MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY,

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES
BET 3207: SUBJECT METHODS: HISTORY
COURSE OUTLINE
REGULAR SESSION
LECTURER: DR. RUTH NYAMBURA

Purpose
To expose students to effective methods of teaching history. This will be achieved mainly through
practice and group discussions.
Course Objectives
By the end of the course unit the learners should be able to:
1) Demonstrate an understanding of child-centered method of teaching history and government
2) Prepare schemes of work and lesson plan and assess students performing in history and government
Week one-five
1. Meaning of History and Government
2. Importance of studying History and Government
3. Place of History in the Secondary Schools Curriculum
4. Resources of History and Government
5. Effective Methods of Teaching History and Government
6. Resources of history and Government
Week six-twelve
7. Preparation for Teaching History
8. Assessment in History
9. Scheme of Work
10. Lesson Plan
11. Micro-teaching

Examinations
Evaluation
CAT (online) 30%
Session Exams 70%
The student must complete each component of the course in order to receive a passing grade.
References
Hrbeck I (2008), General Methods of Teaching History in Teacher Education Institutions, EAP.
Martin Hunt (2006). A Practical Guide To Teaching History In The Secondary School (routledge
Teaching Guides); Routledge.
Ogutu, M. An Introduction of African History (UON Press, 1991).
Shillington, K. History of Africa, Second Edition (St. Martin's Press, New York, 1995).
For consultation, contact: 0715 133 505

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 CHAPTER ONE
DEFINITION OF HISTORY

Historians do not, as too many of my colleagues keep mindlessly repeating, "reconstruct" the past. What
historians do is produce knowledge about the past, or, with respect to each individual, fallible historian,
produce contributions to knowledge about the past. Thus the best and most concise definition of history
is: the bodies of knowledge about the past produced by historians, together with everything that is
involved in the production, communication of, and teaching about that knowledge.

History according to various scholars

• account of events that took place in the past

• chronological study of past events and giving reasons for such occurrences
• Critical study of man’s past events, all human experiences and how man evolved
Carr (1960) defines history as a continuous process of interaction between the historian and his facts, an
unending dialogue between the past and the present.
Gordon Left (1967) defines history as the totality of human actions and endeavors.
Gideon Were (1979) defines history as a critical study of man’s activities as well as thoughts in an
interaction with his environment in time perspective.
Sifuna, D.N et al (1994) defines history as the study of all human experiences. It explains how people
came into being.
Hegel stated that history ought to be universal. We must travel far and wide to write our history.
as a continent without a history but to him, he was yet to see any people without a history.

Francis Bacon most important achievement was the development of the use of inductive reasoning in
science. His most important innovation in this field was the development of implicative inference which
means that the thinker goes beyond the information which he has to make an "inductive leap" to a new
conclusion. So to him it was best to question the past and explain events happened rather than just stating
them.

G.W Collingwood stated that the concept of history plays a fundamental role in human thought. It
invokes notions of human agency, change, the role of material circumstances in human affairs, and the
putative meaning of historical events. It raises the possibility of “learning from history.” And it suggests
the possibility of better understanding ourselves in the present, by understanding the forces, choices, and
circumstances that brought us to our current situation.

Get the meaning of history as written by Henri Rosseau, Panphilli Roseau, Karl Marx

Why study history/Why teach history

Those who study history, for career purposes, or just for personal enjoyment, have other reasons apart
from this all-embracing justification for national resources being channeled into the study of history.

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It is historians who provide the contextual knowledge that eventually works its way into the guide books,
and again the need is for accuracy not specious theory.

Historians also provide the contextual knowledge for great works of art and literature, thus enhancing our
enjoyment of these.

In addition, the study of history offers to individuals major utilitarian learning outcomes. Training in
history is training in analyzing, evaluating, and interpreting both secondary and primary sources.

It develops an understanding that everything written pertaining to history, secondary or primary, must be
approached with skepticism and caution.

It develops the ability to distinguish between pieces of writing which are well-substantiated and logical,
and those which simply express theory, hypothesis, or opinion.

The skills and learning outcomes rising from historical study are invaluable in a contemporary world
which is dominated by information and communications. The methods and skills required of the historian,
and, more important, the attitudes of mind transmitted in the teaching of history, are of vital importance in
assessing and filtering the messages constantly battering against us.

History also provides training in the writing up of the results of one's researches, in the form of essays,
reports, dissertations. What is essential in history is clear and effective communication, well structured,
and written in precise and explicit language.

Things a good history teacher does

Place Purpose Product

To carry out research into secondary Gain an understanding of what other
Library
sources historians have already done
To read blogs and news sites to make
To keep updated with the latest news
Internet Search sure that they are up to date with the
and events in their field
latest discoveries
To work collaboratively and keep a
To meet other historians and share
Conference 'finger on the pulse' of current
information and ideas
research.
To examine original artifacts and Primary research can lead to new
Museum
primary source material inights and discoveries.
To conduct, direct or examine new Understand the significance of
Archaeological Site
excavations. archaeological sites.
Meetings with government To advocate on behalf of protected To ensure that important historical
ministers and funding sites, educational facilities and future artefacts and research projects are
bodies. research funding. protected and funded.
Ensuring that new generations of
School, College, To teach, lecture and tutor.
historians are educated and enthused.

