TAMIL NADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

SYLLABUS

MAT 111 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS ( 1+1)

Objective:
To understand and apply fundamental concepts of mathematics applicable in biology and
to acquire about theoretical concepts of Algebra, Geometry, Calculus and Mathematical
Modeling.
Theory
Unit - I
Algebra: Permutation and Combination -meaning of nPr and nCr (simple problems).
Matrices- Definition of Matrices, Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Transpose and Inverse
up to 3rd order by adjoint method, Properties of determinants up to 3rd order and their evaluation.

Unit - II
Analytical Geometry: Distance formula, section formula (internal and external
division), Change of axes (only origin changed), Equation of co-ordinate axes, Equation of lines
parallel to axes, Slope-intercept form of equation of line, Slope-point form of equation of line,
Two point form of equation of line, Intercept form of equation of line, Normal form of equation
of line, General form of equation of line, Point of intersection of two straight lines, Angles
between two straight lines, Parallel lines, Perpendicular lines.
Equation of circle whose centre and radius is known, General equation of a circle,
Equation of circle passing through three given points, Equation of circle whose diameters is line
joining two points (x1, y1) & (x2,y2).

Unit - III
Differential Calculus: Definition of function, limit and continuity, Simple problems on
limit, Simple problems on continuity, Differentiation of xn , ex , sin x & cos x from first
principle, Derivatives of sum, difference, product and quotient of two functions, Differentiation
of functions of functions (Simple problem based on it), Logarithmic differentiation (Simple
problem based on it), Differentiation by substitution method and simple problems based on it,
Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric functions. Partial differentiation with first and second
order -Maxima and Minima of the functions of the form y = f (x) and y = f(x 1,x2) (Simple
problems based on it).
Unit –IV
Integral Calculus: Integration of simple functions, Integration of Product of two
functions, Integration by substitution method, Definite Integral (simple problems based on it),
Area under simple well-known curves (simple problems based on it).
Unit-V

Mathematical Models: Agricultural systems - Mathematical models - classification of

mathematical models- Fitting of Linear, quadratic and exponential models to experimental
data.
Practical
Simple problems in Permutation and Combination -meaning of nPr and nCr Problems in
Algebra of matrices , Transpose and Inverse up to 3rd order by adjoint method, evaluation of
determinants up to 3rd order. Problems in Straight lines using distance formula, section formula
(internal and external division), Change of axes (only origin changed)- Equation of co-ordinate
axes- Equation of lines parallel to axes. Problems in equation of a line in : Slope-intercept form,
Slope-point form, two point forms, Intercept form, Normal form , General form, Point of
intersection of two straight lines. Problems in Angles between two straight lines, Parallel lines,
Perpendicular lines. Problems in Equation of circle whose centre and radius is known, General
equation of a circle, Equation of circle passing through three given points, Equation of circle
whose diameters is line joining two points (x1, y1) & (x2,y2). Simple problems in limit and
continuity. Problems in differentiation of xn , ex , sin x & cos x, derivatives of sum, difference,
product and quotient of two functions. Simple problem based on differentiation of functions of
functions and Logarithmic differentiation. Simple problems based on differentiation by
substitution method. Problems in partial differentiation and Maxima and Minima of the functions
of the form y=f (x)and y=f(x1,x2). Problems in integration of simple functions and product of two
functions- Definite Integral. Integration by substitution method-Problems in Area under simple
well-known curves. Problems in fitting linear, quadratic and Exponential models to experimental
data.
Theory Schedule:

1. Permutation and Combination -meaning of nPr and nCr (Simple Problems) .

2. Matrices- Definition of Matrices- Types of Matrices- Addition, Subtraction,
Multiplication, Transpose
3. Determinants-Properties of determinants -up to 3rd order evaluation and inverse up to 3rd
order by adjoint method.
4. Straight lines - Distance formula-section formula (internal and external division) -
Change of axes (only origin changed) - Equation of co-ordinate axes- Equation of lines
parallel to axes.
5. Forms of equation of Line-Slope-intercept form -Slope one point form - Two point form
-Intercept form.
6. Normal form of equation of line- General form of equation of line- Point of intersection
of two straight lines.
7. Angles between two straight lines- Parallel lines- Perpendicular lines- Angle of bisectors
between two lines.
8. Circle-Equation of circle whose centre and radius is known- General equation of a circle-
Equation of circle passing through three given points- Equation of circle whose diameters
is line joining two points (x1, y1) & (x2,y2).
9. Mid Semester Examination
10. Differential Calculus - Definition of function, limit and continuity- Simple problems on
limit and continuity.
11. Differentiation of xn , ex , sin x & cos x from first principle-Derivatives of sum,
difference, product and quotient of two functions- Differentiation using functions of
function rule (Simple problem based on it)
12. Logarithmic differentiation (Simple problem based on it)- Differentiation by substitution
method and simple problems based on it- Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric
functions
 13. Maxima and Minima of the functions of the form y=f (x) and y=f(x1,x2) (Simple
problems based on it).
14. Integral Calculus - Integration of simple functions and Product of two functions-
Definite Integral (simple problems based on it)
15. Integration by substitution method- Area under simple well-known curves (simple
problems based on it).
16. Agricultural systems - Mathematical models - classification of mathematical models-
Linear model.
17. Quadratic and Exponential models- applications of mathematical models in agriculture.
Practical Schedule:

1. Simple problems in Permutation and Combination.

2. Problems in Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Transpose of a matrix
3. Problems in determinants and Inverse up to 3rd order by adjoint method.
4. Problems in Straight lines using distance formula, section formula (internal and external
division), Change of axes (only origin changed)- Equation of co-ordinate axes- Equation
of lines parallel to axes.
5. Problems in Slope-intercept form of equation of line, Slope-point form of equation of
line, two point forms of equation of line, Intercept form of equation of line.
6. Problems in Normal form of equation of line, General form of equation of line, Point of
intersection of two straight lines.
7. Problems in Angles between two straight lines, Parallel lines, Perpendicular lines, Angle
of bisectors between two lines.
8. Problems in Equation of circle whose centre and radius is known, General equation of a
circle, Equation of circle passing through three given points, Equation of circle whose
diameters is line joining two points (x1, y1) & (x2,y2).
9. Simple problems in limit and continuity.
10. Problems in differentiation of xn , ex , sin x & cos x, derivatives of sum, difference,
product , quotient of two functions and differentiation of functions of functions.
11. Simple problem based on Logarithmic differentiation and differentiation by substitution
method.
12. Problems in Maxima and Minima of the functions of the form y=f (x) and y=f(x1,x2)
13. Problems in integration of simple functions and product of two functions using
integration by parts- Definite Integral.
14. Integration by substitution method-Problems in Area under simple well-known curves
15. Problems in fitting linear models to experimental data .
16. Problems in fitting Quadratic and Exponential models to experimental data.
17. Final Practical Examination.
References:
1. Mehta, B. C. and G. M. K. Madnani, 2014, Mathematics for Economists, Sultan Chand &
Sons, New Delhi.
2. Kailasam.C, Pangayar Selvi. R and Vasanthi. R, 2010 , Applied Mathematics, Agrobios
(India), Jodhpur
3. James Stewart and Barhara Frank, Calculus, 2008, International Thomson Publishers,
Singapore
4. Duraipandian, 2007, Calculus and Analytical Geometry, Emerald Publishers, Chennai.
5. Ranganathan.C.R. 2006, A First Course in Mathematical Models of Population
Growth (with MATLAB programs), Associated publishing company, New Delhi
6. Manickavasagam Pillai, T. K and Natarajan, T. 2004. Calculus, Viswanathan
Publications, Madras.
 LECTURE 1

Permutation and Combination -meaning of nPr and nCr (Simple Problems)

Introduction:

Permutations and combinations are an integral part of modern life and we are using
them all the time without even realizing it. They are widely applied in solving problems of
probability, genetic engineering and life sciences. Suppose if we want to plant different
seedlings in the boundary of the field or in the border of the roads, permutation plays a very
significant role in decision making. For breeder’s selection of different plant characters or genes
breeding for efficient and more yielding crops, combinations play a very important role. We will
discuss permutations and combinations, first defining these concepts, then showing examples,
and relating them to practical applications.
Factorial:

Permutation and Combinations involve operations with factorial notation. The

factorial is the product of the integer’s ‘n ’ through ‘1’ as n factorial and use the symbol n !
o r n to denote this; that is,

2! = 2× 1

3! = 3× 2× 1

6! = 6× 5×4× 3× 2× 1

n! = n× (n-1)x…x3× 2× 1

Fundamental Counting Principle:

Assume that a person wants to visit 3 cities Coimbatore, Chennai and Hyderabad.
Assume that there are 3 routes (by road) from Coimbatore to Chennai and 4 routes from
Chennai to Hyderabad. Then the total number of routes from Coimbatore to Hyderabad via
Chennai is 3 x 4 =12. This can be explained as follows.

For every route from Coimbatore to Chennai there are 4 routes from Chennai to
Hyderabad. Since there are 3 road routes from Coimbatore to Chennai, the total number of
routes is 3 x 4 =12.

Coimbatore Chennai Hyderabad

3 ways 4 ways
 The above principle can be extended as follows. If there are n jobs and if there are mi
ways in which the ith job can be done, then the total number of ways in which all the n jobs can
be done in succession ( 1st job, 2nd job, 3rd job… nth job) is given by m1 x m2 x m3 …x mn .

(a) Addition Principle:

If an event can occur in ‘m’ different ways and a second event in ‘n’ different ways,
then either of the two events can occur in ‘(m+n)’ ways provided only one event can occur
at a time.

For example in a class there are 20 boys and 10 girls, the teacher wants to select
either a boy or a girl to represent the class in a function. The number of ways the teacher
can make the selection is 20+10 =30 ways.

(b) Multiplication Principle :

If an event can occur in ‘m’ different ways and a second event in ‘n’ different ways,
then both the events can occur simultaneously in ‘m x n’ different ways.

For example in a class there are 15 boys and 20 girls, the teacher wants to select a
boy and a girl to represent the class in a function. The number of ways the teacher can
make the selection is 15 x 20 = 300 ways.

Definition: Permutation (or) Arrangement:

The different arrangements which can be made out of a given number of things by
taking some or all of them at a time are called permutations.

Meaning of nPr:

The number of permutations (or arrangements) of ‘n’ things taken ‘r’ a time
(r  n) is denoted by nPr (or) P (n,r)

(ie) Suppose we have ‘n’ objects, at each time we select ‘r’ objects and arrange the
selected ‘r’ objects, the total number of such arrangements is denoted by nPr.

Permutation means arrangement of things. The word arrangement is used, if the order
of things is considered.

For example let us assume that there are 3 plants P1, P2, P3. These 3 plants can be
planted in the following 6 ways namely

P1 P2 P3

P1 P3 P2

P2 P1 P3

P2 P3 P1
 P3 P1 P2

P3 P2 P1

Each arrangement is called a permutation. Thus there are 6 arrangements

(permutations) of 3 plants taking all the 3 plants at a time. This we write as 3P3.
Therefore 3P3 = 6.

Suppose out of the 3 objects we choose only 2 objects and arrange them. How many
arrangements are possible? For this consider 2 boxes as shown in figure.

I Box II Box

Since we want to arrange only two objects and we have totally 3 objects, the first box can be
filled by any one of the 3 objects, (i.e.) the first box can be filled in 3 ways. After filling the first
box we are left with only 2 objects and the second box can be filled by any one of these two
objects. Therefore from Fundamental Counting Principle the total number of ways in which both
the boxes can be filled is 3 x 2 =6. This we write as 3P2 = 6.

In general the number of permutations of n objects taking r objects at a time is denoted

by nPr. Its value is given by

nPr = n (n− 1)(n− 2)...(n− r + 1)

n (n − 1)(n − 2)....(n − r + 1)  (n − r )(n − r − 1)...2.1

=
(n − r )(n − r − 1)....2.1

n!
nPr = rn
(i.e) (n − r )!
Note:

a) nPn = n ! (b ) nP1= n. (c) nP0= 1.

Examples:

1. Evaluate 8P3

Solution:

8! 8! 8  7  6  5 !
8P3 = = = = 336
(8 − 3)! 5! 5!

2. Evaluate 11P2

Solution:
 11! 11! 1110  9!
11 P2 = = = = 110
(11 − 2)! 9! 9!

3. There are 6 varieties on brinjal, in how many ways these can be arranged in 6 plots
which are in a line?

Solution:

Six varieties of brinjal can be arranged in 6 plots in 6P6 ways.

6! 6!
6P6 = = = 6! [0! = 1]
(6 − 6)! 0!

= 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2x1 = 720.

Therefore 6 varieties of brinjal can be arranged in 720 ways.

4. There are 5 varieties of roses and 2 varieties of jasmine to be arranged in a row, for a
photograph. In how many ways can they be arranged, if

(i) all varieties of jasmine together

(ii)All varieties of jasmine are not together.

Solution:

i) Since the 2 varieties of jasmine are inseparable, consider them as one single unit. This
together with 5 varieties of roses make 6 units which can be arranged themselves in 6! ways.

In every one of these permutations, 2 varieties of jasmine can be rearranged among

themselves in 2! ways.

Hence the total number of arrangements required = 6! x 2! = 720 x 2 = 1440.

ii) The number of arrangements of all 7 varieties without any restrictions =7! = 5040

Number of arrangements in which all varieties of jasmine are together = 1440.

Therefore number of arrangements required = 5040 -1440 = 3600.

Linear and Circular permutation:

For a permutation in a row there are always two ends. These are called linear permutations.

If we consider arrangements of objects in the form of a circle, instead of a line, such

permutations are called circular permutations.

➢ The number of ways in which ‘n’ different things can be arranged in a circle taken all at a
time is (n-1)!

➢ The number of ways in which ‘n’ different things can be arranged in a straight line taken
all at a time is n!
 Consider the problem of planting 6 plants in a round arch. This arrangement is not considered
different if each plant moves one place to the right or to the left because they are in a circular
arch not in a line. The solution to this problem is to fix the position of one plant and find the
number of permutations for the remaining 5 plants i.e., 5! = 32. In general the number of
permutation for n distinct objects in a circle is (n-1)!

Note :

1. If clockwise and anti clock-wise orders are different, then total number of circular-
permutations is given by (n-1)!

2. If clock-wise and anti-clock-wise orders are taken as not different, then total number of
circular-permutations is given by (n-1)!/2!

3. Number of permutations of n-thing, taken all at a time, in which ‘P’ are of one type, ‘q’ of
them are of second-type, ‘k’ of them are of third-type, rest are all different
n! / p! x q! x k!

Examples:

1. How many different signals can be made by 5 flags from 8-flags of different colours?

Solution:

Number of ways taking 5 flags out of 8-flag

= 8P5 = 8!/(8-5)!

= 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 = 6720

2. How many words can be made by using the letters of the word “SIMPLETON” taken
all at a time?

Solution: 9P9 = 9! = 362880 ways

3. In how many ways can the letters of the word “Pre-University” be arranged?

Solution:

Here ‘r’ occurs 2 times, ‘I’ occurs 2 times and ‘e’ occurs 2 times. Therefore, the number
of ways of arranging letters = 13! / 2! X 2! X 2! = 778377600.

Restricted Permutations

a) Number of permutations of ‘n’ things, taken ‘r’ at a time, when a particular thing is to be
always included in each arrangement = r (n-1) P(r-1)

b) Number of permutations of ‘n’ things, taken ‘r’ at a time, when a particular thing is fixed:
= n-1 Pr-1

c) Number of permutations of ‘n’ things, taken ‘r’ at a time, when a particular thing is never
taken: = n-1 Pr.
 d) Number of permutations of ‘n’ things, taken ‘r’ at a time, when ‘m’ specified things always
come together = m! x ( n-m+1) !

e) Number of permutations of ‘n’ things, taken all at a time, when ‘m’ specified things never
come together = n ! - [m! x (n-m+1)!]

Combination

Definition: Combinations (or) selections:

The different selections (or groups) that can be made out of a given number of things by
taking some or all of them at a time are called a combination. In this case, we are only
concerned with the number of things in each selection and not with the order of the things.

Meaning of nCr:

The number of ways of selecting ‘r’ things out of ‘n’ things is denoted by nCr (or) C (n,r).

For example let us consider 3 plant varieties V1, V2 & V3. In how many ways 2 varieties
can be selected? The possible selections are

1) V1 & V2

2) V2 & V3

3) V1 & V3

Each such selection is known as a combination. There are 3 selections possible from a total of
3 objects taking 2 objects at a time and we write 3C2 = 3.

In general the number of selections (Combinations) from a total of ‘n’ objects taking ‘r’

→ (1)
n!
objects at a time is denoted by nCr. nC r =
r!(n − r )!

Note:

n! n!
1. If r = n, then nCn = = =1
n! (n − n)! n!

2. If r = 1, then nC1 = n.

3. If r = 0, then nC0 = 1.

4. Number of combinations of ‘n’ things taken ‘r’ at a time is equal to number of things
taken n-r at a time.

(ie) nCr = nCn-r if r>n/2

5. n+1Cr = nCr + nCr+1

Distinction between Permutation and Combination:

➢ Permutation means arrangement , combination means selection.

 ➢ In permutation the order is considered whereas in combination order is immaterial..

