array of engineering standards, some local to a particular

manufacturer, some national and others international.

The aim of standard specifications is to provide a documented system for

the economical production of artefacts (components for aircraft),
procedures (engineering or administrative) and a common means of
presenting information.

Examples:

Production - nuts and bolts to standard sizes and materials, PCBs

to standard layout, etc (PCB = Printed Circuit Board).

Procedures - stores procedure, quality control procedures etc.

Information - layout of maintenance manuals (ATA 100), drawing

symbols and layout (BS308 BS8888) etc.

Local Standards

Most firms will have standard procedures (published or otherwise)

associated with sales, accountancy, procurement, manufacture etc. In
many cases the firm will adopt national or international standards for
those areas that affect organisations that are outside the firm in
question.

Manufacturing parts for aircraft, for example, will require documentation

procedures, manufacturing procedures and quality control procedures as
required by the CAA and these will all meet national, European or
international standards.

National and international standards are agreed standards within the

industry they concern. They are not imposed on anyone and any
organisation or individual can ignore them if they he/she wishes. If the
standard is generally recognised throughout the industry it would be
folly to ignore it.

If, for example, when designing an aircraft all the rivets where to be made
to non standard sizes and materials the rivet manufacturer would have
to put his prices up - putting the price of the aircraft up and possible
putting prospective customers off because of the difficulty of getting
spares.
Not to mention the fact that the CAA might not give it a C of A because
the rivets do not conform to the required standards. You can still build
the aircraft - but it may not fly.

Governments, of course, can make standards compulsory.

History

Engineering standards go back to the start of the industrial revolution,

but there where local (the Newall system for example was associated
mostly with the north of England).

Electrical engineers where one of the first to recognise the need for
international standards and in 1906 the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) was founded. Today it is composed of over 40 national
committees with.the BSI acting for the British IEC committee.

In 1926 the ISA was formed, to be replaced in 1947 (after the war), by the
ISO (International Organisation for Standardisation). ISO is the
international standards agency for all areas except those covered by the
IEC.

The ISO promotes the development of international standards from 90

national standards authorities with BSI (for the UK) being a leading
member.

The European Committee for Standardisation (CEN) was founded in 1961

and comprises the national bodies of the EU and other European
countries. When CEN publishes European standards they are adopted as
national standards by the countries approving them.

CENELECT is the electrotechnical equivalent of CEN.

National Standards/International Standards

All parts used on aircraft have to conform to either national or

international standards. In some cases a local standard has, because of
usage, become a national standard and sometimes developed later into
an international standard.

The range of standard specifications is vast and below are mentioned just
some that are related to aircraft engineering:
AN. An American Army/Navy standard that is used for many small parts
on aircraft. Tends to be found on older aircraft.

BSI. British Standards Institute. Used widely in the UK for all aspects of
aircraft engineering including manufacture (eg aluminium alloy made to
BSL86 specification), information (eg drawings drawn to BS308
standard).

The BSI has 14 classifications from Commercial to Health and Safety

including Materials, Manufactured Components, Quality Control etc.

Some examples:

BS 308 Engineering drawing practice (now BS8888).

BS 449 Welding symbols.

BS 2917 Symbols for fluid power systems - do not seem to be

used much in aircraft system diagrams.

BS 3939 Electrical and electronic symbols.

BS 4500 Limits and fits.

DTD. Directorate of Technical Development. An (older) UK based

standard, eg DTD585 - hydraulic fluid.

MIL. (Military) A US military standard common to all the US services and

used widely for the specification of oils, fuels, equipments etc on civil
aircraft. May be written as MIL-SPEC, MIL-STD etc.

MS. Military Standard. American. Example MS20470 AD 5-12 denotes a

rivet (size, shape of head and material).

NAS. National Aerospace Standard. UK based.

SB AC. Society of British Aerospace Companies. Specifications relating to

aircraft parts.

ISO. Has 40 'fields' of interest from Sociology to Domestic Equipment. Of

interest to the aircraft engineer is field 49 (the 40 fields are not number*^-
consecutively). This has sub fields on:

* -Materials
* Fasteners
* Components
* Structure
* Engines
* Electrical equipment
* Instruments
* Cabin equipment
* Cargo equipment

etc.