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Place Purpose Product
To publish and share the results of
Her/his Desk To write papers and books research with others.

CHAPTER TWO
HOW DOES A TEACHER’S PERSONALITY AFFECT LEARNING/TEACHING IN HISTORY?

Empathy

A great teacher is sensitive to their students’ needs. When a child enters adolescence, overwhelmed by
learning not just academics, but learning about themselves a great teacher is patient, understanding and
available to talk. And in high school and college, when faced with the task of planning their future, a
student looks for a teacher to provide insight and wisdom.
Enthusiasm

Why should a student be excited about learning when their teacher is not excited about teaching? No
teacher can be great without loving what they do. To excite and inspire a student requires excitement and
a passion for the material itself. Enthusiasm is contagious. All it takes for a student to get excited about
going to class is a teacher who is excited and whose positive energy fills the classroom.

Creativity

Creativity is key to captivating a student. So often when someone reflects on their education, they
remember a particular moment in the classroom that stayed with them. They remember when a teacher
turned the table of elements into a rap or used an episode of The Real World to illustrate an invaluable life
lesson. They remember the group projects that involved more painting than writing, the role-plays and the
fun games to test their knowledge. Showing a student something they haven’t seen before even showing
them something familiar but in a new way is the surest way to leave an impression that lasts for years.
Dedication
A great teacher must be dedicated to their students, with an unwavering commitment to their education
and well being. It’s easy to be enthusiastic about teaching when things are going well but teaching isn’t
always easy. Like with any job, teachers occasionally have their bad days, but a dedicated teacher realizes
the rewards of teaching are far more important. In the face of frustration, a dedicated teacher continues
trying to reach each of their students, and they exercise the patience needed to ensure that a disinterested

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student still learns. This requires being flexible and adapting to each student. A great teacher never gives
up.
Discipline
When it comes to teaching, many people associate strictness with unpopularity. On the other hand, some
adults look back on their education and remember their strictest teachers as some of their best. How can
this be? The truth is there are ways to enforce rules without being too strict. While it’s important to
establish trust and communication with students, it’s also important to bring structure and organization to
the classroom. Having fair expectations of students ensures they learn how to prioritize, manage their
time and listen attentively. A great teacher imposes rules and makes demands of their students, but in a
way that is not intimidating. Having structure in the classroom does not have to include being overly strict
and over time students appreciate the value of discipline. One of the truest marks of a great teacher is the
ability to bring out the best in students. A great teacher recognizes their students’ potential to become
great people, and they inspire them to be just that.

A teacher is a controller, story teller, model organizer, friend and disciplinarian.

Revision Questions

1. Outline 6 characteristics of a good history teacher

2. What is teacher’s personality and how does that affect teaching and learning process

CHAPTER THREE
PREPARING A SCHEME OF WORK
A scheme of work is your plan of what you will teach during every lesson throughout the academic year
or term. It is a detailed breakdown of the syllabus in terms of lessons, weeks, terms and year for the
purpose of orderly and systematic teaching. The scheme of work is derived from the Education Syllabus.

A scheme of work has the following components:

Week: This is the week of term in which particular topic content is to be taught

Lesson: Specific Lesson in the week in which a particular topic/sub-topic is to be taught.

Topic/sub-topic: These are specific areas identified for study in the Education syllabus. A sub topic is a
sub division of topic for ease of study.

Specific Objective: This refers to what the teacher intends to achieve by the end of the lesson.

Teaching/Learning Experiences: The column clarifies the activities carried by the learner and the
teacher for effective teaching and learning during and after the lesson. These experiences should be stated
clearly using action verbs and be sequentially geared towards achieving the specific objectives. They
guide the teacher to plan in advance the teaching/learning experiences, methods and the varied activities
the class will be engaged in during the lesson.

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Teaching/Learning Resources: These spells out the instructional materials the teacher intends to use to
make the lesson effective. They include human and material resources. The teacher should creatively
select, develop and assemble resources before the lesson such as; text books, newspaper cuttings, charts,
audio and audio visual materials.

References: The teacher indicates text books, reference materials and documents which should be used to
source content on specific topics. A variety of references should be used to enrich the content.

Remarks: These are comments that the teacher makes to show whether the set objectives have been
achieved.

SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTION

1. prepare a two weeks scheme of work for form one history students

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 CHAPTER FOUR
PREPARATION OF A LESSON PLAN

A lesson plan is a detailed guide for teaching a lesson. It's a step-by-step guide that outlines the teacher's
objectives for what the students will cover during the given class time.

WHY PREPARE A LESSON PLAN?