➢ Usually the number of permutation exceeds the number of combinations.

➢ Each combination corresponds too many permutations.

Relation between nPr and nCr

We know that

nPr = nCr x r!

nPr
(or) nC r = ------------(1)
r!

n!
But we know nP r = ---------(2)
(n − r )!
Sub (2) in (1) we get
n!
nC r =
(n − r ) !r !

Examples :

1. Find the value of 10C3.

Solution:

10 (9 - 1)(9 - 2 ) 10 . 9 . 8
10C 3 = = =120
1.2.3 1. 2. 3

2. Find the value of 20C18

Solution:

We know that if r >n/2 we can use this formula nCr = nCn-r

20  19
i.e., we have here 18> 20/2 therefore 20C18 = 20C20-18=20C2 = =190
1 2

3. How many different teams of 8 farmers, consisting of 5 male and 3 female can be made
from 25 male and 10 female farmers?

Solution:

To form a group of 8 farmers we can select 5 male and 3 female in 25C5 × 10C3 = 6375600
ways.

4. A class contains 12 boys and 10 girls. From the class 10 students are to be chosen for
a competition under the condition that at least 4 boys and atleast4 girls must be
represented. The 2 girls who won the prizes last year should be included. In how many
ways can the selection are made?

Solution:

Required number of ways = (12C6 × 8C2)+(12C5 × 8C3) + (12C4 × 8C4)= 104874 ways.

5. In how many ways can we select eight Perennial plants from twelve Coconuts and 9
Sapota so as to give the Coconut majority if atleast two Sapota are included.

Solution:

Since the majority of the group containing 8 should be coconut. The number of coconuts in the
selection should be more than 4. And also since the selection has to include atleast 2 sapota, it
must have either two sapotas (or) 3 sapotas. These are the only two possible number of
sapotas allowed.

 the possible selections are

2 sapotas and 6 coconuts

(or) 3 sapotas and 5 coconuts.

= 9C2 x 12C6 + 9C3 x 12C5

= 36 x 847 +84 x 792

= 97,020 ways.

6. A team of 8 students goes on an excursion, in two cars, of which one can

accommodate 5 and the other only 4. In how many ways can they travel?

Solution:
There are 8 students and the maximum number of students can accommodate in two cars
together is 9.
We may divide the 8 students as follows

Case I: 5 students in the first car and 3 in the second

Case II: 4 students in the first car and 4 in the second
In Case I: 8 students are divided into groups of 5 and 3 in 8C3 ways.
Similarly, in Case II: 8 students are divided into two groups of 4 and 4 in 8C4 ways.
Therefore, the total number of ways in which 8 students can travel is 8C3 + 8C4 = 56 + 70 = 126.

7. A bag consists of 9 seedlings, 3 of which are stunted in growth. How many ways can
we select 4 seedlings such that exactly 1 out of the 4 selected is stunted?

Solution:

The 9 seedlings can be separated in two groups, normally growing seedling (6 nos.) and
stunted growth seedling (3 nos.) out of which we‘ve to select 4 seedlings.
i.e., 3 from normally growing seedling and 1 from stunted growth seedling.

The number of ways that normally growing seedling can be selected is

6 5  4
6C 3 = = 20 ways
1 2  3 .

The number of ways that stunted growth seedling can be selected is 3C1 = 3 ways .

Total number of ways we can select 4 seedlings such that exactly 1 out of the 4 selected is
stunted 20 x 3 = 60 ways.

Restricted – Combinations

(a) Number of combinations of ‘n’ different things taken ‘r’ at a time, when ‘p’ particular things
are always included = n-pCr-p.

(b) Number of combination of ‘n’ different things, taken ‘r’ at a time, when ‘p’ particular things
are always to be excluded = n-pCr

(c) Number of ways of selecting zero or more things from ‘n’ different things is given by 2n-1

(d) Number of ways of selecting zero or more things from ‘n’ identical things is given by n+1

(e) Number of ways of selecting one or more things from ‘p’ identical things of one type ‘q’
identical things of another type, ‘r’ identical things of the third type and ‘n’ different things
is given by (p+1) (q+1) (r+1)2n – 1.

(f) Number of ways of selecting ‘r’ things from ‘n’ identical things is ‘1’
 EXERCISE PROBLEMS
1. Find the value of (i) 8P3 (ii) 10P5 (iii) 8 ! 5 p2

2. Find the value of (i) 10C 3 (ii) 7C5 (iii) 6C2

3. Find the value of (i) 8P3 + 10C 3 (ii) 10P 5 + 7 C5 (iii)3 5 p 2 - 6 C 2 (iv) 20C18

4. From a group of 15 farmers in a village, a team of 11 farmers is to be chosen. In how

many ways this can be done?
5. There are 3 varieties of tomato, 4 varieties of brinjal. In how many ways they can be
planted if the condition is that the varieties of the same crops should be together.
6. Find the number of ways in which a committee of 5 farmers can be formed out of a
group of farmers containing 5 small farmers and 4 big farmers so that in each
committee there are not more than 3 farmers from any group.
7. A committee of 5 students is formed from 6 boys and 5 girls such that it contains at
least one boy and one girl. How many different committees can be formed.
8. A question paper contains Section A with 6 questions and Section B with 7 questions.
A student has to answer eight questions selecting at least 3 from each. In how many
different ways it can be done?
9. How many quadrilateral plots can be formed by joining the vertices of a site in the form
of hexagon?
10. From 7 garden plants and 4 spices a selection is to be made for 6.In how many ways
this can be done if the institutions are (a) there should be exactly 2 spices (b) there
should be atleast 2 spices.
11. How many four-letter words can be formed out of the word LOGARITHMS?

12. There are 8 vacant chairs in a room. In how many ways can 5 persons take their
seats?
13. How many distinct words can be formed using all the letters of the word
ENTERTAINMENT?

14. Find the number of ways of arranging 6 students (i) in the form of a straight line (ii) in
the form of a circle.
15. How many words can be formed with the letters of the word ‘OMEGA’ when:
(i) ‘O’ and ‘A’ occupying end places.
(ii) ‘E’ being always in the middle
(iii) Vowels occupying odd-places
(iv) Vowels being never together.
**********
 LECTURE 2
Matrices- Definition of Matrices- Types of Matrices- Addition, Subtraction,
Multiplication, Transpose

Introduction:

The term ‘matrix’ was first introduced by Sylvester in 1850. He defined a matrix to be an
arrangement of terms. In 1858 Cayley outlined a matrix algebra defining addition, multiplication,
scalar multiplication and inverses. Knowledge of matrix is very useful and important as it has a
wider application in almost every field of Mathematics. Economists are using matrices for social
accounting, input – output tables and in the study of inter-industry economics. Matrices are also
used in the study of communication theory, network analysis in electrical engineering,
Computed Tomography, Genetics and Cryptography etc.

Matrix:

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and columns enclosed by a pair

of brackets   or ( ) or a pair of double bars .

 a 11 a 12  a 11 a 12  a 11 a 12
Example: A=   or A=   or A=
 a 21 a 22  a 21 a 22
  a 21 a 22 

Note:

A matrix is usually denoted by a capital letter and its elements by corresponding small
letters followed by two suffixes, the first one indicating the row and second one the column in
which the element appears.

Example:

If we consider the yield data on 5 varieties of vegetables like Tomato, Onion, Potato,
Carrot with 4 treatments, the yield is normally arranged in the following form

Varieties(kgs)
Tomato Onion Potato Carrot
Treatments

Treatment I 50 45 50 40

Treatment II 53 43 54 42

Treatment III 52 42 52 43

This type of arrangement is called a matrix. Thus a set of numbers arranged in the form of rows
(three Treatments) and columns (four Varieties(kgs) ) is called a matrix. We have represented
the data in rows and columns.
Rows show the treatments applied for each variety. The columns show the vegetables like
Tomato, Onion, Potato, Carrot in Kgs. The same data can be represented in parenthesis by
omitting the headings as given below.

50 45 50 40
53 43 54 42
 
52 42 52 43

This pattern is generally referred to as 'rectangular array'. It consists of three rows and four
columns. It will be seen later on, that this array is called a 3 x 4 (to be read as 3 by 4) matrix.
The data is put in box brackets to indicate that the whole pattern is to be considered together.
You will notice that the Onion under treatment III is placed in third row and second column.

Order:

A matrix of order m x n ( ie. One having m rows and n columns) can be written as

 a 11 a 12 .....a 1j .....a 1n 
 
 a 21 a 22 .....a 2j ....a 2n 
 
: : : : 
: : : : 
A=  
 a i1 a i2 .....a ij .......a in 
 
: : : : 
: : : : 
 
 a m1 a m2 ...a mj .....a mn 

where a11, a12, …… stands for real numbers.

Example:

1 2 5 1 2 3 4 
A = 3 1 6  B = 3 2 1 0
   
3 2 2 5 2 1 3

Here A is of order 3 x 3 and B is of order 3 x 4

Types of matrix:

Row Matrix:

If there is only one row and many columns then the matrix is said to be a row matrix or row
vector.

Example: A = 10 7 5 21 X 4

Column Matrix:

If there is only one column and many rows then the matrix is said to be a column matrix or
column vector.

 2
Example: A = 1 
 
0  3 X 1

Square Matrix:

A matrix, in which the number of rows is equal to the number of columns, is called a square
matrix.

1 2 5
Example: A = 3 1 6 
 
3 2 2  3 X 3

Principal Diagonal Matrix:

a 11 a 12 a 13 
 
A = a 21 a 22 a 23 
a a 32 a 33 
 31 3 x3

The elements a11, a22, a33 is called the principal diagonal (or) leading diagonal.

Trace of the matrix

It is defined as the sum of the elements along the leading diagonal.

In this above matrix the trace of the matrix is a11+ a22 + a33.

In the above example the trace of the matrix is 1+1+2=4

Diagonal Matrix:

A square matrix all of whose elements except those in the leading diagonal are zero is
called a diagonal matrix.

1 0 0
Example: A = 0 3 0 

0 0 7  3 x 3

Scalar Matrix:

In a diagonal matrix, all the diagonal elements are equal; it is called a scalar matrix.
 5 0 0
Example: A = 0 5 0

0 0 5 3 x 3

Unit Matrix (or) Identity Matrix:

If in a diagonal matrix, all the diagonal elements are equal to “1”, then the matrix

is called a unit matrix and it is denoted by “I”.

1 0 0 
Example: I = 0 1 0 
 
0 0 1  3 x 3

Null (or) Zero Matrix:

A matrix, rectangular or square, each of whose elements are zero is called a zero matrix or
a null matrix and is denoted by O.

0 0 0 
0 0 0 
Example: O = 0 0 0  O=  
  0 0 0  2 X 3
0 0 0 3 X 3

Upper triangular Matrix:

A square matrix in which all the elements below the leading diagonal are completely
zero, then it is said to be an upper triangular matrix.

 5 3 2 
Example: A=  0 2 1 
 
 0 0 4  3 x 3

Lower Triangular Matrix:

A square matrix in which all the elements above the leading diagonal are completely
zero, then it is said to be a lower triangular matrix.

 2 0 0 
Example: A=  1 3 0 
 
 8 2 1  3 x 3

Sub Matrix:

A matrix obtained by deleting some rows or columns or both of a given matrix is called a
sub matrix of a given matrix.
 1 2 3 4 
Example: Let A = 3 2 1 0
 
5 2 1 3 4 x 4

2 1 0 
If we delete the first row and the first column, the sub matrix of A is 2 1 3
  2 x3

Transpose of a given Matrix:

Let A be a given matrix of order m x n. The matrix obtained by interchanging rows into
columns and columns into rows, is called the transpose of the matrix A and it is denoted by AT of
order n x m.

2 0 7   2 3 8
   
Example: A = 3 2 1  ; AT = 0 2 1
8 1 0  3 x 3 7 1 0  3 x 3

Properties of transpose of a matrix

1. (AT)T = A

2. (AB)T = BTAT is known as the reversal Law of Transpose of product of two matrices.

Symmetric Matrix:

A square matrix A = {aij} said i = 1 to n ; j = 1 to n said to symmetric, if aij = aji for all i
and j.
Also a Square matrix A is said to be symmetric if A = AT.

2 3 4  2 3 4 
Example: A = 3 5 7  ; A = 3 5 7 
T
   
4 7 10 3 x 3 4 7 10 3 x 3

Skew Symmetric Matrix:

A square matrix A = {aij} i = 1 to n, j = 1 to n for all i & j is called skew

symmetric, if aij = -aji. Here aii = 0 for all i
Example:

0 −1 − 2
A = 1 0 − 3 

2 3 0  3 x 3

Idempotent Matrix:
 A symmetric matrix that reproduces itself multiplied when multiplied by itself is termed as
idempotent matrix.

Example:

A = A.A = A2 = A

Equality of matrices

Two matrices A & B are equal, if and only if,

(i) Both A & B are of the same type

(ii) Every element of ‘B’ is the same as the corresponding element of ‘A’.

Examples:

1. consider matrices A & B

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
A = 9 10 −1 3  B = 9 10 −1 3 
 
4 2 8 5  3 x 4 4 2 8 5  3 x 4
Here order of the matrix A is same as order of the matrix B and every element of ‘B’ is
the same as the corresponding element of ‘A’. Hence the two matrices are equal.
i.e. A = B
2. consider matrices A & B
1 2 10
1 4 5 9 
2 3
4
A = 9 10 −1 3  B =
 4 3 2 
4 2 8 5  3 x 4  
2 −1 8  3x4
Here order of the matrix A is not same as order of the matrix B, the two matrices are not
equal.
Hence A  B
3. Find the value of a and b given

4 5 4 5
a  =
 b 2 x 2 3 2  2 x 2

Solution:

The given matrices are equal

 a = 3, b = 2

Algebra of Matrices:

Addition of two matrices:

 If A = aij and B = bij be any two m x n matrices (ie) they have the same number of rows
and columns, then their sum A + B is defined by C = cij where the matrix C is obtained by
adding the corresponding elements of A and B.

A + B = C = cij = (aij + bij) m x n

Properties of Addition:

1. If A and B are two m x n matrices, then A + B = B + A.

2. If A, B and C be any three m x n matrices, then A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C.

3. For every m x n matrix A, there exists a zero matrix O of the same order, such that A +
O = O + A = A.

4. If A and B be any two m x n matrices such that B satisfies the equation A + B = 0,

then each element of B is the negative of the corresponding element of A and B is
denoted by -A.

Example:

4 5 2 3
1. Find   +
5 6 2 x 2  2 1  2 x 2

Solution:

4 5  2 3 4 + 2 5 + 3 6 8
+ =
5 6 2 1  5 + 2 6 + 1 7 7  2 x 2
=


2. A vendor sells hot dogs and corn dogs at three different locations. His total sales (in
hundreds) for January and February from the three locations are given in the table below.

JANUARY FEBRUARY

Hotdogs Corndogs
H Hotdogs Corndogs

Place I 10 8 8 7
Place II
8 6  6 7 
 
Place III  6 4  6 5

Determine total sales for the two months

Solution:

10 8  8 7
 
Let the first matrix be represented by J = 8 6 and the second by F =
6 7 
   
 6 4 6 5

Now the total sales was given by the addition of the two matrices J and F
 18 15

Hence J + F = 14 13

 
12 9 

3. A store sells three brands of tires, A, B and C. In the first quarter, the vector gives the

 25
  
sales A1 = 5 where the rows represent the three brands of tires sold. In second
 
 6 

 20 
  
quarter, the sales are given by A 2 =  10  .What is the total sale of each brand of tire in
 6 

the first half year?

Solution:

The total sales would be given by

  
C = A1 + A2

 25  20 
=
 5+  10
   
 6   6 

 45
 
= 15
 
 12 

 The number of brand A tires sold is 45, brand B is 15 and brand C is 12 in the first half year.
Difference of two Matrices:

If A and B be two m x n matrices, A – B = A + (-B), the difference A – B is obtained by

subtracting each element of B from the corresponding element of A.

Example:

4 5 2 3
1. Find  −
5 6 2 x 2 2 1  2 x 2

Solution:

4 5  2 3 4 − 2 5 − 3 2 2
− =
5 6 2 1  5 − 2 6 − 1 3 5  2 x 2
=

2. In a Famous toy shop, the toys sales during the first two weeks is given below.

4 4  2 2
First week =   Second week = 
5  2 x 2
. Find the difference between
6 10 2 x 2 3
the toys sales during the two weeks.

Solution:

4 4  2 2
Difference =  −
6 10 3 5 

4 − 2 4−2 
= 
6 − 3 10 − 5

2 2
= 
3 5  2 x 2

Multiplication of matrix:

They are of two types: 1. By a scalar kB.

2. By a matrix AxB

Scalar multiplication
To multiply a matrix ‘A’ by a scalar ‘K’, then multiply every element of a matrix ‘A’ by
that scalar.
Example:
4 0
1. Find 2 
1 −9 
Solution:

These are the calculations:

2×4=8 2×0=0
2×1=2 2×-9=-18

We call the number ("2" in this case) a scalar, so this is called "scalar multiplication".