• To avoid wastage of time and resources

• To avoid teaching from cover to cover or haphazardly
• To avoid repetition of content
• Prepares one to teach topics: how much time is spent on an easier or difficult topic?
• Indicates preparedness and confidence
• A clear lesson plan can be used by substitute teachers, ensuring that time is used productively,
when the main teacher is not around
A successful lesson plan addresses and integrates these three key components:

• Objectives for student learning

• Teaching/learning activities
• Strategies to check student understanding

Steps for Preparing a Lesson Plan

Below are six steps to guide you when you create your first lesson plans. Each step is accompanied by a
set of questions meant to prompt reflection and aid you in designing your teaching and learning activities.
(1) Outline learning objectives

The first step is to determine what you want students to learn and be able to do at the end of class. To help
you specify your objectives for student learning, answer the following questions:
• What is the topic of the lesson?
• What do I want students to learn?
• What do I want them to understand and be able to do at the end of class?
• What do I want them to take away from this particular lesson?

(2) Develop the introduction

Now that you have your learning objectives in order of their importance, design the specific activities you
will use to get students to understand and apply what they have learned. Because you will have a diverse
body of students with different academic and personal experiences, they may already be familiar with the
topic. That is why you might start with a question or activity to gauge students’ knowledge of the subject
or possibly, their preconceived notions about it. For example, you can take a simple poll: “How many of
you have heard of X? Raise your hand if you have.” When you have an idea of the students’ familiarity
with the topic, you will also have a sense of what to focus on. Develop a creative introduction to the topic
to stimulate interest and encourage thinking. You can use a variety of approaches to engage students’ eg
personal experience, historical event, thought-provoking dilemma, real-world example, short video clip, a

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song or story, practical application, probing question, writing on a card. Consider the following questions
when planning your introduction:

• How will I check whether students know anything about the topic or have any preconceived
notions about it?
• What are some commonly held ideas (or possibly misconceptions) about this topic that students
might be familiar with or might espouse?
• What will I do to introduce the topic?

(3) The main body of the lesson

Prepare several different ways of explaining the material. real-life examples, analogies, visuals, to catch
the attention of more students and appeal to different learning styles. As you plan your examples and
activities, estimate how much time you will spend on each. Build in time for extended explanation or
discussion, but also be prepared to move on quickly to different applications or problems, and to identify
strategies that check for understanding. These questions would help you design the learning activities you
will use:
• What will I do to explain the topic?
• What will I do to illustrate the topic in a different way?
• How can I engage students in the topic?
• What are some relevant real-life examples, analogies, or situations that can help students
understand the topic?
• What will students need to do to help them understand the topic better?

(4) Plan to check for understanding

Now that you have explained the topic and illustrated it with different examples, you need to check for
student understanding. How will you know that students are learning? Think about specific questions you
can ask students in order to check for understanding, write them down, and then paraphrase them so that
you are prepared to ask the questions in different ways. Try to predict the answers your questions will
generate. Decide on whether you want students to respond orally or in writing. To help you generate some
ideas and you can also ask yourself these questions:
• What questions will I ask students to check for understanding?
• What will I have students do to demonstrate that they are following?
• Going back to my list of learning objectives, what activity can I have students do to check
whether each of those has been accomplished?

An important strategy that will also help you with time management is to anticipate students’ questions.
When planning your lesson, decide what kinds of questions will be productive for discussion and what
questions might sidetrack the class. Think about and decide on the balance between covering content
(accomplishing your learning objectives) and ensuring that students understand.

(5) Develop a conclusion and a preview

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Go over the material covered in class by summarizing the main points of the lesson. You can do this in a
number of ways: you can state the main points yourself (“Today we talked about…”), you can ask a
student to help you summarize them, or you can even ask all students to write down on a piece of paper
what they think were the main points of the lesson. You can give an individual or group assignment. You
can review the students’ answers to gauge their understanding of the topic and then explain anything
unclear the following class. Conclude the lesson not only by summarizing the main points, but also by
previewing the next lesson. How does the topic relate to the one that’s coming? This preview will spur
students’ interest and help them connect the different ideas within a larger context.

(6) Create a realistic timeline

Here are some strategies for creating a realistic timeline:
• Estimate how much time each of the activities will take, then plan some extra time for each
• When you prepare your lesson plan, next to each activity indicate how much time you expect it
will take
• Plan a few minutes at the end of class to answer any remaining questions and to sum up key
points
• Plan an extra activity or discussion question in case you have time left
• Be flexible – be ready to adjust your lesson plan to students’ needs and focus on what seems to be
more productive rather than sticking to your original plan

PREPARE A FORM 2 LESSON PLAN FOR A 40 MINUTES HISTORY LESSON

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 CHAPTER THREE
METHODS/STRATEGIES OF TEACHING HISTORY

Proper teaching is characterized by narration, discussion, reciting, identifying, explaining, role playing,
dramatization and audio. There is no single 'best' way to teach history. Research suggests that good
history teachers know the content, use a variety of approaches, explicitly teach the skills of historical
inquiry and analysis, tailor learning opportunities to suit their students' stage of development, and
encourage deep understanding. Visual, and modeling. Teaching methods are strategies or approaches
employed to convey knowledge and skills in order to
enhance and guide successful learning.

A, STORY TELLING

Story –Telling / Narrative is one of the most suitable and important methods of teaching History. The
method allows learners to acquire knowledge in a comprehensible, vibrant, appealing and chronological
manner. The method is said to be good at encouraging learners ’imagination, visualization, and
stimulating their interest in learning. The method in addition enables learners to be enormous characters
in the story recitation and hence enables them to relate the story to their community and country. The
method is vital in learners’ emotional development since it enables them to appreciate and even
sympathize with what others have done in the society.

B. QUESTION AND ANSWER

Studies have shown that classroom questioning considerably affects the performance and achievement of
students. The question and answer method encourages interactive learning and that it enhances the ability
of learners to remember what they are taught. The method provides a learning situation in which student
views are promoted and inquiry among students is inspired.

C, DISCUSSION
The method involves exchange of information amongst students and between students and teachers. It
allows learners and teachers to compare, evaluate and analyse ideas. In most cases the teacher acts as
guide to the discussion. The method is hailed for being able to enhance memory of learners and hence
contributing positively to performance of the students. The method is said to be capable of inspiring
active learning and enhancing communication skills of learners as well as enhancing their self esteem.
Since most discussion groups are led by students, the method allows learners to develop leadership skills.
Social values such as being tolerant to other peoples’ ideas, team spirit and being responsible are
enhanced by discussion teaching method. However, the method is criticized for not being suitable for
weak and shy students who may not participate actively in the discussion.

D, THE DIDACTIC METHOD /LECTURE METHOD/THE JUG AND MUG

The method relies on the teacher (the jug) as the sole source of wisdom, and knowledge who transmutes it
to the child (the mug). This method is often non-interactive and boring to the students. As a consequent,
students are taught but they do not learn and hence they perform poorly in national examination. The
lecture method has been criticized for being outdated, being passive mode of learning which restrict

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learners to listening and note taking, and it is a poor way of enhancing the memory of learners. In some
instances the classes are often packed and noisy. This is only method that can be used. Moreover, the
method is not effective in enhancing learning values and attitudes since learners are expected to accept
facts and memorize them. Lecture method is to disadvantage of learning who are slow in note taking and
making. The method also requires learners to utilize large part of their memory because learners are
taught a lot of things at ones. As a result, when this method is utilized, learners forget what they are
taught quickly resulting in poor performance in national examinations.

E, BRAINSTORMING APPROACH

Brainstorming is an intense experience that is strongly focused on a single topic for a limited period of
time. It provides a very different and stimulating student interaction of time. The concept is very simple.
A group of students is given a single problem or obstacle and asked to "storm their brains" for ideas. To
increase spontaneity and rapidity of ideas, each participant is encouraged to call out his thought the
instant an opening presents itself. Each brainstorming session usually intensifies into an exciting rapid-
fire, off-the-top-of-the-head group experience. Stimulation and motivation build as each participant
contributes and interest mounts to higher and higher levels.

ADVANTAGES OF BRAINSTORMING

1. Is stimulating and provides a varied instructional approach. It generates enthusiasm and eagerness
to join in by its open invitation to participate and its rapid, free-wheeling approach.
2. Is highly motivating: Students who usually allow their verbal, articulate classmates to dominate
question-and-answer periods get the urge to participate.
3. Increases "task focus." The brainstorming group is kept on target with very little pressure from
the group leader because of the structure and ground rules.
4. Promotes spontaneity and creativity.
5. Is efficient and productive. Scores of ideas and suggestions or problems and obstacles can be
listed in a few minutes.
6. Involves participants in the ownership of ideas. The participants feel greater kinship for their
product as they assume group ownership of their ideas and suggestions. Problem solving is made
much easier when communal commitment is guaranteed.
7. Provides a permanent record and aids in developing solutions to problems. The results of the
sessions can easily be reproduced or reused to design alternate procedures and programs for
solving problems or meeting objectives. The production of the group takes on value as a
permanent evaluation record and as testimony to individual and group effort.

F, DEBATE
Teachers often use the debate to effectively increase student involvement and participation during
tutorial/seminar sessions. A debate has been described as a form of argument that has strict rules of
conduct and quite sophisticated arguing techniques. It must have a topic that has scope for argument, i.e.
there must be at least two sides to the topic.

G, ROLE PLAYING

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Role playing is a learning structure that allows students to immediately apply content as they are put in
the role of a decision maker who must make a decision regarding a policy, resource allocation, or some
other outcome. This technique is an excellent tool for engaging students and allowing them to interact
with their peers as they try to complete the task assigned to them in their specific role. This work can be
done in cooperative groups and/or students can maintain the persona of their role throughout the class
period. Students are more engaged as they try to respond to the material from the perspective of their
character.

ADVANTAGES OF ROLE PLAYING

• Students immediately apply content in a relevant, real world context.

• Students take on a decision making persona that might let them diverge from the confines of their
normal self-imposed limitations or boundaries.
• Students can transcend and think beyond the confines of the classroom setting.
• Students see the relevance of the content for handling real world situations.
• The instructor and students receive immediate feedback with regard to student understanding of
the content.
• Students engage in higher order thinking and learn content in a deeper way.
• Instructors can create useful scenarios when setting the parameters of the role play when real
scenarios or contexts might not be readily available.
• Typically students claim to remember their role in these scenarios and the ensuing discussion
long after the semester ends.