2. Baskets of vegetables like Carrot, Beetroot, Potato, and Radish are taken from Ooty to
a vegetable market in Chennai. The transport cost from ooty to Chennai is Rs.2 per kg.
The details of vegetables (in kgs) are given below,
Carrot Beetroot
Potato Radish

Basket I
Basket II
 30 20 25 15 
20 20
 25 25
Find the transport cost of vegetables per kgs.
Solution:
30 20 25 15 
Let the given matrix be A =  
20 25 25 20
Since the transpose cost is given Rs. 2 per kg.
 by scalar multiplication we get ,
30 20 25 15 
Cost matrix = 2  
20 25 25 20
60 40 50 30
=  
40 50 50 40
Note:

❖ If A and B be any two m x n matrices, then k(A + B ) = kA + kB.

❖ If A be any matrix of order m x n, then (-k) A = -kA.

❖ (k1 + k2) A = k1 A + k2A

Matrix Multiplication:

Two matrices A & B can be multiplied to form the matrix product AB, if and only if the
number of columns of 1st matrix A is equal to the number of rows of 2nd matrix If A is a matrix
of order (m x p) and B is a matrix of order (p x n) then the matrix product AB can be formed.
AB is a matrix of order (m x n).

In this case the matrices A and B are said to be conformable for matrix multiplication.

Example:

7 8 
1 3
and B= 9 10
2
1. Find the value of AB where A= 
4 5 6 
11 12

Solution:

In this case the A is of 2 x 3 matrix and B is of 3 x 2 matrix and are said to be

conformable for matrix multiplication.

But to multiply a matrix by another matrix we need to do the "dot product" of rows and
columns ... what does that mean? Let us see with an example:

To work out the answer for the 1st row and 1st column:
The "Dot Product" is where we multiply matching members, then sum up:

(1, 2, 3) • (7, 9, 11) = 1×7 + 2×9 + 3×11

= 58

We match the 1st members (1 and 7), multiply them, likewise for the 2nd members (2 and 9)
and the 3rd members (3 and 11), and finally sum them up.

Want to see another example? Here it is for the 1st row and 2nd column:

(1, 2, 3) • (8, 10, 12) = 1×8 + 2×10 + 3×12

= 64

We can do the same thing for the 2nd row and 1st column:

(4, 5, 6) • (7, 9, 11) = 4×7 + 5×9 + 6×11

= 139

And for the 2nd row and 2nd column:

(4, 5, 6) • (8, 10, 12) = 4×8 + 5×10 + 6×12

= 154

And we get:

2. Raman brought 7 watermelon,5 jack fruits and Kannan brought 6 watermelon, 7 Jack
fruits. The cost of watermelon and Jack fruit is Rs.25 and Rs.30 respectively. Find the
total amount of purchasing fruits by each?

Solution:

Let A be the matrix denoting the number of fruits in which the rows represents the persons and
column represents the fruits.

7 5 
Then A =  
6 7 

Let the price matrix will be given by,

  25
B=  .
30 

Now the total amount of purchasing by each is obtained by multiplying the two matrices A & B.

 AB = 7 5

 25
30 
6 7   

7  25 + 5  30
=  
6  25 + 7  30

325
=  
360 

 Raman purchased fruits for an amount of Rs.325 and kannan purchased fruits for an
amount of Rs.360.

2 3
3. If the price matrix of a particular product is   and the quantity of the product is of
4 5
6 4
the form   . Find its revenue matrix.
 2 3

Solution:

2 3 6 4
It is given that Price matrix P =   , and the quantity matrix Q =  
4 5  2 3

We know that , Revenue R = (Price P ) (Quantity Q)

 R = 2 3

6 4
 2 3
4 5  

2  6 + 3  2 2  4 + 3  3
= 
4  6 + 5  2 4  4 + 5  3

12 + 6 8+9 
=
24 + 10 16 + 15

18 17 
=
34 31

Note:

The matrix product AB is different from the matrix product BA, for

1. The matrix AB can be formed but not BA

Eg: A is a (2 x 3) matrix
 B is a (3 x 5) matrix

AB alone can be formed and it is a (2 x 5) matrix.

2. Even if AB & BA can be formed, they need not be of same order.

Eg: A is a (2 x 3) matrix

B is a (3 x 2) matrix

AB can be formed and is a (2 x 2) matrix

BA can be formed and is a (3x 3) matrix

3. Even if AB & BA are of the same order, they needn’t be equal. Because, they need not be
identical.

Eg: A is a (3 x 3) matrix

B is a (3 x 3) matrix

AB is a (3 x 3) matrix

BA is a (3x 3) matrix

AB  BA

Note:

❖ The multiplication of any matrix with null matrix the resultant matrix is also a null matrix.

❖ When any matrix (ie.) A is multiplied by unit matrix; the resultant matrix is ‘A’ itself.
 EXERCISE PROBLEMS

 3 4  −7 −3 
If A =   B= 
0 
1. and and I is a unit matrix of order 2x2. Find
− 1 3   8

a) A + B b) A – B c) B – A d) 3A – 7B e) AT + BT
f) 7A + 3B – 3I g) AB h) BA i) A2 + AB + B2

7 3 0  4 3 0  8 −9 −7 

If A = 1 2 1  B =  1 −1 2  and C =  9 11 0 
2.    
 3 1 4   3 3 1   2 1 1 
find
a) A + B + C b) A – B – C c) AT + BT + CT d) 7A + 3B – 7C + I
e) (A + B + C)T f) (AB)TC g) (ABC)T h) A2 – B2

 x+ y 7−x 8  2 6 8
If A =  =
7 + z   3 9 
3. find x, y and z.
 y+z 8− y 7

4.
Raman brought 7 watermelon, 5 jack fruits and Kannan brought 6 watermelon, 7 Jack
fruits. The cost of watermelon and Jack fruit is Rs.25 and Rs.30 respectively. Find the
total amount of purchasing fruits by each?

5. A store sells three brands of tires, A, B and C. In the first quarter, the vector gives the
 25 

sales A1 =  5  where the rows represent the three brands of tires sold. In second
 6 
 20 

quarter, the sales are given by A 2 =  10  .What is the total sale of each brand of tire in the
 6 
first half year?

6. A store sells three brands of tires, A, B and C. In quarter 1, the vector gives the sales
 25 
A =  25  If the goal is to increase the sales of all tires by at least 25% in the next quarter,
 6 
how many of each brand should be the goal of the store?

7. A manufacturer produces three products: P, Q and R which he sells in two markets.

Annual sales volumes are indicated as follows:
Products
Markets
P Q R
I 10,000 2,000 18,000
II 6,000 20,000 8,000
If unit sales prices of P, Q and R are Rs.2.50, 1.25 and 1.50 respectively, find the total
income in each market? If the unit costs of the above 3 products are Rs.1.80, 1.20 and
0.80 respectively? Find the gross profits.

8. A product line needs three types of rubber as given in the table below.
 Rubber Type Weight Cost per Kg
Kg Rs
A 200 20.23
B 250 30.56
C 310 29.12

Write the given data in the matrix form and find how much is the total price of the rubber
needed?

9. Food orders are taken from two engineering departments for a takeout. The order is
tabulated below.
Chicken
Sandwich Fries Drink
Mechanical
Food order:  25 35 25 
Civil  
 
 21 20 21 

However they have a choice of buying this food from three different restaurants. Their
prices for the three food items are tabulated below :

RES1 RES 2 RES 3

Chicken Sandwich  2.42 2.38 2.46 
Price  0.93 0.90 0.89 
Fries  
Matrix :  0.95 1.03 1.13 
Drink

Show how much each department will pay for their order at each restaurant. Which
restaurant would be more economical to order from for each department?

***********
 LECTURE 3
Determinants-Properties of determinants -up to 3rd order evaluation and
inverse up to 3rd order by adjoint method

Introduction

The term determinant was first introduced by Gauss in 1801 while discussing quadratic
forms. He used the term because the determinant determines the properties of the quadratic
forms. A determinant is a particular type of expression written in a special concise form. Note
that the quantities are arranged in the form of a square between two vertical lines. This
arrangement is called a determinant.

Definition:

Every square matrix has a determinant. A matrix is only an arrangement of numbers where as

a determinant has a definite value. If A is a square matrix, its determinant is denoted by A .

Consider the 2nd order determinant,

a b
A = = ad − bc
c d

Example:
4 3
Find the determinant of 
1 0
Solution:
4 3
A= =0-3=-3
1 0
Consider the 3rd order determinant,

a b c
A = d e f
g h i

This can be expanded by any row or column. Usually we expand by the 1st row. On expanding
along the 1st row
Note:

Only square matrices have determinants.

Example:

1 2 3
1.Find the determinant of A= 3 2 4 

1 3 −1

Solution:

1 2 3
2 4 3 4 3 2
3 2 4 =1 −2 +3
3 −1 1 −1 1 3
1 3 −1
= 1(−2 − 12) − 2(−3 − 4) + 3(9 − 2)
= − 14 + 14 + 21 = 21

Difference between a matrix and a determinant

(i) A matrix cannot be reduced to a number. That means a matrix is a structure alone
and is not having any value. But a determinant can be reduced to a number.

(ii) The number of rows may not be equal to the number of columns in a matrix. In a
determinant the number of rows is always equal to the number of columns.

(iii) On interchanging the rows and columns, a different matrix is formed. In a

determinant interchanging the rows and columns does not alter the value of the determinant.

Singular and non-singular matrices:

A square matrix A is said to be singular if | A | = 0. A square matrix A is said to be non-

singular matrix, if | A | ≠ 0.

1 2 3
For example A = 4 5 6 is a singular matrix
 
7 8 9 

1 2 3
5 6 4 6 4 5
Since A = 4 5 6 =1 −2 +3
8 9 7 9 7 8
7 8 9

= (45 − 48) − 2(36 − 42) + 3(32 − 35) = −3 + 12 − 9 = 0

 1 7 5
and B = 2 6 3 is a non-singular matrix
 
4 8 9 

1 7 5
6 3 2 3 2 6
Since B = 2 6 3 = 1 −7 +5
8 9 4 9 4 8
4 8 9

= (54 - 24) − 7(18 - 12) + 5(16 - 24) = 30 − 42 − 40 = −52  0

Properties of Determinants:

1. The value of the determinant remains unaltered when the rows are changed into
columns and columns are changed into rows.

Example:

1 2 3
A = 3 2 4
Let 1 3 −1

1 2 3
2 4 3 4 3 2
det (A) = 3 2 4 =1 −2 +3
3 −1 1 −1 1 3
1 3 −1
= 1(−2 − 12) − 2(−3 − 4) + 3(9 − 2)
= − 14 + 14 + 21 = 21

Let us interchange the rows and columns of A. Thus we get new matrix A1.

Then

1 3 1
2 3 2 3 2 2
det (A 1 ) = 2 2 3 =1 −3 +1
4 −1 3 −1 3 4
3 4 −1
= 1(−2 − 12) − 3(−2 − 9) + 1(8 − 6)
= − 14 + 33 + 2 = 21

Hence det (A) = det (A1).

2. If two rows (or columns) of a determinant are interchanged, then the sign of the
determinant is altered (changed).

(a) For an odd number of changes, the resulting determinant is the negative of the
original determinant.
 (b) For an even number of changes, the resulting determinant has the same sign as
the original determinant.

Example:

1 2 3
Let A = 3 2 4 then

1 3 −1

1 2 3
2 4 3 4 3 2
det (A) = 3 2 4 =1 −2 +3
3 −1 1 −1 1 3
1 3 −1
= 1(−2 − 12) − 2(−3 − 4) + 3(9 − 2)
= − 14 + 14 + 21 = 21

Let A1 be the matrix obtained from A by interchanging the first and second row.

Then

3 2 4
2 3 1 3 1 2
det (A 1 ) = 1 2 3 =3 −2 +4
3 −1 1 −1 1 3
1 3 −1
= 3(−2 − 9) − 2(−1 − 3) + 4(3 − 2)
= − 33 + 8 + 4 = −21

Hence det (A) = - det (A1).

3. If two rows (or columns) of a determinant be identical, then the value of the
determinant is zero.

Example:

1 1 3
Let A = 3 3 4 then

1 1 −1

1 1 3
3 4 3 4 3 3
det (A) = 3 3 4 =1 −1 +3
1 −1 1 −1 1 1
1 1 −1
= 1(−3 − 4) − 1(−3 − 4) + 3(3 − 3)
=− 7 + 7 + 0 = 0

Hence det (A ) = 0

4. If each of the element in a row (or column) of a determinant be multiplied by a

common number ’k’, then the value of determinant is multiplied by ‘k’.
 Example:

1 2 3
Let A = 3 2 4 then

1 3 −1

1 2 3
2 4 3 4 3 2
det (A) = 3 2 4 =1 −2 +3
3 −1 1 −1 1 3
1 3 −1
= 1(−2 − 12) − 2(−3 − 4) + 3(9 − 2)
= − 14 + 14 + 21 = 21

Let A1 be the matrix obtained by multiplying the elements of the first row by 2 (ie. here
k =2) then

2 (1) 2(2 ) 2 (3)

2 4 3 4 3 2
det (A 1 ) = 3 2 4 = 2 1 − 2 2 + 23
3 −1 1 −1 1 3
1 3 −1
= 21(−2 − 12) − 2(−3 − 4) + 3(9 − 2)
= 2 − 14 + 14 + 21 = 2(21)

Hence det (A) = 2 det (A1).

5. If each of any row (or column) of a determinant is the sum of the two terms, then
the determinant can be expressed as the sum of two determinants of the same
order.

Example:

1 + 2 2+4 3 + 6
Let A = 3 2 4 

1 3 −1 

then

1+ 2 2+4 3+6 1 2 3 2 4 6
det (A) = 3 2 4 = 3 2 4 + 3 2 4
1 3 −1 1 3 −1 1 3 −1
= det (M1) + det (M2)

1 2 3
2 4 3 4 3 2
det (M1) = 3 2 4 =1 −2 +3
3 −1 1 −1 1 3
1 3 −1
= 1(−2 − 12) − 2(−3 − 4) + 3(9 − 2)
= − 14 + 14 + 21 = 21
 6. A determinant is unaltered when to each element of any row (column) is added to
those of several other rows (columns) multiplied respectively by constant factors.

Example:

1 2 3
Let A = 3 2 4 then

1 3 −1

1 2 3
2 4 3 4 3 2
det (A) = 3 2 4 =1 −2 +3
3 −1 1 −1 1 3
1 3 −1
= 1(−2 − 12) − 2(−3 − 4) + 3(9 − 2)
= − 14 + 14 + 21 = 21

Let A1 be a matrix obtained when the elements C1 of A are added to those of second column
and third column multiplied respectively by constants 2 and 3. The

1 + 2(2) + 3(3) 2 3 1 2 3 2(2) 2 3 3( 3) 2 3

det (A 1 ) = 3 + 2(2) + 3(4) 2 4 =3 2 4 + 2(2) 2 4 + 3(4) 2 4
1 + 2(3) + 3(−1) 3 −1 1 3 −1 2(3) 3 −1 3(−1) 3 − 1
1 2 3 2 2 3 3 2 3
=3 2 4 +2 2 2 4 +3 4 2 4
1 3 −1 3 3 −1 −1 3 −1
= 1(−2 − 12) − 2(−3 − 4) + 3(9 − 2) + 2(0) + 3(0)
= − 14 + 14 + 21 = 21
1 + 2(2) + 3(3) 2 3 1 2 3 2(2) 2 3 3(3) 2 3
det (A1) = 3 + 2(2) + 3(4) 2 4 = 3 2 4 + 2(2) 2 4 + 3(4) 2 4
1 + 2(3) + 3(−1) 3 − 1 1 3 −1 2(3) 3 − 1 3(−1) 3 − 1

1 2 3 2 2 3 3 2 3
= 3 2 4 + 2 2 2 4 + 3 4 2 4 =21+0+0=21
1 3 −1 3 3 −1 −1 3 −1

Note:

(1) Multiplying or dividing all entries of any one row (column) by the same scalar is
equivalent to multiplying or dividing the determinant by the same scalar.

(2) If all the entries above or below the principal diagonal are zero (upper triangular,
lower triangular) then the value of the determinant is equal to the product of the entries of the
principal diagonal.

Example:
 3 2 7
Let A = 0 5 3 = 3(5 − 0) − 2(0 − 0) + 7(0 − 0) = 15
0 0 1

The value of the determinant A is 15.

The product of the entries of the principal diagonal is 3 × 5 × 1 = 15.

Minor:

The minor of an element in a determinant is the determinant got by suppressing the row and
column in which the element appears. The order of the minor of an element in a determinant A
is one less than the order of determinant A.

The minor of the element in the ith row, jth column is denoted by Mij.

Cofactor:

The signed minor is called cofactor. The cofactor of the element in the ith row, jth column is
denoted by Cij and Cij = (-1)i + j Mij.