H. PROJECT METHOD

A project is a voluntarily undertaking which involves constructive effort to completion of a task in a

social environment.

Merits of Project Method

• As students get proper freedom to execute the project in accordance with their interest and
abilities, because of which they get their psychological needs satisfied to considerable extent.
• This method is not only subject centred, but due importance is being provided to the students
also. Students are permitted to choose projects on their own, as a result of which they make use
of their abilities to maximum possible extent.
• Through this method, students are provided with various opportunities by which they can satisfy
their interests and desires.
• Habit of critical thinking gets developed among the students through this method. Not only get
this, an urge to make use of scientific methods to solve various problems also developed among
the students through this method.
• With this method, students get the ample chances in which they can develop coordination among
their body and mind. Through this method, teacher can lead a well balanced development of the
students.

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 • Through this method, science teaching can be done with considerable success, as science is a
practical subject and this method is also scientific and practical in nature. The selected project
correlates with the real problems of life which students confront in their everyday life. Thus, they
find it quite interesting to sort out such problems. Not only this, through the information gained,
they become able to solve out their own life problems independently and effectively.
• This method helps in promoting social interaction and co-operation among the students, as they
have to work in a group and have to interact with various persons for gathering information. As
the student works with full agreement of the social needs, he gets moulded in accordance with
the social needs of the society in which he lives or exists. Thus, through this method, sense of
social cooperation and responsibility get developed among the students, by which they can
become responsible citizens in the future.
• As students gain knowledge directly through their own efforts, thus, they acquire permanent kind
of information, which is retained by them since a long period of time.
• Mostly the projects are undertaken in classroom as classroom assignments, because of which
load of home work from the students get reduced to considerable extent.

Demerits of Project Method

• This method takes a lot of time to plan and execute a single project. As the time available with the
teacher is limited in the schools, thus they find it difficult to make use of this method in their
class.
• It is not possible to design different projects for different topics and it is also not possible to
cover all the topics or content in a single project. Thus, this method becomes impractical in
nature.
• For proper execution of a project, large number of financial resources are required, which seems
difficult to arrange in our nation as we have to face shortage of resources in every sphere of life.
• Such method can only be prove successful if the teacher is highly knowledgeable, alert and
exceptionally gifted. The responsibility of teacher becomes multil-folded as right from providing
situations and opportunities for the selection of projection, he provides the students with all the
provisions by which they can execute the project successfully.
• Systematic and adequate learning is not provided by this method, as it is a method of incidental
learning. Through this method, students learn only what is required by them in relation to the
completion of the projects. Thus, through this process, it is not possible to treat the curricular
areas in systematic and orderly manner.
• Generally it is found that teachers do not possess much information regarding the manner in
which this method should be used as a result of which they hesitate from using this method, as a
result of which, it's utility remains more or less limited to negligible extent.

I. FIELD TRIPS/EDUCATION VISITS

Teaching and learning can become inherently spontaneous and student-centered when moved from the
confines of the classroom into the world at large. Teaching in the field also gives instructors the
opportunity to get to know their students in greater depth in terms of how the students see the world

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differently than the instructor. This insight into student world-views can help the instructor to better
communicate the concepts of the course.

J. RECITATION
Recitation is a direct, teacher-centered approach in which the teacher asks specific short answer questions
with a specific answer in mind. Incorrect answers are usually corrected by the teacher or by the class. A
teacher may use probing questions in order to help the class come to the correct answer. The repetition of
question and answer helps information retention. It is best used for the memorization of facts--base level
knowledge.

REVISION QUESTION
1. Discuss five effective methods of teaching history giving advantages and disadvantages of each.

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 CHAPTER FIVE
USE OF TEACHING AIDS IN HISTORY
The most difficult problem before a history teacher is to invest pupils to gain an experience of human
behaviour in past societies. Through verbal expositions, is this to explain the past happenings but their
time appreciation demands that events of past are understood in their casual and sequential relationships.
In these respect audio-visual aids, with their various devices, techniques and resources come to the help of
the history teacher.

Importance of Teaching Aids:

(i) They make the lesson of history interesting.
(ii) They help to stabilize the knowledge of the subject.
(iii) They make the process of learning interesting and practical.
(iv) They help the teacher to proceed ‘from concrete to abstract’.
(v) They help the teacher to conduct the teaching efficiently and creditably.
(vi) They are good substitutes for direct experiences and are a supplement to direct experience.
(vii) They are very helpful for poor readers and slow-learners.
(viii) They help to develop the power of imagination and observation.
(ix) They provide an opportunity for a change in the monotonous atmosphere that generally prevails in the
class-room.
(x) They provide an opportunity for a better rapport between the teacher and his pupil.

TYPES OF TEACHING AIDS

VISUAL AIDS

Chalkboard Using black board (chalkboard) or interactive is a must for teaching in schools and colleges.
The chalk board has many advantages both for the teacher and also the students. Using the board makes
the subject more narrative, easy to teach for the teacher and also let the student understand better.

Flash cards are an effective way to teach various subjects. These popular teaching aids are available for
many fields, such as spelling and the teacher or parent can also create customized flash cards geared
toward a specific subject or child.

Realia are artifacts from the real world that are related to the subject matter being studied. Students can
interact with the realia to gain better perspective on what they are studying. For example, students
practicing Spanish conversation can role play ordering at a restaurant using real menus printed in Spanish
from a Mexican restaurant. Other examples include photographs and road maps.

Textbooks are books containing information about a particular subject, organized in a manner calculated
to make presenting the information easier. Teachers can read a textbook to confirm or expand their
personal knowledge and/or assign readings from a textbook for students to complete. Many textbooks
also include quizzes or review questions to help assess how well students have comprehended what they
have read.

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Banners
Posters
Globe
Pictures
Maps/props
Audial visuals

Computers have become popular teaching aids, but overhead projectors still have a place in the
classroom. A transparency is placed on the glass and the information on the transparency is projected onto
a screen. An instructor can write the information directly onto the transparency. The transparency can also
be fed into a laser printer so that information can be transferred onto the transparency from a computer.

Tv, films, movies, video, resource person

Audio aids are also common teaching tools, and could include the use of a classroom stereo system or
individual headsets. In classes devoted to the study of foreign languages, teachers often use recordings to
demonstrate how the languages are spoken. Audio is also a common tool in music classes. Teachers use
recordings to teach the students songs and how to play specific instruments.

Video-based teaching tools can have a great impact on classroom learning. Teachers use instructional
video to demonstrate actual methodology. Adding video to the classroom usually requires using digital
video players, screens, and projectors.

Radio

Tape-recorder

Other resources include: pamphlet, magazines, language laboratory and history room

TECHNIQUES OF CREATING A TEACHING/LEARNING RESOURCE

• Drawing, painting, modeling 3D cards, constructing, assembling a diorama, carving, mosaic,

collage, multi-media, line diagrams, sculptures

Revision Question

• Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each of the teaching aids above

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 CHAPTER SIX

RECORDS OF WORK

It is a document where all details of the work covered/taught by the teacher is entered on a daily basis.

The entries are made by the individual teacher after every lesson. A record of work ensures:

• accountability and transparency of work covered by the teacher

• the continuity of teaching of a particular class
• that a new teacher traces where to start teaching a class
• the evaluation of schemes of work after a period of time for example four years
• uniformity in content coverage in case of several streams.

A record of work should have the following components:

• Time frame: It should indicate the day, date, week and lesson

The week and the lesson can be specified for example week 9 Lesson 1

• Work covered: it takes the form of sub-topics derived from specific objective (s)
• Remarks section

This is a statement reflecting the success and failures of the lesson and recommendations/way forward

• Name/Sign/Initials

This is the identity of the teacher who taught the lesson. It helps in accountability and transparency.

What are the steps of preparation?

Check if your school has a template. They may have a special way they like the schemes of work to be
laid out, and/or have a template available. This will make your life easier.

If creating a scheme of work from scratch, then create a word document and put a table in it, or
create a spreadsheet. Give yourself 5 columns: Date, Lesson content, Key Skills, Resources, and
Assessment

TIPS TO SUCCEED IN THE TEACHING PROFESSION

• Timely Attendance of Lessons

• Research and consultations

• Class rules-do not start a lesson before the students are settled

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• Avoid chorus answers

• Discipline and professionalism

• Don’t fear criticism, use it

• Realize your strengths

• Look for evidence that you are awesome

• Do you hang around teachers who do nothing but complain about wages, about the school
infrastructure or the educational system in general? Keep off

• Celebrate Your Students’ Achievements

• Cheer Yourself On

• Talk to someone who's speaking skills you admire

• Practice in your daily life

• Teach as Much as You Can

• Don’t worry what your students say or are likely to say about you

• Dress well, do your hair, teeth. Look clean

• Smile

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 CHAPTER SEVEN

ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION IN HISTORY

Classroom assessment and evaluation are highly concerned with qualitative judgments that are used to
improve students' knowledge and learning. Assessment and evaluation also give teachers useful
information about how to improve their teaching methods.

Evaluation is a process that includes five basic components: 1) Articulating the purpose of the educational
system. 2) Identifying and collecting relevant information. Having ideas that are valuable and useful to
learners in their lives and professions. 4) Analyzing and interpreting information for learners. 5)
Classroom management or classroom decision making. In classroom assessment, since teachers
themselves develop, administer and analyze the questions, they are more likely to apply the results of the
assessment to their own teaching. Therefore, it provides feedback on the effectiveness of instruction and
gives students a measure of their progress.

Assessment is a process that includes four basic components: 1) Measuring improvement over time. 2)
Motivating students to study. 3) Evaluating the teaching methods. 4) Ranking the students' capabilities in
relation to the whole group evaluation. The purpose of classroom assessment and evaluation is to give
students the opportunity to show what they have learned rather than catching them out or to show what
they have not learned. Needless to say, evaluation and assessment can focus on different aspects of
teaching and learning: respectively textbooks and instructional materials, student achievement, and whole
programs of instruction.