Note:

The expansion of 3rd order determinant when expanded in terms of minors, the sign of the
cofactor of element will be as follows:

+ − +
− + −
+ − +

Example:

3 4 1
Find the minor and cofactor of each element of the determinant 0 − 1 2
5 −2 6

Solution:

−1 2
Minor of 3 is M11 = =-6+4=-2
−2 6

0 2
Minor of 4 is M12 = = 0 − 10 = - 10
5 6

0 −1
Minor of 1 is M13 = =0+5 =5
5 −2

4 1
Minor of 0 is M21 = = 24 + 2 = 26
−2 6
 3 1
Minor of -1 is M22 = = 18 - 5 = 13
5 6

3 4
Minor of 2 is M23 = = - 6 − 20 = - 26
5 −2

4 1
Minor of 5 is M31 = = 8 +1 = 9
−1 2

3 1
Minor of -2 is M32 = =6−0=6
0 2

3 4
Minor of 6 is M33 = = - 3 - 0 = -3
0 −1

Cofactor of 3 is A11 = (-1)1+1.M11 = M11 = -2

Cofactor of 4 is A12 = (-1)1+2.M12 = - M12 = 10

Cofactor of 1 is A13 = (-1)1+3.M13 = M13 = 5

Cofactor of 0 is A21 = (-1)2+1.M21 = - M21 = -26

Cofactor of -1 is A22 = (-1)2+2.M22 = M22= 13

Cofactor of 2 is A23 = (-1)2+3.M23 = - M23 = 26

Cofactor of 5 is A31 = (-1)3+1.M31 = M31 = 9

Cofactor of -2 is A32 = (-1)3+2.M32 = - M32 = -6

Cofactor of 6 is A33 = (-1)13+3.M33 = M33 = -3

Adjoint (or) Adjugate of a square Matrix:

The adjoint or adjugate matrix of a square matrix A is the transpose of the matrix

formed by cofactors of elements of determinant A . It is denoted by adj A.

Explanation:

a 11 a 12 a 13 
 
Let A = a 21 a 22 a 23  be a 3 x 3 square matrix.
a 31 a 32 a 33 
 

Consider the matrix formed by cofactors of elements of determinant A .

A11 A12 A13 

 
Cofactor of A = A 21 A 22 A 23 
A A 33 
 31 A 32
 A11 A 21 A 31 
 
Adjoint of A = (Cofactor of A) T = A12 A 22 A 32 
A A A 33 
 13 23

Inverse Matrix:

Let A be a non-singular square matrix. If there exists a square matrix B, such that BA =
AB = I then B is called inverse matrix of A and is denoted by A-1.

Formula:

If A is a non-singular square matrix then the inverse of A, denoted by A-1 is

equal to

1
A-1 = adjA, A  0
A

Working Rule to find the inverse of the matrix

Step 1: Find the determinant of the matrix.

Step 2: If the value of the determinant is non zero i.e non singular proceed to find the inverse of

the matrix. ((i.e) only if A ≠ 0 we can find A-1)

Step 3: Find the cofactor of each element and form the cofactor matrix.

Step 4: The transpose of the cofactor matrix is the adjoint matrix.

adj ( A)
Step 5: The inverse of the matrix A-1 =
A

Example:

1 1 1
 
Find the inverse of the matrix 1 2 3
1 9 
 4

Solution:

1 1 1
 
Let A = 1 2 3
1 9 
 4

Step 1:
 1 1 1
A =1 2 3 = 1(18 − 12) − 1(9 − 3) + (4 − 2)
1 4 9
= 6−6+2 = 2  0

Step 2:

The value of the determinant is non zero

A-1 exists.

Step 3:

Let Aij denote the cofactor of aij in A

2 3
A11 = Cofactor of 1 = (− 1)
1+1
= 18 − 12 = 6
4 9

1 3
A12 = Cofactor of 1 = (− 1)
1+ 3
= −(9 − 3) = −6
1 9

1 2
A13 = Cofactor of 1 = (− 1)
1+ 3
= 4−2 = 2
1 4

1 1
A 21 = Cofactor of 1 = (− 1)
2 +1
= −(9 − 4) = −5
4 9

1 1
A 22 = Cofactor of 2 = (− 1)
2+ 2
= 9 −1 = 8
1 9

1 1
A 23 = Cofactor of 3 = (− 1)
2+3
= −(4 − 1) = −3
1 4

1 1
A 31 = Cofactor of 1 = (− 1)
3+1
= 3− 2 =1
2 3

1 1
A 32 = Cofactor of 4 = (− 1)
3+ 2
= −(3 − 1) = −2
1 3

1 1
A33 = Cofactor of 9 = (− 1)
3+ 3
= 2 −1 = 1
1 2

Step 4:

 6 −6 2
 
The matrix formed by cofactors of element of determinant A is  − 5 8 −3 
 1 −2 1 

  6 −5 1
 
adj A =  − 6 8 −2 
 2 −3 1 


Step 5:

 6 −5 1
−1 adj A 1  
A = = − 6 8 −2 
A 2
 2 −3 1 

 −5 1
 3 
 2 2
A −1 =  − 3 4 −1 
 
 1 −3 1

 2 2
 EXERCISE PROBLEMS

1. Find the determinant value for the following matrices

a. 2 3 b. 2 0 c. 10 13 1
4 5 0 -2 2 3 1
2 -4 0
d. 5 -2 -1
3 -1 1
1 -2 0

2. Find the determinant value for the following matrices using properties.
1 a b + c 3 2 1 a − b b−c c − a

a) 1 b a + c  
b) 0 1 4 
c) b − c c−a a − b
  
1 c a + b 3 2 1  c − a a −b b − c 
x a x + a

d) y b y + b

 z c z + c 

 2 6 4
Find the value of the determinant
− 5 −15 −10 without usual expansion.
3. 
 1 3 2 

b+c q+r y+z a p x

4. Prove that c + a r + p z + x = 2b q y
a+b p+q x+ y c r z

− a2 ab ac
5. Prove that ba −b 2
bc = 4a 2 b 2 c 2
ca cb −c 2

 1 x − 4

Find x if 5 3 0 =0
6. 
− 2 −4 8 

7. Find the inverse of the following matrices

2 3 10 13 1 2 0
a. 
5
c. 
4

b. 2 3 1  0 −2 

 2 −4 0
 5 −2 −1 3 1 1 1 3 1
d. 3 −1 1  e. 2 2 5 f. 1 1 2
  
1 −2 0  1 −3 −4 2 3 4

1 2 3  1 0 4 1 2 3

g. 0 4 5 h.
 1 1 6  i. 0 1 4
  
1 0 6 − 3 0 −10 5 6 0

− 1 3 −3 0 1 2 − 3 −1
l. 
j.
 0 −6 5  
k. 1 0 3   0 −7
 
− 5 −3 1 4 −3 8 

6 5 − 2 3 −1  10 0 −3 
m. 
9 11 n.
 5 −1 4  
o. − 2 −4 1 
 
 4 −8 2   3 0 2

************
 LECTURE 4

Straight lines - Distance formula-section formula (internal and external

division) - Change of axes (only origin changed) - Equation of co-ordinate
axes- Equation of lines parallel to axes

Introduction:

Geometry is the study of points, lines, curves, surfaces etc. and their properties.
Geometry is based upon axioms and it was laid by the famous Greek Mathematician Euclid
about 300 B.C. In the 17th century A.D., the methods of Algebra were applied in the study of
Geometry and thereby ‘Analytical Geometry’ emerged out. The renowned French philosopher
and Mathematician Rene Descartes (1596 − 1650) showed how the methods of Algebra could
be applied to the study of Geometry. He thus became the founder of Analytical Geometry. It is
sometimes called Cartesian Geometry.

Rectangular (or) Cartesian co-ordinates:

Let X’OX and Y’OY be two perpendicular straight lines intersecting at the point O.

The fixed point O is called origin. The horizontal line X’OX is known as X –axis and the vertical
line Y’OY be Y-axis. These two axes divide the entire plane into four parts known as Quadrants.
Y

x
P(x,y)
N
y

X1 O M X

Y1

All the values right of the origin along the X-axis are positive and all the values left of the
origin along the X- axis are negative. Similarly all the values above the origin along Y – axis are
positive and below the origin are negative.

Let P be any point in the plane .Draw PM perpendicular to X –axis. OM and PM are called
X co-ordinate or abscissa and Y co-ordinate or ordinate of P respectively and is written as
P(x,y).In particular the origin O has co-ordinates (0,0) and any point on the X-axis has its Y co-
ordinate as zero and any point on the Y-axis has its X-co-ordinates as zero.

Distance between two points:

 The distance between two given points A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2) is

AB = (x 2 − x 1 ) 2 + (y 2 − y1 ) 2

In particular the distance between the origin O (0,0) and a point P(x,y) is

x 2 + y2
Distance OP=

Example:

1. Find the distance between the points (6,-1) and (4,3)

Solution:

Let A(6,-1) and B(4,3) be the given points.

AB = (x 2 − x 1 ) 2 + (y 2 − y1 ) 2

= (6 − 4) 2 + (−1 − 3) 2

= 4 + 16 = 20

 The distance AB = 20 = 2 5 units

Locus

The path traced by a point when it moves according to specified geometrical conditions
is called the Locus of the point. For example, the locus of a point P(x 1,y1) whose distance from a
fixed point C (h, k) is constant ‘a’, is a circle.

The fixed point ‘C’ is called the centre and the fixed distance ‘a’ is called the radius of the circle.

Example:

1. A point in the plane moves so that its distance from (0, 1) is twice its distance from
the x-axis. Find its locus.

Solution:

Let A (0, 1) be the given point. Let P(x1, y1) be any point on the locus. Let B be the foot
of the perpendicular from P(x1, y1) to the x-axis. Thus PB = y1.
 Given that PA = 2PB

∴ PA2 = 4PB2

i.e. (x1 - 0)2+ (y1 - 1)2 = 4y12

x 1 + y1 − 2y1 + 1 = 4y1
2 2 2

x 1 − 3y1 − 2y1 + 1 = 0
2 2

The locus Point of (x1, y1) is x 2 − 3y 2 − 2y + 1 = 0

2. Find the locus of the point which is equidistant from (- 1, 1) and (4,-2).

Solution:

Let A(-1,1) and B(4,-2)be the given points.

Let P(x1,y1) be any point on the locus. Given that PA = PB

∴ PA2= PB2

i.e. (x1 + 1)2+ (y1- 1)2 = (x1 - 4)2 +(y1+2)2

x 1 + 2x 1 + 1 + y1 − 2y1 + 1 = x 1 − 8x 1 + 16 + y1 + 4y1 + 4
2 2 2 2

10x1 − 6y1 − 18 = 0 (i.e.) 5x1 − 3y1 − 9 = 0

∴ The locus of the point (x1, y1) is 5x − 3y − 9 = 0

Section Formula:

Let A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2) be two

distinct points such that a point P(x,y)
divides AB internally in the ratio m: n.
AP m
(i.e) =
PB n
From the above figure, we get

AF = CD = OD-OC = x-x1

PG = DE = OE – OD = x2- x

Also, PF = PD-FD = y-y1

BG = BE – GE = y2-y

Now, ΔAFP and ΔPGB are similar

AF PF AP m
Thus, = = =
PG BG PB n

AF m
∴ =
PG n

x - x1 m
 =
x2 − x n

 nx-nx1 = mx2-mx

 mx+nx= mx2+nx1

mx 2 + nx 1
∴ x=
m+n

PF m
Similarly, =
BG n

y - y1 m
 =
y2 − y n

 ny-ny1 = my2-mxy

 my+ny= my2+ny1

my 2 + ny 1
∴ y=
m+n

The co-ordinates of the point dividing the line joining two points A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2) in
mx 2 + nx 1 my 2 + ny 1
the ratio m: n internally is ( , )
m+n m+n

Example:

1. Find the point which divides the line segment joining the points (3,5) and (8,10)
internally in the ratio 2:3

Solution:
 Let A(3,5) and B(8,10) be the given points.

Let the point P(x,y) divide the line AB internally in the ratio 2:3

mx 2 + nx 1 my 2 + ny 1 2(8) + 3(3) 2(10) + 3(5)

By Section formula, P(x,y) = ( , )= ( , ) = (5,7)
m+n m+n 2+3 2+3

2. In what ratio does the point P(-2,3) divide the line segment joining the points A (-3,5)
and B(4,-9) internally?

Solution:

Given the points are A (-3,5) and B(4,-9)

Let P(-2,3) divide AB internally in the ratio m:n

mx 2 + nx 1 my 2 + ny 1
By section formula, ( , ) = (-2,3)
m+n m+n

Here x1= -3, y1 = 5, x2= 4 ,y2 = -9

m(4) + n(-3) m(-9) + n(5)

( , ) = (-2,3)
m+n m+n

Equating the x co-ordinates, we get

4m − 3n m 1
= −2  6m = n  =
m+n n 6

 m: n = 1 : 6

Hence P divides AB internally in the ratio 1 : 6

Result:

If P divides a line segment AB joining the two points A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2) externally in the ratio
mx 2 − nx 1 my 2 − ny 1 m
m: n, then the point is ( , ) . Here is negative.
m−n m−n n
The co-ordinates of the point dividing the line joining two points A(x1,y1) and
mx 2 − nx 1 my 2 − ny 1
B(x2,y2) in the ratio m: n externally is ( , )
m−n m−n

Midpoint of AB

If M is the midpoint of AB, then m divides the line segment AB internally in the ratio 1:1. By
substituting m = n =1 in the section formula, we obtain the
 x 1 + x 2 y1 + y 2
Midpoint of AB as ( , )
2 2

x 1 + x 2 y1 + y 2
The midpoint of the line joining A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2) is given by ( , )
2 2

Example:

Find the midpoint of the line segment joining the points (3,0) and (-1,4).

Solution:

Midpoint of the line segment joining the points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) is

x 1 + x 2 y1 + y 2
M(x,y) = ( , )
2 2

∴ Midpoint of the line segment joining the points (3,0) and (-1,4) is

3 −1 0 + 4
M(x,y) = ( , ) = (1,2)
2 2

Centroid of a Triangle

Consider a ΔABC whose vertices are A(x1,y1), B(x2,y2) and C(x3,y3). Let AD, BE and CF be the
medians of the ΔABC.

Let G(x,y) be the centroid of ΔABC.

 x 2 + x 3 y 2 + y3 
Now the midpoint of BC is D  , 
 2 2 

By the property of triangle, the centroid G divides the median AD internally ratio 2 : 1. By section
formula, the centroid

Centroid of a Triangle
  (x 2 + x 3 ) (y + y 3 ) 
2 + 1 (x 1 ) 2 2 + 1 (y 1 )  x + x 2 + x 3 y1 + y 2 + y 3 
G(x,y)=  2 , 2  = G  1 , 
 2 +1 2 +1   3 3 
 
 
The co-ordinates of the centroid of a triangle whose vertices are A(x1,y1) ,B(x2,y2)
x 1 + x 2 + x 3 y1 + y 2 + y 3
and C(x3,y3) is ( , )
3 3

Example:

Find the centroid of the triangle whose vertices are A(4,-6), B(3,-2) and C(5,2)

Solution:

The centroid G(x,y) of a triangle whose vertices are (x1,y1), (x2,y2) and (x3,y3) is given by

x 1 + x 2 + x 3 y1 + y 2 + y 3
G(x,y) = ( , )
3 3

∴ The centroid G(x,y) of a triangle whose vertices are (4,-6), (3,-2) and (5,2) is

4+3+5 −6−2+ 2
G(x,y) = ( , ) = G(4,-2)
3 3

STRAIGHT LINE

A straight line is the simplest geometrical curve. A straight line is the minimum distance between
any two points. Every straight line is associated with an equation.

A B

Equation to a straight line:

The equation to a straight line is the relation which connects the x and y co-ordinates of
every point on it.
Note:

❖ The equation to the x-axis is y = 0.

❖ The equation to the y-axis is x = 0.

❖ The equation to the line parallel to the x-axis at a distance ‘b’ units from it is

y = a.

❖ The equation to the line parallel to the y-axis at a distance ‘a’ units from it is

x = a.

Transfer of Origin

Let P(x,y) be the point with reference to the axes ox and oy. PM is perpendicular to ox.

OM = x and MP = y

Shift the origin O to O' (x 1 , y1 ) where O' X and O' Y is parallel to x and y axes.

Then O' N = X, NP=Y.

x=OM=OL+LM

x= x1+X X= x-x1

y=MP=MN+NP

y=y1+Y Y= y-y1 So (0,0) →(x1,y1) and (x,y) →(X,Y)=( x-x1, y-y1)
 EXERCISE PROBLEMS

1. Find the locus of the point which is equidistant from (− 1, 1) and (4, − 2).

2. If A and B are the two points (− 2, 3) and (4, − 5), find the Distance between A and B.

3. If A and B are the two points (− 2, 3) and (4, − 5), find the equation of the locus of a
point such that PA2 – PB2 = 20.
4. Find a point on x-axis which is equidistant from the points (7, − 6) and (3, 4) .
5. Show that the three points (4, 2), (7, 5) and (9, 7) lie on a straight line.
6. Determine whether the points are vertices of a right triangle A (–3, –4), B (2, 6) and C
(–6,10)
7. Find the midpoint of the line segment joining the points (3, 0) and (-1,4)
8. Find the point which divides the line segment joining the points (3 , 5) and (8 ,
10) internally in the ratio 2 : 3.
9. In what ratio does the point P(-2 , 3) divide the line segment joining the points A(-3, 5)
and B ( 4, -9) internally?
10. If (7,3),(6,1), (8,2) and (p, 4) are the vertices of a parallelogram taken in order,
then find the value of p.
11. If C is the midpoint of the line segment joining A(4 , 0) and B(0 , 6) and if O is the origin,
then show that C is equidistant from all the vertices of OAB.
12. Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line segment joining (3, 4) and (–6,
2) in the ratio 3 : 2 externally.
13. Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line segment joining (-3, 5) and (4, -
9) in the ratio 1 : 6 internally.
14. Find the points which divide the line segment joining A(-4 ,0) and B (0,6) into four equal
parts.
15. Find the ratio in which the x-axis divides the line segment joining the points (6, 4) and
(1,-7).
 LECTURE 5
Forms of equation of Line-Slope-intercept form -Slope one point form - Two
point form -Intercept form

Angle of Inclination

Let a straight line l intersect the x-axis at A. The angle between the positive x-axis and
the line l, measured in counter clockwise direction is called the angle of inclination of the straight
line l.

Remark

(i) If  is the angle of a inclination of a straight line l, then 0 0  θ  180 0

(ii) For horizontal lines,  =0oor 1800 and for vertical lines,  =90o.
Slope (or) Gradient:

The slope of the line is the tangent of the angle made by the line with positive direction of X –
axis measured in the anticlockwise direction.

Let the line AB makes an angle  with the positive direction of X-axis as in the figure.

The angle  is called the angle of inclination and tan  is slope of the line or gradient of the
line. The slope of the line is denoted by m. i.e., Slope = m = tan .
Note:

❖ If  is acute, tan  is positive. (i.e) the Slope is positive.

❖ If  is obtuse, tan  is negative.(i.e) the Slope is negative.

❖ The slope of any line parallel to X axis is zero.

❖ Slope of any line parallel to Y axis is infinity

❖ The slope of the line joining two points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) is

y 2 − y1
Slope = m = tan  = .
x 2 − x1

❖ The angle  between the two lines having slopes m1 and m2 is given by

m1 − m 2
tanθ = 
1 + m1 m 2

❖ When two are more lines are parallel then their slopes are equal (i.e) m1 = m2

❖ When two lines are perpendicular then the product of their slopes is –1

(i.e.) m1m2 = -1

Example:

1
1.Find the angle of inclination of the straight line whose slope is .
3

Solution:

If  is the angle of inclination of the line, then the slope of the line is

m= tan 
1
∴ tan  =   =300
3
2.Find the slope of the straight line passing through the points (3,-2) and (-1,4).

Solution:

Slope of the straight line passing through the points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) is given by

y 2 − y1
m = tan  = .
x 2 − x1

Slope of the straight line passing through the points (3,-2) and (-1,4) is

4+2 3
m= =−
−1− 3 2

Different forms of straight line

1. Slope – intercept form

Let P(x,y) be any point on the straight line. Let  be the angle of inclination of the line
and ‘c’ is the intercept on y-axis.

Draw PL perpendicular to OX and CM perpendicular to PL.

CDO =  = PCM

PM
In  PCM, tan  =
CM

PM = PL – LM = PL – OC = y-c

CM = OL = x

But tan  =m
PM y−c
 =m  = m  y – c = mx
CM x
  The required equation of a straight line whose slope is ‘m’ and y-intercept is ‘c’ is
y = mx + c

Note:

❖ Any line passing through the origin does not cut y – axis(c = 0) (i.e) y – intercept is zero.
Therefore its equation is y = mx.

❖ Any line which is parallel to x – axis has slope equal to zero. Therefore its equation is y =
c.(Because m = 0).

Example:

1.Find the equation of a straight line whose (i) Slope is four and y intercept is –3

(ii) Inclination is 300 and y intercept is 5.

Solution:

(i) Slope (m) = 4

Y intercept (c) = -3

Equation of a line is y = mx + c

 y = 4x – 3

Equation of a line is 4x – y – 3 = 0

(ii)  = 300 , y intercept = 5

Slope = tan 

1
m = tan300 =
3

Equation of a line is y = mx + c

1
y= x+5
3

3y= x+5 3

Equation of a line is x - 3 y +5 3 = 0

2.Calculate the slope and y intercept of the line 2x – 3y + 1= 0

Solution:

2x – 3y + 1 = 0

3y = 2x + 1

2x 1
y= +
3 3
 Comparing with y = mx + c, we get

2 1
m= ,c=
3 3

2 1
Slope = ; y intercept =
3 3

2. Point-Slope form:

Let P(x,y) be any point on the straight line passing through the given point A(x1,y1).

The slope of the straight line , m = tan .

PN
In  PAN, tan  =
AN

Y P(x,y)

A(x1,y1) θ
N

θ
X’ X
O L M

PN = PM – NM

= PM - AL = y – y1
Y’

AN = LM = OM –OL

= x – x1

y − y1
 tan  = =m
x − x1

 y – y1= m(x – x1)

Hence the equation of a line passing through a point (x1, y1) and having slope ‘m’ is

(y − y1 ) = m(x − x1 )
Example

2
1.Find the equation of a straight line passing through (-4,5) and having slope -
3

Solution:

2
Slope = -
3

Point = (-4,5)

Equation of the line is (y-y1) = m(x-x1)

2
y–5=- (x+4)
3

 3y – 15 = -2x –8

Equation of a line is 2x + 3y – 7 = 0

3. Two points form

Let A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) be two given points. Let P(x,y) be any point on the line AB.

Draw BM,AL and PN perpendicular to OX. Draw BD perpendicular to AL and AC

perpendicular to PN.

The  ABD and  PAC are similar.

PC AC
 = → (1)
AD BD

Y
P(x,y)

A(x1,y1)

B(x2,y2)
θ
θ

θ
’ X
X
K M L N
L

Y’
PC = PN – CN = PN – AL = y – y1

AD = AL – DL = AL - BM = y1-y2
 AC = LN = ON – OL = x –x1

BD = ML = OL – OM = x1- x2

y − y1 x − x1
Substituting in (1) we get , =
y1 − y 2 x 1 − x 2

Hence, the equation of a line passing through two points is given by

y − y1 x − x1
=
y1 − y 2 x 1 − x 2
Example:

Find the equation of the straight line passing through the points (3,6) and (-2,5).

Solution:

y − y1 x − x1
Equation of the line is =
y1 − y 2 x 1 − x 2

y−6 x −3
 =
6−5 3+ 2

y−6 x −3
 =
1 5

 5y – 30 = x – 3

 x – 5y –3 + 30 = 0

 Equation of the line is x – 5y +27 = 0

4. Intercept form

Let AB represent the given line which intersects X – axis at A (a, 0) and Y- axis at
B (0, b). We call OA and OB respectively as x and y intercepts of the line.

B (0, b)

A (a, 0) X
0

y − y1 x − x1
The two points form of the equation is given by =
y2 − y1 x2 − x1

Substituting (a, 0) for (x1,y1) and (0, b) for (x2, y2), we get the equation as
 y −0 x−a
=
b−0 0 −a
y x−a
ie =
b −a
y x a
= -
b −a −a
y −x
Thus, = +1
b a
x y
 + =1
a b
Hence, the equation of a line having x-intercept ‘a’ and y-intercept ‘b’ is given by

x y
+ =1
a b
Example:

Find the intercepts cut off by the line 2x – 3y + 5 = 0 on the axes.

Solution:

x – intercept: put y = 0

2x + 5 = 0

−5
x= This is the x – intercept
2

y – intercept: Put x = 0

-3y + 5 = 0

5
y = This is the y – intercept
3

Note:

The four equations we have obtained are all first degree equations in x and y. On the other
hand it can be shown that the general first degree equation in x and y always represents a
straight line.
 EXERCISE PROBLEMS

1. Find the slope and intercept of 3x + 7y – 8 = 0

2. Find the equation of the line through (2,-5) and having slope –4
3. Write the equation in intercept form and find the intercepts of the line 3x +8y +3 = 0
4. Find the equation of the line which passes through the point (5,6) and has intercepts
on the axes equal in magnitude but opposite in sign
5. Show that the lines 4x – 5y + 3 = 0 and 8x – 10y = 0 are parallel
6. Prove that the lines 2x – 3y + 4 = 0 and 3x + 2y + 1 = 0 are perpendicular to each other
7. It is known that when the price of a certain paper book is Rs.10 there will be no
purchasers but it is thought for every Re.1 drop in price, 12 new purchasers will
appear. Find the demand function.
8. The demand for milk is given by :
Price: 1 2 3
Demand : 100 50 0

9. The total cost y of producing x units is given by the equation 3x-4y+600=0. Find the
fixed overhead cost and also find the extra cost of producing an additional unit.
10. At a price of Rs.35 per bottle a company will supply 4000 Amla squash bottles every
month and at Rs.30 per bottle it will supply 2000 bottles. Find the short term supply
curve.
11. As the number of units manufactured increases from 5000 to 7000, the total cost of
production increases from Rs. 26,000 to Rs. 34,000. Find the relationship between the
cost(y) and the number of units made(x) if the relationship is linear.
12. Determine the equation of the straight line passing through the points (1, 2) and (3, −
4).
13. Find the equation of the straight line passing through the point (1,2) and making
intercepts on the co-ordinate axes which are in the ratio 2 : 3.
14. A farmer view a coconut tree at an angle of elevation 450 from 12 feet away from the
bottom of the tree .What is the height of the coconut tree.
15. The cost function of a tractor company is 10C-65Q=1059( Rs in lakhs) where C-Total
cost and Q-tractor produced. Estimate the fixed cost and variable cost of the company.
Also estimate cost to produce 10 tractors.
 LECTURE 6
Normal form of equation of line- General form of equation of line- Point of
intersection of two straight lines

Normal Form:

Equation of a straight line in terms of the length of the perpendicular ‘p’ from the origin
to the line and the angle ‘  ' which the perpendicular makes with x-axis.

x cos  +y sin  =p

Proof:

Let R and N be the points where the straight line cuts the x and y axes respectively.

Draw the perpendicular OL to RN. Let OL = p and XOL = α .OR and ON be the x and y
intercepts respectively.

x y
The equation of the straight line is + = 1………..(1)
OR ON

OR
From the right angled triangle OLR, sec  =  OR = p sec 
OL

ON
From the right angled triangle OLN, cos ec = sec(90 −  ) =  ON = p cos ec
OL

Substituting OR and ON in (1) we get

x y x cos y sin 
+ = 1 i.e. + =1
p sec p cosec  p p

Example:i.e x cos  +y sin  =p is the required equation of straight line in

normal form.
Find the equation of the straight line, if the perpendicular from the origin makes an
angle of 120o with x-axis and the length of the perpendicular from the origin is 6 units.

Solution:
 The normal form of the straight line is x cos  +y sin  =p

Here  =120o and p = 6

 x cos120 0 + y sin120 o = 6
 1  3
 x  −  + y   = 6  − x + 3y = 12

 2  2 
 x − 3y + 12 = 0

 The required equation of the straight line is x − 3y + 12 = 0

6.Parametric Form
If two variables, say x and y, are functions of a third variable, say ‘  ' , then the functions
expressing x and y in terms of  are called the parametric representations of x and y. the
variable  is called the parameter of the function.

Equation of a straight line passing through the point (x1,y1) and making an angle  with
x-axis.

x − x 1 y − y1
= =r
cosθ sinθ

Proof:

Let Q (x1,y1) be the given point and P(x,y) be any point on the straight line. Let PQ = r.

Given that PTR =  . But PQM = PTR  PQM =  .

In the right angled triangle PQM,

QM NR OR − ON x − x 1
cos θ = = = =
PQ r r r

x − x1
 = r …………………………………(1)
cos θ

PM PR − MR y − y1
Similarly sin θ = = =
PQ r r
 y − y1
 = r ………………………………(2)
sin θ

x − x 1 y − y1
From (1) and (2), = = r is the required equation.
cos θ sin θ

Any point on this line can be taken as (x1+r cos θ , y1+r sin θ ) where r is algebraic distance. Here
‘r’ is the parameter.

General form of the equation of straight line

The equation ax+by+c =0 will always represent a straight line.

Corollary:

a c
1. The general equation of the straight line is ax +by +c =0 i.e y = − x − .This is of the
b a
a coefficien t of x
form y = mx + c. Therefore, slope(m) = − = −
b coefficien t of y

2. If the two straight lines are parallel  their slopes are equal. (m1 = m2).

3. If the two straight lines are perpendicular  the product of their slopes is -1.

(m1 m2 = -1).

4. The equation of the straight line parallel to the straight line ax+ by +c =0 is of the form
ax+ by +k =0. (Differ only by constant term).

5. The equation of the straight line perpendicular to the straight line ax+ by +c =0 is of the
form bx – ay +k =0 for some k.

6. The distance between the two parallel straight lines a1x+b1y+c1=0 and a2x+b2y+c2 =0 is

c1 − c 2
.
a2 + b2

c
7. The distance between the origin and the straight line ax+by+c =0 is
a + b2
2

Example:

1.Show that the straight lines 2x + y – 9 = 0 and 2x + y -10 =0 are parallel.

Solution:

Slope of the straight line 2x+y – 9 =0 is m1 = -2

Slope of the straight line 2x + y -10 =0 is m2 = -2

m1 = m2
  The given straight lines are parallel.

2. Find the distance between the parallel lines 2x+3y-6 =0 and 2x+3y+7 =0.

Solution:

The distance between the two parallel straight lines a1x+b1y+c1=0 and a2x+b2y+c2 =0 is

c1 − c 2
.
a2 + b2

−6−7 13
The required distance is = − = 13 units.
2 +3
2 2
13

3. Find the equation of the straight line parallel to 3x +2y =9 and which passes through
the point (3,-3).

Solution:

The straight line parallel to 3x+2y-9 = 0 is of the form 3x+2y+k = 0……(1)

The point (3,-3) satisfies equation (1)

Hence 9-6+k =0  k = -3

 3x+2y-3 = 0 is the required equation of the straight line.

4.Find the equation of the straight line perpendicular to 3x +4y +28=0 and passing
through the point (-1,4).

Solution:

The straight line perpendicular to 3x+2y-9 = 0 is of the form 4x-3y+k=0……(1)

The point (1,-4) satisfies equation (1)

Hence -4-12+k =0  k = 16

 4x-3y+16= 0 is the required equation of the straight line.

Observation:

(i) The length of the perpendicular from the point (x1,y1) to the line ax +by +c =0 is

ax1 + by1 + c
a2 + b2
 c
(ii) The length of the perpendicular from the origin to the line ax +by +c =0 is
a + b2
2

Example:

Find the length of the perpendicular from (2,-3) to the line 2x – y + 9 = 0.

Solution:

ax1 + by1 + c
The length of the perpendicular from the point (x1,y1) to the line ax +by +c =0 is
a2 + b2

 The length of the perpendicular from the point (2,-3) to the line 2x -y +9 =0 is

2(2) − (−3) + 9 16
= units
(2) 2 + (−1) 2 5

Point of intersection of two straight lines

The point of intersection of two straight lines can be solved by solving the simultaneous
equations of the straight lines.

Example:

Find the point of intersection of the straight lines 5x+4y-13 = 0 and 3x+y-5 =0.

Solution:

Let (x1,y1) be the point of intersection. Then (x1,y1) lies on both the straight lines.

 5x1+4y1=13…………………..(1)

3x1+y1 =5………………..….(2)

Solving (1) and (2) we get, x1 =1 and y1 =2

The point of intersection of (1,2)

Equation of a straight line passing through the intersection of the two given straight lines

Let a1x+b1y+c1=0………….(1)

a2x+b2y+c2=0……………(2)

be the equations of the two given straight lines.

Consider the equation a1x+b1y+c1+  ( a2x+b2y+c2) = 0,……………(3)

where  is a constant.
Equation (3) is of degree one in x and y and therefore it represent a straight line. Let (x1,y1) be
the point of intersection of (1) and (2).

 a1x1+b1y1+c1=0 and a2x1+b2y1+c2=0

  a1x1+b1y1+c1+  (a2x1+b2y1+c2) =0

 Value of (x1,y1) satisfies equation (3) also.

Hence a1x1+b1y1+c1+  (a2x1+b2y1+c2) =0 represents a straight line passing through the

intersection of the straight lines a1x+b1y+c1=0 and a2x+b2y+c2=0.

Example:

Find the equation of the straight line passing through the intersection of the
straight lines 2x+y =8 and 3x –y = 2 and through the point (2,-3).

Solution:

The equation of the straight line passing through the intersection of the straight lines

is 2x+y - 8+  (3x –y – 2)=0………………..(1)

(2,-3) lie on the equation (1) and hence 4-3-8+  (6+3-2)=0   =1

 (1)  2x+y - 8+3x –y – 2 =0  5x -10 =0

 x= 2 is the required equation of the straight line.

Concurrent lines

Three or more lines are said to be concurrent when they all pass through the same point.
That point is known as point of concurrency.

Condition for the three straight lines to be concurrent

Let the three straight lines be given by

a1x+b1y+c1=0……………………(1)

a2x+b2y+c2=0……………………(2)

a3x+b3y+c3=0……………………(3)

a1 b 1 c1
a 2 b2 c 2 = 0 is the condition for the three lines to be concurrent.
a 3 b3 c3

Example:

Show that the straight lines 3x+4y=13; 2x-7y+1=0 and 5x-y=14 are concurrent.

Solution:

Let the three straight lines be

3x+4y-13=0……….(1)

2x-7y+1=0 ………..(2)
 5x-y-14=0………..(3)

3 4 − 13
2 − 7 1  3(98+1)-4(-28-5)+13(-2+35)=0  3(99)-4(-33)-13(33) =297+132-429 =0
5 − 1 − 14

 The straight lines are concurrent.