It is important to clarify the distinction between evaluation and assessment. These terms are often used
interchangeably, but they are technically different. Assessment of an individual student’s progress or
achievement is an important component of evaluation: it is that part of evaluation that includes the
measurement and analysis of information about student learning.

Evaluation goes beyond student achievement and concepts assessment to consider all aspects of teaching
and learning and to look at how educational decisions can be made by the results of alternative forms of
assessment.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASSROOM/FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT:

Learner-Centered: Classroom Assessment focuses the primary attention of teachers and students on
observing and improving learning, rather than on observing and improving teaching.

Teacher-Directed: Classroom Assessment respects the autonomy, academic freedom, and professional
judgment of college faculty. The individual teacher decides what to assess, how to assess, and how to
respond to the information gained through the assessment.

Mutually Beneficial: Classroom Assessment requires the active participation of students and faculty.
When students participate more actively, and feel more confident that they can succeed, they are likely to
do better in their course work. As teachers work closely with students to assess learning, they improve
their teaching skills and gain new insights.

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 Formative: Classroom Assessment is formative rather than summative. Summative assessments include
tests and other graded evaluations. Classroom Assessments, on the other hand, are almost never graded
and are almost always anonymous. Their aim is to provide faculty with information on what, how much,
and how well students are learning.

Context-Specific: Classroom Assessments need to respond to the particular needs and characteristics of
the teachers, students, and disciplines to which they are applied. Being Context-Specific means: what
works in one class will not necessarily work in another.

Ongoing: Classroom Assessment is an ongoing process, perhaps best thought of as the creation and
maintenance of a classroom "feedback loop." Changes are made based on the classroom research results
and student feedback.

Builds on Good Teaching Practices: Most teachers already collect some feedback on their student’
learning and use that feedback to inform their teaching. Classroom Assessment is an attempt to build on
existing good practice by making it more systematic, more flexible, and more effective.

SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT EXAMPLES:

• End-of-term or midterm exams
• Cumulative work over an extended period such as a final project or creative portfolio
• End-of-unit or chapter tests
• Standardised tests that demonstrate school accountability

Remember ASSESSMENT is NOT for EVALUATION!!! Evaluation is SUMMATIVE RESULTS for

the purpose of grading, appraising and judging.

THIS TABLE GIVES A SUMMARY OF THE FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT

Assessment for Learning Assessment of Learning

(Formative Assessment)
Checks learning to determine what to do next and then
provides suggestions of what to do—teaching and learning are
indistinguishable from assessment.
Is designed to assist educators and students in improving
learning.
Is used continually by providing descriptive feedback.
Usually uses detailed, specific and descriptive feedback—in a Usually compiles data into a single number, score or mark as
formal or informal report.
Is not reported as part of an achievement grade.
(Summative Assessment)
Checks what has been learned to date.
Is designed for the information of those not directly involved in
daily learning and teaching (school administration, parents,
school board, Alberta Education, post-secondary institutions) in
addition to educators and students.
Is presented in a periodic report.
part of a formal report.
Is reported as part of an achievement grade.

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Usually focuses on improvement, compared with the student's Usually compares the student's learning either with other
“previous best” (self-referenced, making learning more students' learning (norm-referenced, making learning highly
personal). competitive) or the standard for a grade level (criterion-
referenced, making learning more collaborative and
individually focused).
Involves the student. Does not always involve the student.

WHAT VERBS DO YOU CONSIDER WHEN PREPARING A SUMMATIVE OR FORMATIVE

TEST?

A group of educators, led by Benjamin Bloom, identified a hierarchy of six categories of cognitive skills:
knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. As students learn, they start
with the knowledge level and progress through the hierarchy. Thus, advanced courses should include
skills at a higher level than introductory or basic skills course.

Knowledge Level: The successful student will recognize or recall learned information.
list record underline
state define arrange
name relate describe
tell recall memorize
recall repeat recognize
reproduce
label select

Comprehension Level: The successful student will restate or interpret information in their own words.

explain describe report

translate express summarize
identify classify discuss
restate locate compare
discuss review illustrate
tell critique estimate
reference interpret Reiterate
Application Level: The successful student will use or apply the learned information.

apply sketch perform

use solve respond
practice construct role-play
demonstrate conduct execute
Employ
complete dramatize

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Analysis Level: The successful student will examine the learned information critically.

analyze inspect test

distinguish categorize critique
differentiate catalogue diagnose
appraise quantify extrapolate
calculate measure theorize
experiment relate Debate
Synthesis Level: The successful student will create new models using the learned information.

develop revise compose

plan formulate collect
build propose construct
create establish prepare
design integrate devise
organize modify Manage
Evaluation Level: The successful student will assess or judge the value of learned information.

review appraise choose

justify argue conclude
assess rate compare
defend score evaluate
report on select interpret
investigate measure support

VARIOUS ASSESSMENT METHODS USED BY HISTORY TEACHER

• An open-ended question that gets them writing/talking: To help students grasp ideas in class,
ask open-ended questions that require students that get students writing/talking. They will
undoubtedly reveal more than you would’ve thought to ask directly.