 EXERCISE PROBLEMS

1. Find the equation of the straight line which is at a distance 7 units from the origin and
the perpendicular from the origin to the line makes an angle 450 with the positive
direction of x axis.
2. Find the point midway between the point (-1,3) and the point of intersection of the lines
4x+y-10=0 and 2x+3y-8=0.
3. Determine the equation of a line passes through the point (-1,-2) and makes an angle
of 300 with the positive direction of x axis in parametric form. Find the coordinates of a
point at distance of 2 units.
4. Find the equation of the straight line passing through (1,2) and perpendicular to the line
x+y+7=0.
5. Find the equation of the line which has perpendicular distance 4 units from the origin
and the inclination of perpendicular with positive direction of x-axis is 1350.

6. Find the equation of a line which passes through the point (-2,3) and makes an angle
of 300 with the positive direction of x-axis.
7. The portion of a straight line intercepted between the axes is bisected at the point (-
3,2). Find its equation.
8. Find the length of the perpendicular from (3,2) on the line 3x+2y+1=0.
9. Find the point of intersection of the straight lines 5x+4y-13=0 and 3x+y-5=0.
10. Find the equation of the straight line joining the point (5,-2) to the intersection of the
lines 2x-y+5= 0, x+y+1= 0.
11. Show that the lines 3x+4y=13; 2x-7y+1=0 and 5x-y=14 are concurrent.
12. Find the equation of the line passing through the intersection of 3x+4y=7 and x-y+2=0
and having slope 5.
13. Find the coordinates of the orthocentre of the triangle formed by the lines x-y-5=0, 2x-
y-8=0 and 3x-y-9=0.
14. Find the equation of a line passing through the point of intersection of x + y – 3 = 0 and
2x – y + 1 = 0 and a point (2, -3).
15. Find the value of k for which the lines 3x-4y = 7, 4x-5y = 11 and 2x+3y+k = 0 are
concurrent.
 LECTURE 7
Angles between two straight lines- Parallel lines- Perpendicular lines-
Angle of bisectors between two lines

Angle between Two Straight Lines:

Let l1 : y = m1x + c1 and l2 : y = m2x + c2 be the two intersecting lines.

Assume that P be the point of intersection of the two straight lines which makes angle θ1 and θ2
with the positive direction of x-axis.

Then m1 = tanθ1 and m2 = tan θ2. Let be the angle between the two straight lines.

θ1 =-1 θ + θ2

∴ θ = θ1 − θ2

tan θ1 − tan θ 2 m1 − m 2
⇒ tan θ = tan (θ1 − θ2) = =
1 + tan θ1 tan 2 1 + m1 m 2

m1 − m 2
is either positive or negative. Since consider the acute angle as the angle
1 + m1 m 2
between any two straight lines and hence we consider only the positive value (absolute value)
of tan θ.

m1 − m 2
Hence tan θ =
1 + m1 m 2

m1 − m 2
 θ = tan −1
1 + m1m 2

Example:

1.Find the angle between the straight lines 3x -2y +9 =0 and 2x + y - 9 =0.

Solution:

Slope of the straight line 3x -2y +9 =0 is m1 = 3/2

Slope of the straight line 2x + y - 9 =0 is m2 = -2

 3
+2
−1 m1 − m 2
The angle between the straight lines is θ = tan = tan −1 2
1 + m1 m 2
1 + (− 2)
3
2

7 7
θ = tan −1 − = tan −1  
4 4

2.Show that the straight lines 2x + 3y -9 =0 and 3x – 2y +10 =0 are at right angles.

Solution:

Slope of the straight line 2x + 3y -9 =0 is m1 = -2/3

Slope of the straight line 3x – 2y +10 =0 is m2 = 3/2

2 3
− −
−1 m1 − m 2
The angle between the straight lines is θ = tan = tan −1 3 2
1 + m1 m 2  2 3
1 +  − . 
 3 2

13
−
θ = tan −1 6 = tan −1 ( ) =90o
0

 The two straight lines are at right angles.

3.Show that the triangle formed by straight lines 4x-3y -18 =0 , 3x -4y +16 =0 and x + y -2
=0 is isosceles.

Solution:

Slope of the straight line lines 4x-3y -18 =0 is m1 = 4/3

Slope of the straight line 3x -4y +16 =0is m2 = 3/4

Slope of the straight line x + y -2 =0 is m3 = -1

Let  be the angle between the straight lines 4x-3y -18 =0 and 3x -4y +16 =0.

−1 m1 − m 2
Using the formula, θ = tan
1 + m1 m 2

4 3
−
7  7 
  = tan −1 3 4 = tan −1 = tan −1  
 4 3 24  24 
1 +  . 
 3 4

Let  be the angle between the straight lines 3x -4y +16 =0 and x + y -2 =0
 3
+1
 = tan −1 4 = tan −1 7 = tan −1 (7 )
3
1 + . .(− 1)
4

Let  be the angle between the straight lines x + y -2 =0 and 4x-3y -18 =0

4
−1−
 = tan −1 3 = tan −1 7 = tan −1 (7 )
 
1 + .(- 1). .
4
3

Here  =  . Hence the triangle formed by straight lines is isosceles.

Angle of bisector between two lines:

Angle bisector of two lines means the line which bisects the angle between the two
lines is the locus of a point which is equidistant from the two lines. In other words, an angle
bisector has equal perpendicular distance from the two lines.

Suppose there are two lines ax + by + c = 0 and a1x + b1y +c1 = 0. If point R(x,y) lies on
the bisector, then length of the perpendicular from point R to both the lines should be equal

ax + by + c a1 x + b1 y + c1
(i.e) =
a2 + b2 a12 + b12

The equation of the bisectors of the angles between the lines a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a1x
a 1 x + b 1 y + c1 a 2x + b2 y + c2
+ b1y + c1 = 0 are given by =
a 1 + b1 a 2 + b2
2 2 2 2

Example:

Find the equations of the bisectors of the angles between the straight lines 4x - 3y + 4=
0 and 6x + 8y - 9 = 0.
Solution:

The equations of the bisectors of the angles between 4x - 3y + 4 = 0 and 6x + 8y - 9 = 0

4x − 3y + 4 6x + 8y − 9
are =
4 2 + (−3) 2 62 + 82

4x − 3y + 4 6x + 8y − 9
⇒ =
5 10

⇒ 40x - 30y + 40 = ± (30x + 40y - 45)

Taking positive sign, we get,

⇒ 40x - 30y + 40 = + (30x + 40y - 45)

⇒ 2x - 14y + 17 = 0

Taking negative sign, we get,

⇒ 40x - 30y + 40 = - (30x + 40y - 45)

⇒ 40x - 30y + 40 = - 30x - 40y + 45

⇒ 70x + 10y - 5 = 0

 The equations of the bisectors of the angles between the straight lines 4x - 3y + 4 = 0
and 6x + 8y - 9 = 0 are 2x - 14y + 17 = 0 and 70x + 10y - 5 = 0.

Algorithm to find the bisectors of acute and obtuse angles between two lines:

Let the equations of the two lines be a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0. To
separate the bisectors of the obtuse and acute angles between the lines we proceed as follows:

Step I:

First check whether the constant terms c1 and c2 in the two equations are positive or not.
Suppose not, then multiply both the sides of the given equations by -1 to make the constant
terms positive.

Step II:

Determine the symbols of the expression a1a2 + b1b2.

Step III:

If a1a2 + b1b2> 0, then the bisector corresponding to “ + “ symbol gives the obtuse angle
bisector and the bisector corresponding to “ - “ is the bisector of the acute angle between the
lines i.e.
 a 1 x + b 1 y + c1 a 2x + b2 y + c2 a 1 x + b 1 y + c1 a 2x + b2 y + c2
=+ and =−
a 1 + b1 a 2 + b2 a 1 + b1 a 2 + b2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

are the bisectors of obtuse and acute angles respectively.

If a1a2 + b1b2 < 0, then the bisector corresponding to “ + “ and “ - “ symbol give the acute
and obtuse angle bisectors respectively i.e.

a 1 x + b 1 y + c1 a 2x + b2 y + c2 a 1 x + b 1 y + c1 a 2x + b2 y + c2
=+ and =−
a 1 + b1 a 2 + b2 a 1 + b1 a 2 + b2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

are the bisectors of acute and obtuse angles respectively.

Example:

Find the equation of the obtuse angle bisector of lines 4x - 3y + 10 = 0 and 8y - 6x - 5 = 0.

Solution:

First we make the constant terms positive in the given two equations.

Making positive terms positive, the two equations becomes 4x - 3y + 10 = 0 and 6x - 8y + 5 = 0

a1a2 + b1b2 = 4 × 6 + (-3) × (-8) = 24 + 24 = 48, which is positive.

Hence, “+” symbol gives the obtuse angle bisector.

The obtuse angle bisector is

4x − 3y + 10 6x − 8y + 5
⇒ =+
4 2 + (−3) 2 6 2 + (−8) 2

4x − 3y + 10 6x − 8y + 5
⇒ =+
5 10

⇒ 40x - 30y + 100 = 30x - 40y - 50

⇒ 10x + 10y + 150 = 0

 x + y + 15 = 0, which is the required obtuse angle bisector.

 EXERCISE PROBLEMS

1. Find the angle between the lines 2y+x=1 and x+3y= 6.

2. Show that the lines 5x+6y=20 and 18x-15y=17 are at right angles.
3. Find the equation of the line passing through (1,2) and parallel to the straight line 3x-
2y+7=0.
4. Show that the triangle formed by the lines 4x-3y-8=0, 3x-4y+6=0 and x+y-9=0 is an
isosceles.
5. What are the inclinations to the x-axis of the straight lines 3y = x - 4 and y= 3x + 3?
Hence find the angle between the straight lines
6. Find the angle between
(i) the lines 2x + y – 4 = 0 and 3x – y + 1 = 0.
(ii) the lines joining A(1,2) to B(3,4) and C(6,7) to D(8,5) (i.e). angle between AB and
CD)
7. Find the equations of the bisectors of the angles between the straight lines 4x - 3y + 4
= 0 and 6x + 8y - 9 = 0.
8. Find the equation of the obtuse angle bisector of lines 4x - 3y + 10 = 0 and 8y - 6x - 5 =
0.
9. Find the equation of the line which passes through the point (1, 2) and is
(i) parallel to x + 2y – 3 = 0 (ii) perpendicular to 3x + y = 4.
10. Find the equation of the straight lines through the intersection of the lines x+2y+3=0
and 3x+4y+7=0 and (i) parallel to the line 3y-4x=0 (ii) perpendicular to the line
3y+3x=0.
11. Show that the angle between 3x + 2y = 0 and 4x – y = 0 are equal to the angle
between y +2x = 3 and 9 x+32 y = 41.
12. If the lines 2x-y-1=0 and 6x-ky+9=0 are parallel , find k
13. Find the equation of a straight line through the intersection of 3x+4y = 7 and x+y-2 = 0
and having slope = 5.
14. Find the values of p for which the straight lines 8px + (2 − 3p) y + 1 = 0 and px + 8y − 7
= 0 are perpendicular to each other.
 LECTURE 8
Circle-Equation of circle whose centre and radius is known- General equation
of a circle- Equation of circle passing through three given points- Equation of
circle whose diameters is line joining two points (x1, y1) & (x2,y2)

Circles

Definition:

A Circle is the locus of a point which moves in such a way that its distance from a fixed
point is always constant. The fixed point is called centre of the circle and the constant distance
is called the radius of the circle.

Equation of the circle when the centre and radius are given:

Let C(h,k) be the centre and r be the radius of the circle. Let P(x,y) be any point on the
circle.

CP = r  CP2 = r2
 (x-h)2 + (y-k)2 = r2 is the required equation of the circle.

Note:

If the center of the circle is at the origin i.e., (h,k)=(0,0) then the equation of the circle is

x 2 + y 2 = r2

Example:

Find the equation of the circle if the centre and radius are (2,-3) and 4 respectively.

Solution:

The equation of the circle is  (x-h)2 + (y-k)2 = r2

Here (h,k) = (2, -3) and r = 4

 (x-2)2 + (y+3)2 = 42

 x2+y2-4x+6y-3 = 0 is the required equation of the circle.

Equation of a circle if the end points of a diameter are given:

Let A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2) be the end points of a diameter. Let P(x,y) be any point on the
circle.

The angle in a semi circle is a right angle.

 PA is perpendicular to PB

 (Slope of PA).(Slope of PB) = -1

 y − y1   y − y 2 
   .   = −1
 x − x1   x − x 2 
The equation of the circle is (x-x1) (x-x2) +(y-y1) (y-y2) =0 where (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) be the
end points of a diameter
 (y-y1) (y-y2) = - (x-x1) (x-x2)
Example:

Find the equation of the circle if (2,-3) and (3, 1) are the extremities of a diameter.

Solution:

The equation of the circle is (x-x1) (x-x2) +(y-y1) (y-y2) =0

Here (x1,y1) = (2,-3) and (x2,y2) = (3, 1)

 (x-2) (x-3) +(y+3) (y-1) =0

 x2+y2-5x+2y+3 =0 is the required equation of the circle.

General equation of the circle is x2 + y2 +2gx + 2fy + c = 0

Consider the equation x2 + y2 +2gx + 2fy + c = 0

This can be written as x2 + 2gx + g2 + y2 +2fy + f2 = g2 +f2 – c

2
 
(x + g)2 + (y + f )2 =  g 2 + f 2 − c 
 
 x − (− g )2 + y − (− f )2
2
 
=  g2 + f 2 − c 
 

This is of the form (x-h)2+ (y-k)2 = r2

The considered equation represents a circle with centre (-g,-f) and radius g2 + f 2 − c

 The standard equation of the circle is x2 + y2 +2gx + 2fy + c = 0

C = The Center of the circle whose coordinates are (-g,-f)

R = The radius of the circle = g2 + f 2 − c

Note:

1. The general second degree equation, ax2 + by2 +2hxy + 2gx + 2fy +c = 0 represents a

Circle if

i. It is of second degree in x and y.

ii. The coefficients of x2 and y2 are equal (a=b)

iii. There is no term containing xy.(h =0)

2. If g2+f2 –c >0, then the circle is a real circle.

3. If g2+f2 –c =0, then the circle reduces to a point circle.
4. If g2+f2 –c <0, then there is no real circle.
5. Circles having the same center but different radii are called concentric circles.
6. Before finding the center and radius, the general equation
ax2 + by2 +2hxy + 2gx + 2fy +c = 0-------------(1) of the circle must be brought

to the standard form. Divide (1) by ‘a’

2g 2f c
x2 + y2 + x+ y + = 0 is the standard form.
a a a

Example:

1. Find the centre and radius of the circle x2+y2+2x -4y+3 =0.

Solution:

Consider the general equation of the circle is x2 + y2 +2gx + 2fy + c = 0.

Here 2g = 2, 2f = - 4 and c= 3

 Centre = (-g,-f) = (-1,2)

Radius = g 2 + f 2 − c = (1) 2 + (−2) 2 − 3 = 1 + 4 − 3 = 2 units.

2. Find the centre and radius of the circle 3x2+3y2-2x+6y-6 = 0.

Solution:

The given equation is 3x2+3y2-2x+6y-6 = 0

Rewriting the above equation, x2+y2-(2/3) x+2y-2 = 0.

Comparing this with the general equation x2 + y2 +2gx + 2fy + c = 0, we get

2g = -(2/3) , 2f = 2 and c = -2

 Centre = (-g,-f) = (1/3,-1)

1 28 2 7
Radius = g 2 + f 2 − c = (− ) 2 + (1) 2 + 2 = = units.
3 9 3

3. If (4,1) is one extremity of a diameter of the circle x2+y2-2x+6y-15 =0, find the other
extremity.

Solution:

The given equation of the circle is x2+y2-2x+6y-15 =0.

Comparing the above equation with the general equation of the circle x2 + y2 +2gx + 2fy + c = 0,
we get 2g = -2 and 2f = 6

 Centre = (-g,-f) = (1,-3)

Given that A (4,1) be the one extremity of the diameter of the circle. Let B(x1,y1) be the other
extremity.

C is the midpoint of AB.

x1 + 4 y +1
 = 1 and 1 = −3  x1 = -2 and y1 = -7
2 2

The other extremity is (2,-7)

Equation of a circle passing through three given points

Let P (x1, y1), Q (x2, y2) and R (x3, y3) are the three given points.
Let the equation of the general form of the required circle be

x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ……………. (i)

According to the problem, the above equation of the circle passes through the points P (x1, y1),
Q (x2, y2) and R (x3, y3). Therefore,

x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c = 0 ……………. (ii)

x22 + y22 + 2gx2 + 2fy2 + c = 0 ……………. (iii)

and x32 + y32 + 2gx3 + 2fy3 + c = 0 ……………. (iv)

Form the above there equations (ii), (iii) and (iv) find the value of g, f and c. Then
substituting the values of g, f and c in (i) we can find the required equation of the circle.

Example:

1.Find the equation of the circle passes through three points (1, 0), (-1, 0) and (0, 1).

Solution:

Let the equation of the general form of the required circle be x2+ y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
……………. (i)

According to the problem, the above equation of the circle passes through the points (1, 0), (-1,
0) and (0, 1). Therefore,

1 + 2g + c = 0 ……………. (ii)

1 - 2g + c = 0 ……………. (iii)

1 + 2f + c = 0 ……………. (iv)

Subtracting (iii) form (i), we get 4g = 0 ⇒ g = 0.

Putting g = 0 in (ii), we obtain c = -1. Now putting c = -1 in (iv), we get f = 0.

Substituting the values of g, f and c in (i), we obtain the equation of the required circle as x2 +
y2 = 1.

2.Find the equation of the circle passes through three points (1, - 6), (2, 1) and (5, 2). Also
find the co-ordinate of its centre and the length of the radius.

Solution:

Let the equation of the required circle be

x2+ y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ……………….(i)

According to the problem, the above equation passes through the coordinate points (1, - 6), (2,
1) and (5, 2).
Therefore, substituting the coordinates of three points (1, - 6), (2, 1) and (5, 2) successively in
equation (i) we get,

For the point (1, - 6): 1 + 36 + 2g - 12f + c = 0

⇒ 2g - 12f + c = -37 ……………….(ii)

For the point (2, 1): 4 + 1 + 4g + 2f + c = 0

⇒ 4g + 2f + c =- 5 ……………….(iii)

For the point (5, 2): 25 + 4 + 10g + 4f + c = 0

⇒ 10g + 4f + c = -29 ……………….(iv)

Subtracting (ii) from (iii) we get,

2g + 14f = 32 ⇒ g + 7f = 16 ……………….(v)

Again, subtracting (ii) form (iv) we get,

8g + 16f = 8 ⇒ g + 2f = 1 ……………….(vi)

Now, solving equations (v) and (vi) we get, g = - 5 and f = 3.

Putting the values of g and f in (iii) we get, c = 9.

Therefore, the equation of the required circle is x2 + y2 - 10x + 6y + 9 = 0

Thus, the co-ordinates of its centre are (- g, - f) = (5, - 3) and radius

g2 + f 2 − c = 25 + 9 − 9 = √25 = 5 units.
 EXERCISE PROBLEMS

1. Find the radius and centre of the circle

(i) x2 + y2 + 8x + 9y – 7 = 0
(ii) 3x2 + 3y2 – 12x – 30y - 100 = 0
2. The centre of the circle is (5,6) and radius 4 units. Find the equation of the circle.
3. Find the equation of the circle that passes through the points (1,0), (0, -1) and (0,1).
4. Find the equation of the circle passing through the point (1,2) and having its centre at
(2,3).
5. Find the equation of the circle with centre (3,-2) and radius 3. Show that is passes through
(3,1).
6. For what values of a and b does the equation (a-2)x2+by2+(b-2)xy+4x+4y-1=0 represent a
circle? Write down the resulting equation of the circle.
7. A circle passes through the points (4,1) and (6,5) and has its centre on the line 4x+y=16.
Find the equation of the circle.
8. If (4,1) is an extremity of a diameter of the circle x2+y2-2x+6y-15=0, find the coordinates of
the other extremity of the diameter.
9. A lawn service company offers services within an 20 mile radius of their office. When the
service area is represented graphically with the office located at (0,0), what is the equation
that represents the service area?
10. Find the equation of the circle whose centre is (-3, 2) and circumference is 8  .
11. Suppose an earthquake can be felt up to 80 miles from its epicenter. You are located at a
point 60 miles west and 45 miles south of the epicenter. Do you feel the earthquake? If so,
how many miles south would you have to travel to be out of the range of the earthquake?
12. A radio tower services a 10 mile radius. You stop your car 8 miles east and 8 miles north
of the tower. Will you be able to receive radio waves from the tower?
13. A Company wants to make a garden around their office. The area around their office is in
circular form whose radius is 10m. When the area for gardening is represented graphically
with office located at (0,0), what is the equation that represents the gardening area?
14. A rabbit will move no more than 10 miles away from its hole. At that time, you are taking a
walk about 5 miles east and 7 miles north of the rabbit hole. Is there any possibility of you
meeting the rabbit?
15. The beam of a lighthouse can be seen for up to 20 miles. You are on a ship that is 10
miles east and 16 miles north of the lighthouse.
a. Write an inequality to describe the region lit by the lighthouse beam.
b. Can you see the lighthouse beam?
**********
 Lecture 10

Differential Calculus - Definition of function, limit and continuity- Simple problems on

limit and continuity.

Introduction

Calculus is the mathematics of motion and change. When increasing or decreasing quantities
are made the subject of mathematical investigation, it frequently becomes necessary to
estimate their rates of growth or decay. Calculus was invented for the purpose of solving
problems that deal with continuously changing quantities.

Calculus is used in calculating the rate of change of velocity of a vehicle with respect to time,
the rate of change of growth of population with respect to time, etc. Calculus also helps us to
maximise profits or minimise losses. Isacc Newton of England and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz of
Germany invented calculus in the 17th century, independently. Leibnitz, a great mathematician
of all times, approached the problem of settling tangents geometrically; but Newton approached
calculus using physical concepts. Newton, one of the greatest mathematicians and physicists of
all time, applied the calculus to formulate his laws of motion and gravitation.

Variable:

A variable is a quantity which can assume different values in a particular mathematical

investigation. Variables are of two kinds namely independent variables and dependent
variables. It is denoted by x,y,z,....u,v,w,....

Independent and Dependent Variables:

An independent variable is one which can assume any value that is assigned to it. The
dependent variable is one whose value depends upon the value assigned to the other.

Example:

A = πr2, where r is the radius of the circle and A is the area of the circle. r is the independent
variable and A is the dependent variable.

Constant:

A constant is a quantity which has only one value throughout a particular investigation.
Constants are of two kinds namely arbitrary constant and absolute constant. It is denoted by
a,b,c,…α,β,γ,…

Absolute and Arbitrary Constants:

The absolute constant is one which has the same value in all mathematical operations. The
arbitrary constant is one which has value in one operation and has different values in other
operations.
Example:

In V = 4/3 π r 3 where π is the absolute constant

In y = kx, k is the arbitrary constant.

Function:

When two or more variables are connected by a relation, each is said to be a function of the
other. Let us consider the growth of a plant. It is a function of time‘t’ (ie) w = f (t) .Here ‘w’ is the
dependent variable and‘t’ is the independent variable.

Even Function:

A function f(x) is said to be even, if f (- x) = f(x) for all values of ‘x’.

Example:

f(x) = x2, f(x) = cosx are even functions.

Odd Function:

A function f(x) is said to be odd, if f (- x) = - f(x) for all values of ‘x’.

Example:

f(x) = x3, f(x) = sinx are odd functions.

Limit of a Function

Definition:

Let f be a function of a real variable x. Let c, l be two fixed numbers. If f(x) approaches
the value l as x approaches c, we say l is the limit of the function f(x) as x tends to c. This is
written as Lt f(x) = l
x →c

Left Hand and Right Hand Limits

While defining the limit of a function as x tends to c, we consider values of f(x) when x is
very close to c. The values of x may be greater or less than c. If we restrict x to values less than
c, then we say that x tends to c from below or from the left and write it symbolically as x → c − 0
or simply x → c−. The limit of f with this restriction on x, is called the left hand limit. This is
written as

Lf(c) = Lt f(x) , provided the limit exists.

x →c _

Similarly if x takes only values greater than c, then x is said to tend to from above or
from right, and is denoted symbolically as x → c + 0 or x → c+. The limit of f is then called the
right hand limit. This is written as
 Rf(c) = Lt f(x)
x →c +

Note:

For the existence of Lt f(x) it is necessary that both Lf(c) and Rf(c) exists and Lf(c) =
x →c

Rf(c) = Lt f(x) .These left and right hand limits are also known as one sided limits.
x →c

Fundamental results of Limits:

1. If f(x) = k for all x, then Lt f(x) =k.

x →c

2. If f(x) = x for all x, then Lt f(x) = c

x →c

3. If f and g are two functions possessing limits and k is a constant then

(i) Lt k f(x) = k Lt f(x)

x →c x →c

(ii) Lt [f(x) + g(x) ] = Lt f(x) + Lt g(x)

x →c x →c x →c

(iii) Lt [f(x) − g(x) ] = Lt f(x) − Lt g(x)

x →c x →c x →c

(iv) Lt [f(x).g(x) ] = Lt f(x). Lt g(x)

x →c x →c x →c

(v) Lt [f(x) / g(x) ] = Lt f(x) / Lt g(x) , g(x)  0.

x →c x →c x →c

(vi) If f(x) ≤ g(x) then Lt f ( x)  Lt g(x)

x →c
x →c
Some Important Limit

xn − an
1. For any positive integer n, Lt = na n −1
x →a x − a

Proof:

Dividing (xn – an ) by (x – a),

We see that xn – an = (x–a) (xn–1 + xn–2 a + xn–3 a2 + ... + x an–2 + an–1)

xn − an
Thus, Lt = Lt (xn–1 + xn–2 a + xn–3 a2 + ... + x an–2 + an–1)
x →a x − a x →a

= an– l + a an–2 +. . . + an–2 (a) +an–l

= an–1 + an – 1 +...+an–1 + an–1 (n terms)

= na n −1
 sinx
2. Lt =1
x →0 x

Proof:

We know that sin (– x) = – sin x and cos( – x) = cos x. Hence, it is sufficient to prove the
inequality for 0 < x <  / 2

Draw Line segments BA and CD are perpendiculars to OA. Further, join AC.

Then Area of ΔOAC < Area of sector OAC < Area of Δ OAB.

1 1 1
 OA.CD < (x).(OA)2 < AB. OA
2 2 2

i.e., CD < x . OA < AB.

CD
From Δ OCD, sin x = (since OC = OA) and hence CD = OA sin x.
OA

AB
Also tan x = and hence AB = OA. tan x
OA

OA.sin x  x.OA  OA.tanx

Since length OA is positive, we have sin x < x < tan x

Since 0 < x <  / 2 , sinx is positive and thus by dividing throughout by sin x, we have
x 1
1< <
sin x cosx

Taking reciprocals throughout, we have

sin x
Cos x< <1
x

sin x
Taking limit , we get Lt cos x  Lt  Lt 1
x →0 x →0 x x →0

sinx
 Lt =1
x →0 x

ex −1
3. Lt =1
x →0 x
Proof:

x x2 xn
We know that ex = 1 + + + ............. + + ............
1! 2! n!

x x2 xn
and so ex − 1 = + + ............. + + ............
1! 2! n!

e x −1 1 x x n-1
= + + ............. + + ............ (‡ x ≠ 0, division by x is permissible)
x 1! 2! n!

ex −1 1 x x n-1
 Lt = Lt + + ............. + + ............ = 1
x →0 x x → 0 1! 2! n!

log(1 + x)
4. Lt =1
x →0 x

Proof:

x2 x3
We know that log (1 + x) = x − + −
2 3

log(1 + x) x x2
Lt = Lt 1 − + − =1
x →0 x x →0 2 3

Note:

1 − cos x
1. Lt =0
x →0 x
x
 1
2. Lt  1 +  = e
x →  x

3. Lt (1 + x )
1
x
=e
x →0

x
 k
4. Lt 1 +  =e
k

x →  x

5. lim cos x = 1
x→0

6. lim sin x = 0
x→0

1+ h 
7. lim   =1
h→0
 h 

Continuity at a point

A function f is said to be continuous at a point c, a < c < b, if Lt f(x) =f(c)

x →c
A function f is said to be continuous from the left at c if Lt f(x) =f(c)
x →c -

Also f is continuous from the right at c if Lt f(x) =f(c)

x →c +

Clearly a function is continuous at c if and only if it is continuous from the left as well as from the
right.
Continuity at an end point
A function f defined on a closed interval [a, b] is said to be continuous at the end point ‘a’
if it is continuous from the right at a, (i.e) Lt f(x) =f(a)
x →a +

Also the function is continuous at the end point ‘b’ of [a, b] if Lt f(x) = f(b)
x →b −

A function is continuous at a point c if

(i) f is well defined at x = c i.e. f(c) exists.

(ii) Lt f(x) exists (Both right and left limit exist)

x →c

(iii) Lt f(x) =f(c)

x →c

Continuity in an interval
A function f is said to be continuous in an interval [a, b] if it is continuous at each and every
point of the interval.
Discontinuous function
A function f is said to be discontinuous at a point c of its domain if it is not continuous at
c. The point c is then called a point of discontinuity of the function.
Note:

If f, g be continuous functions at a point c then the functions f + g, f − g, f.g are also continuous
at c and if g(c) ≠ 0 then f / g is also continuous at c.
Examples:
1.Every constant function is continuous
Solution:

Let f(x) = k be the constant function. Let c be a point in the domain of f.

Then f(c) = k.
Lt f(x) = Lt k = k = f(c).
x →c
x →c
Hence f(x) = k is continuous at c.
2.The function f(x) = xn, x ∈ R is continuous.

Solution:

Let x0 be a point of R.
 n
Then Lt f(x) = Lt (x) = Lt (x. x ... n factors)
x →xo x →x o x →xo

= Lt (x) Lt (x) ….n factors

x→ x o x→ x o

= (xo. xo … n factors) = x0n

Also f(x0) = x0n
Thus Lt f(x) = = x0n = f(x0)
x → x0
⇒ f(x) = xn is continuous at x0
3.The function f(x) = kxn is continuous where k ∈ R and k ≠ 0.
Solution:
Let g(x) = k and h(x) = xn.
g is continuous and h is continuous
We know that product of two continuous function is continuous
 f(x) = g(x) .h(x) = k xn is also continuous.
4.Every polynomial function of degree n is continuous.

Solution:
Let f(x) = a0xn +a1 xn − 1 + a2xn − 2 + … + an − 1 x + an , a0 ≠ 0 be a polynomial function of degree n.
Also aixi, i = 0, 1, 2, … n are continuous.
The sum of continuous functions is continuous and hence the function f(x) is continuous.
5.Every rational function of the form p(x) / q(x) where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials is
continuous (q(x) ≠ 0).
Solution:
Let r(x) = p(x) / q(x) , q(x) ≠ 0 be a rational function of x. Then we know that p(x) and q(x) ≠ 0 are
polynomials.
Also, p(x) and q(x) are continuous, being polynomials.
The quotient p(x) / q(x) is continuous.
i.e. the rational function r(x) is continuous.
Important Results without proof:
❖ The exponential function is continuous at all points of R. In particular the exponential
function f(x) = ex is continuous.

❖ The function f(x) = log x, x > 0 is continuous at all points of R+, where R+ is the set of
positive real numbers.

❖ The sine function f(x) = sin x is continuous at all points of R.

❖ The cosine function f(x) = cos x is continuous at all points of R.

Examples:
  sin 2x 
 ,x  0 
6. Is the function f(x) =  x  is Continuous at x = 0? Justify your answer.
1, when x = 0

Solution:
Note that f(0) = 1.
sin 2 x sin 2 x
Lt f(x) = Lt (for x  0, f ( x) = )
x →0 x →0 x x

2sin 2 x sin 2 x sin x

= Lt = 2 Lt = 1 ( Lt =1)
x →0 2x x → 0 2x x →0 x
 Lt f(x) = 2
x →0
Since Lt f(x) = 2 ≠ 1 = f(0), the function is not continuous at x = 0.
x →0
(i.e) the function is discontinuous at x = 0.
Note that the discontinuity of the above function can be removed if we define

 sin 2x 
 ,x  0 
f(x) =  x  so that for this function Lt f(x) = f (0)
2, when x = 0 x →0

Such points of discontinuity are called removable discontinuities.

− x 2 , if x  0

5 x − 4 , if 0  x 1
7. A function f is defined on by f(x)=  2
4 x − 3 x , if 1  x  2
3 x + 4 , if x  2

Examine f for continuity at x = 0, 1, 2.

Solution:

(i) Lt f(x) = Lt ( − x ) = 0
2

x →0- x →0-

Lt f(x) = Lt (5x-4) = -4
x →0+
x→0
+
Since Lt f(x)  Lt f(x)
x→0 x →0+
-
 f(x) is discontinuous at x = 0
(ii) Lt f(x) = Lt (5x-4) =1
x →1- x →1-

Lt f(x) = Lt (4x 2 − 3x) =1

x →1+
x →1
+
f(1)= 5 (1) - 4 = 1
Since Lt f(x) = Lt f(x) = f(1)
x →1-
x →1
+
 f(x) is discontinuous at x = 1

Lt f(x) = Lt (4x − 3x) =10

2
(iii)
x→2 x → 2-
-
Lt f(x) = Lt (3x + 4) =10
x → 2+ x →2 +

f(2)= 3 (2) + 4 = 10
Since Lt f(x) = Lt f(x) = f(2)
x →2-
x→2
+
 f(x) is discontinuous at x = 2

Differentiation and its Application

Consider a function y = f(x) of a variable x. Suppose x changes from an initial value x0 to a final
value x1. Then the increment in x is defined to be the amount of change in x. It is denoted by Δx
(read as delta x).That is Δx = x1 − x0.

Thus x1 = x0 + Δx

If x increases then Δx > 0, since x1 > x0.

If x decreases then Δx < 0, since x1 < x0.

As x changes from x0 to x1 = x0 + Δx, y changes from f(x0) to f(x0 + Δx). Put f(x0) = y0 and f(x0 +
Δx) = y0 + Δy. The increment in y namely Δy depends on the values of x0 and Δx.