• Ask students to reflect: During the last five minutes of class ask students to reflect on
the lesson and write down what they’ve learned. Then, ask them to consider how they
would apply this concept or skill in a practical setting
• Quizzes: Give a short quiz at the end of class to check for comprehension

• Ask students to summarize: Have students summarize or paraphrase important concepts

and lessons. This can be done orally, visually, or otherwise.

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• Think-pair-share: Students take a few minutes to think about the question or prompt.
Next, they pair with a designated partner to compare thoughts before sharing with the
whole class.

• Choral reading: Students mark text to identify a particular concept and chime in, reading
the marked text aloud in unison with the teacher. This strategy helps students develop
fluency; differentiate between the reading of statements and questions; and practice
phrasing, pacing, and reading dialogue.

• Essay test: a student is assigned some work to do research and provide a write-up. Could
be between 3-10 pages.

• Impromptu quizzes/Test: a teacher walks down to class and gives a timed CAT randomly

Revision questions

• What is the importance of teaching history?

• What is the relevance of a text book while teaching history?

• Discuss six teaching methods used in history

• Develop a 3 weeks scheme work from the form one syllabus

• Why should a history teacher have a syllabus?

• Discuss six types of teaching aids used in history

• What are the key items that must be included within the TP file?

• Why is it important to plan for a lesson?

• Draw three weeks lesson plans for form 2 history class

• How does a teacher indicate good management skills in a class?

• How is a picture used in teaching history?

• Illustrate all the key components of a TP File giving the importance of each

• Highlight the merits of using teaching aids in history

• Give the various meanings of history

• What is government?

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 • what are the advantages of a role play/Drama?

• Discuss the types of teaching aids used in teaching history

• What is the role of writing the record of works

• “Planning a lesson is tiresome.” Give reasons why this is important

• draw a two weeks scheme of work for a form one history class

• Identify 5 forms of assessment in history and government

• Discuss various ways of enhancing history and government lessons

• Outline various visual aids used in teaching history and government

• Analyse the demerits and merits of summative assessment

• Identify 9 professional documents that a history teacher needs

• Give 6 essential traits of a good teaching aid

• Discuss the components of the verbs in the Blooms taxonomy and how it helps in setting of
examination

• Discuss reasons for teaching history and government in schools

• How does a teacher’s personality affect content delivery of a teacher?

• Discuss 10 traits of a good history teacher

• Draw a 40 minutes lesson plan for form two history class

• Discuss 6 uses of a textbook to a teacher

• Assessment and evaluation are important in history, name the five basic components
of evaluation and the four basic components of assessment

• Briefly discuss five components of a scheme of work in history

• Discuss 5 factors to consider when picking a teaching aid for use in class

• Discuss 6 traits of a good teaching aid

• Describe 5 traits of an effective resource person

• Discuss the merits and demerits of a field trip as a teaching strategy

• Define history according to the various scholars

• Discuss 5 teaching strategies that are learner centered and 2 that are teacher centered

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• Explain the various methods of assessing students. Giving merits and merits of each

• Critically examine the steps for preparing a lesson plan and prepare a sample from
form one or two syllabus

• Identify strategies used to indicate class control of a teacher

• Identify how a teacher sources out a learning/teaching aid

• Using examples, differentiate between visual, audial and audio-visual teaching aids

• Name five strategies you can input when creating a realistic timeline (40 minutes
class)

• Identify 5 forms of assessment in history and government

• Differentiate between formative assessment and summative assessment

• Describe the techniques of development of teaching /learning resources

• Discuss widely the characteristics of classroom/formative assessment

• Discuss widely the steps for preparing a scheme of work

• Discuss 14 key professional documents for a teacher and importance of each

• Discuss the importance of a syllabus to a teacher

• Discuss 5 strategies that a teacher can use to teach large classes

• How has technology been used to enhance teaching of history in a class

• Discuss the merits and demerits of a chalkboard to a history teacher

• How can a teacher ensure there is good use of chalkboard?

• Using examples, briefly explain the difference between expository and heuristic
strategies of teaching History and Government.

• Critically examine the various sources of History.

• Highlight FIVE qualities of a good History and Government textbook

• Explain any FOUR elements of a good History and Government lesson plan

• Give five reasons why History and Government should be made compulsory subject.

• Explain why History and Government is a difficult subject to teach.

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• Discuss any FIVE factors which determine the form of assessment the teacher uses
in History and Government lessons.

• Discuss 5 factors to consider when drawing a scheme of work

• Highlight 5 advantages and 5 disadvantages of an improvised teaching aid

• Describe 5 types of governments in Africa

• Discuss the merits of using a lecture method

• How can a teacher enhance group discussion as a teaching strategy?

• Highlight 5 advantages of a question-and-answer strategy?

• Set a form two end of year examination and consider the Bloom’s Taxonomy

• Is history an art or a science?

• Why are secondary sources important to a historian?

• Examine the major functions of assessment in history and government

• Analyse the benefits of effective questioning in a history class

• Explain ways in which a teacher can demonstrate knowledge of history content

• Assess the significance of record of works in history

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