Note that Δy may be either positive, negative or zero (depending on whether y has increased,
decreased or remained constant when x changes from x0 to x1).

Δy
If the increment Δy is divided by Δx, the quotient is called the average rate of change of y
Δx
with respect to x, as x changes from x0 to x0 + Δx. The quotient is given by

Δy f (x 0 + Δx) - f(x 0 )
=
Δx Δx

This fraction is also called a difference quotient.

 EXERCISE PROBLEMS
1. Find lim x − 2 x + 5
2
x →0

2. x2 + x − 6
Find lim
x →2 x2 − x − 2
3. x 4 − 3x 3 + 2
Find lim 3
x →1 x − 5 x 2 + 3 x + 1

4. 4x + 5
Find lim
x → 3x − 7
5. x5/8 − a5/8
Find lim
x →a x1 / 3 − a1 / 3
6. 1+ x −1
Find lim
x →0 x
7. e2x − 1
Find lim
x →0 3x
8. log( 1 + ax)
Find lim
x →0 x
9. x+2
Prove that f ( x ) = is discontinuous at x=1
x −1
10. 4t + 10
Determine where the function h(t ) = is not continuous.
t − 2t − 15
2

11. Prove that the function ex is continuous

12. Prove that cosx is continuous.
13. (1 + x) n − 1
Show that Lt =n
x →0 x
14. Find the value of the constant k so that the function f defined below is continuous at x = 0,
1 − cos 4 x
 ,x  0
where f ( x) =  8 x 2
 k , x = 0.
15.  x 3 + x 2 − 16 x + 20
 ,x  2
If f ( x) =  ( x − 2) 2 is continuous at x = 2, find the value of k.
 k, ,x = 2

 Lecture 11

Differentiation of xn , ex , sin x & cos x from first principle-Derivatives of sum, difference,

product and quotient of two functions- Differentiation using functions of function rule
(Simple problem based on it)

Definition of derivative:

The derivative of a given function y = f(x) is defined as the limit of the ratio of the
increment Δy of the function to the corresponding increment Δx of the independent variable,
when the latter tends to zero.

dy Δy f (x 0 + Δx) - f(x 0 )
= y ' = f '( x) = Lt = Lt
dx x →0 Δx x →0 Δx

This method of finding differential coefficient is known as ‘differentiation’. The differential

coefficient is also called as ‘derivative’

Right and Left Derivative:

If f(x) is defined in the interval x0 ≤ x < b, its right hand derivative at x0 is defined as
f (x 0 + Δx) - f(x 0 )
f′(x0+) = Lt provided this limit exists.
x→x + Δx
o

If f(x) is defined in the interval a < x ≤ x0 its left hand derivative at x0 is defined as

f (x 0 - Δx) - f(x 0 )
f′(x0-) = Lt provided this limit exists.
x→x − Δx
o

If f(x) is defined in the interval a ≤ x ≤ b, then we can write f ′(a) for f ′(a +), and we write
f′(b) for f′ (b−).

Note:

Relationship between Differentiability and Continuity: Every differentiable function is

continuous.

Example:

A function f(x) is defined in an interval [0, 2] as follows:

f(x) = x when 0 ≤ x ≤ 1

= 2x − 1 when 1 < x ≤ 2

Show that f(x) is continuous at 1 but not differentiable at that point.

Solution:

For, Lt f(x) = Lt f(1 − h) = Lt (1 − h) = 1

− h →0 h →0
x →1
 Lt f(x) = Lt f(1 + h) = Lt 2(1 + h) − 1 = Lt (2h + 1) = 1
+ h →0 h →0 h →0
x →1

Thus f(x) is continuous at x = 1

Now R f ‘(1) =
f(1 + h) − f(1)
= Lt
2(1 + h ) − 1 − 2(1) − 1 = 2h
= 2 and
Lt Lt
h →0 h h →0 h h →0 h

f(1 − h) − f(1) (1 − h) − 1 -h
L f ‘(1) = Lt = Lt = Lt =1
h →0 (1 - h) - 1 h →0 -h h →0 - h

Since Rf ’(1) ≠ Lf ‘(1), the given function is not differentiable at x = 1.

Differentiation Techniques

In order to find the derivative of a function y = f(x) from first principles (on the basis of the
general definition of a derivative) it is necessary to carry out the following operations:

1) increase the argument x by Δx, calculate the increased value of the function

y + Δy = f(x + Δx).

2) find the corresponding increment of the function Δy = f(x + Δx) − f(x) ;

3) form the ratio of the increment of the function to the increment of the argument

Δy f (x + Δx) - f(x )
=
Δx Δx

dy f (x + Δx) - f(x)
4) find the limit of this ratio as Δx → 0; = f' (x) = Lt
dx Δx → 0 Δx

Derivatives of elementary functions from first principles

I. The derivative of a constant function is zero.

d
(i.e) (c) = 0, where c is a constant
dx

Proof: Let f(x) = c. f(x + Δx) = c

d f (x + Δx) - f(x)
(f(x)) = Lt
dx Δx → 0 Δx

d c-c
(c) = Lt = 0.
dx Δx → 0 Δx
II. The derivative of xn is nx n − 1, where n is a rational number

d n
(i.e) (x ) = nxn-1
dx

Let f(x) = xn. f(x + Δx) = (x + Δx)n

d f (x + Δx) - f(x)
(f(x)) = Lt
dx Δx → 0 Δx

Δx n n Δx n
n n x n (1 + ) -x x n [(1 + ) - 1]
d n (x + Δx) - x x x
(x ) = Lt = Lt = Lt
dx Δx → 0 Δx Δx → 0 Δx Δx → 0 Δx

 Δx n 
 (1 + ) - 1
= xn Lt  x
Δx 
Δx → 0  
 x 

Δx
Put y = 1 + . As Δx → 0, y → 1
x

 
 n n 
 Lt x − a = 1
n n
d n y -1
dx
(x ) = x n − 1Lt = nxn-1
 x−a 
 y→a
y -1
y →1 
 

Example:

dy
1. If y = x5, find
dx

Solution:

dy
= 5x 5 − 1 = 5x4.
dx

1 dy
2. If y = , find
x x dx

Solution:

y = x -3/2

3 5
dy 3 − −1 3 −
= − x 2 = − x 2
dx 2 2

III. The derivative of sinx is cosx

 dy
i.e. if y = sinx, then = cosx
dx

Proof:

Let y = sinx. y + Δy = sin (x + Δx)

Δy = sin (x + Δx) − sin x = 2sin

(x + Δx − x ) .cos (x + Δx + x )
2 2

 Δx 
2 x + 
x  2 
= 2sin . cos
2 2

Δx  Δx  Δx
2sin . cos x +  sin .
Δy
=
2  2 = 2 . cos x + Δx 
Δx Δx Δx  2 
2

Δx
sin .
dy
=
Δy
= Lt 2 . cos x + Δx 
Lt
dx x → 0 Δx x → 0 Δx  2 
2

Δx
sin .
2 .  Δx 
= Lt Lt cos x + 
x → 0 Δx x → 0  2 
2

dy  Δx 
= 1. Lt cos x +  = Cosx
dx x → 0  2 

IV. The derivative of cosx is − sinx

dy
( i.e) if y = cosx, then = - sinx
dx
Proof:

Let y = cosx. y + Δy = cos (x + Δx)

(x + Δx − x ) .sin (x + Δx + x )
Δy = cos(x + Δx) − sin x = - 2sin
2 2
 Δx 
2 x + 
x  2 
= - 2sin .sin
2 2

Δx  Δx  Δx
2sin .sin  x +  sin .
Δy 2  2  2  Δx 
=− =- . sin  x + 
Δx Δx Δx  2 
2
 Δx
sin .
dy
=
Δy
= - Lt 2 . sin  x + Δx 
Lt
dx x → 0 Δx x → 0 Δx  2 
2

Δx
sin .
2 .  Δx 
=- Lt Lt sin  x + 
x → 0 Δx Δx → 0  2 
2

dy  Δx 
= -1. Lt sin  x +  = -sinx
dx Δx → 0  2 

V. The derivative of ex is ex

dy
(i.e) if y = ex, then = ex
dx
Proof:

Let y = ex. y + Δy = ex+Δx

Δy = ex+Δx − ex

dy Δy e x +x - e x e x (e x - 1)
= Lt = Lt = Lt
dx x → 0 Δx x→0 Δx x → 0 Δx

 
 x 
e x - 1  Lt e − 1 = 1
= ex Lt = ex.1
x → 0 Δx  x 
 x→0 
 

dy
= ex
dx

Rules of diffentiation:

1. If f and g are differentiable functions of x and c is any constant, then the following are true.

(i)
d
(cf(x) ) = c d (f(x))
dx dx

(ii)
d
(f(x)  g(x) ) = d (f(x))  d (g(x))
dx dx dx

Example:

1.Differentiate each of the following function f(x) = 15x100 -3x12 +5x -46
Solution

f (x) = 15(100)x 99 − 3(12)x 11 + 5(1)x 0 − 0

= 1500x 99 − 36x 11 + 5
 1
2. Differentiate following function y = 8z 3 − + z − 23
3z 5
Solution:
1
y = 8z 3 − + z − 23
3z 5
Diff. w.r.to x,
5
y = 24z 2 + z -6 + 1
3
3.Differentiate each of the following functions.

g(x) = 3sec(x) − 10cos(x)

Solution:

g(x) = 3sec(x) tan(x) − 10(-sin(x) )

= 3sec(x) tan(x) + 10 sin(x)

2. Product Rule of Differentiation:

Let u and v be differentiable functions of x. Then the product function y = u .v is differentiable

dy dv du
and y′ = u v′+ v u′ or =u +v
dx dx dx

Example:

(
1. Differentiate the function y = 3 x 2 2x − x 2 )
(
Solution: y = 3 x 2 2x − x 2 )

y = x 3 (2x − x 2 )
2

Differentiate ‘y’ with respect to ‘x ‘

( )
2
2 - 13
y = x 2x − x 2 + x 3 (2 − 2 x )
3

2. Differentiate the function: f(x) = (6x 3 − x)(10 − 20x)

Solution:

f(x) = (6x 3 − x)(10 − 20x)

Diff f(x) w. r. to ‘x’

f  (x) = (18x 2 − 1)(10 − 20x) + (6x 3 − x)( −20)

= -480x3 + 180x 2 + 40x − 10
3. Quotient Rule:
If u and v are differentiable function and if v(x) ≠ 0, then

u
d  v du − u dv
 v  = dx dx = vu  − uv
dx v2 v2

Thus the quotient rule can be stated as follows:

Denominato r  differenti ation of Numerator − Numerator  differenti ation of Denominato r

=
(Denominat or)2
Example:

sin(t)
Differentiate each of the following functions P(t) =
3 − 2cos(t)
Solution:
cos(t)(3 - 2cos(t)) - sin(t)(2si n(t))
P(t) =
(3 − 2cos(t)) 2
3 cos(t) - 2cos 2 (t) - 2sin 2 (t)
=
(3 − 2cos(t)) 2
Chain Rule:
Let y = F(g(x)) and u = g(x) ,then the function of a function F(gx)) has the derivative equal to
F′(u) g ′(x), where in place of u we must substitute u = g(x).
dy dy du
(i.e) = .
dx du dx

This chain rule can further be extended to

i.e. if y = F(u), u = f(t), t = g(x) then
dy dy du dt
= . . = F′(u) f ‘(x) g’(x)
dx du dt dx
Example:

1. Differentiate log x with respect to x.

Solution:

Let y = log x
dy dy du
Take u = x , and so y = log u, Then by chain rule = .
dx du dx

dy 1 du 1
= ; =
du u dx 2 x
 dy 1 1 1 1
Therefore by chain rule = . = =
dx u 2 x x .2 x 2x

2
2.Differentiate e sin x
Solution: 2
Let y = esinx ; u = sinx2 ; t = x2
Then y = eu, u = sint, t = x2
∴ By chain rule
dy dy du dt 2 2
= . . = eu . cost. 2x = esinx . cos(x2) . 2x = 2x esinx cos (x2)
dx du dt dx
2
= 2x esinx cos (x2)
Derivatives of inverse trigonometrical functions
dy 1
I. The derivative of y = sin−1x is =
dx 1− x2
Proof: We have y = sin−1x and x = sin y

dx
Then = cosy = 1 − sin 2 y = 1 − x 2
dy

d(sin -1 x) dy 1 1
= = =
dy dx dx 1− x 2
dy
dy 1
II. The derivative of y = cos−1x is =−
dx 1− x2
Proof: We have y = cos−1x and x = cos y

dx
Then = - sin y = − 1 − cos 2 y = − 1 − x 2
dy

d(cos -1 x) dy 1 1
= = =−
dy dx dx 1− x 2
dy
dy 1
III. The derivative of y = tan−1x is =
dx 1 + x 2
Proof: We have y = tan−1x and x = tan y

dx
Then = sec 2 y =1 + tan 2 y =1 + x 2
dy

d(tan -1x) dy 1 1
= = =
dy dx dx 1 + x 2
dy
 dy 1
IV. The derivative of y = cot−1x is =−
dx 1+ x2
Proof: We have y = cot−1x and x = cot y

dx
Then = − cos ec 2 y = − (1 + cot 2 y) = − (1 + x 2 )
dy

d(cot -1x) dy 1 1
= = =−
dy dx dx 1+ x2
dy
dy 1
V. The derivative of y = sec−1x is =
dx x x 2 − 1
Proof: We have y = sec−1x and x = sec y

dx
Then = secy tany = secy sec 2 y − 1 = x x 2 − 1
dy

d(sec -1x) dy 1 1
= = =
dy dx dx x x 2 − 1
dy
dy 1
VI. The derivative of y = cosec−1x is =−
dx x x 2 −1
Proof: We have y = cosec−1x and x = cosec y

dx
Then = −cosecy coty = − cosecy cosec 2 y − 1 = − x x 2 − 1
dy

d(sec -1x) dy 1 1
= = =−
dy dx dx x x 2 −1
dy

Example:

dy -1  1 − x 
1. Find if y = cos  
dx 1+ x 

Solution:

1− x
Take u =  y = cos-1 u
1+ x

dy dy du 1  (1 + x)( −1) − (1 − x)(1)  1  −2 

= . = . = − . 2
dx du dx  (1 + x) 2   1 - x   (1 + x) 
2
1- u 2
1-  
1+ x 
dy 1  − 2  1+ x  2  1
= − . 2
= . 2
=
dx (1 + x) 2 − (1 − x) 2  (1 + x)  4 x  (1 + x)  x (1 + x)
1+ x
 Exercise problems

1. Differentiate the following function y=f(x) with respect to x

3x 2 + 7 x + 8  1
3
3) 4)  x + 
1) x 3/2 2) ax + bx2 + cx3 + d x  x
ax +b
5)  ax +   + bx  x 2 − 4x + 3
b a 7
6) 7) x − 8)
 x  x  ( x − 1) x cx + d

1 10) (2x + 1)(3x2 – 1)

9) x +
x
2. Differentiate the following function y=f(x) with respect to x.
1) (3x2 + 4)3 2) 2x + 3 3) Cosec (ax+b) 4) exp(x2)

5) sin (log x) 6) e sin x 7) Sec (ax + b) 8) Cot-1 (logx)

dy  1− x 
3. Find if y = sin −1  
dx  1+ x 
4.
 Lecture 12
Logarithmic differentiation (Simple problem based on it)- Differentiation by substitution
method and simple problems based on it- Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric
functions
Methods of Differentiation:

(i) Differentiation of explicit function

(ii) Differentiation of Implicit function

(iii) Differentiation of Parametric function

(iv) Logarithmic differentiation

(i) Differentiation of explicit function:

A function is of the form y = f(x) (or) w = f (t) is called explicit function. To find the
differential coefficient (or) derivative for those explicit function it is necessary to differentiate the
function with respect to ‘x’ (or) ‘t’ on both sides
dy dw
(ie) = f (x) (or) = f (t)
dx dt
(ii) Differentiation of Implicit function:
A function is of the form f(x,y) = 0 is called an implicit function. To find the differential
coefficient it is necessary to differentiate the function with respect to ‘x’ on both sides and group
dy
the terms containing on one side and the other terms on the other side.
dx

Example:

dy x 2 y2
1. Find if 2 + 2 = 1
dx a b

Solution:

x 2 y2
+ =1
a 2 b2

Differentiating w.r.t ‘x’

1 d 2 1 d 2
2
(x ) + 2 (y ) = 1
a dx b dx

1 1 dy
 2
(2x) + 2 (2y) =0
a b dx

x y dy y dy x
Dividing by 2, 2
+ 2 =0  2 =− 2
a b dx b dx a
 dy b2x
 =− 2
dx a y

dy
2. Find when tan (x + y) + tan (x − y) = 1
dx

Solution:

We have tan (x + y) + tan (x − y) = 1.

Differentiating both sides w.r. to x,

dy dy
sec2(x + y) (1+ ) + sec2(x - y) (1- )=0
dx dx

dy
[sec2(x + y) + sec2(x - y)] + [sec2(x + y) - sec2(x - y)] =0
dx

dy
[sec2(x + y) - sec2(x - y)] = - [sec2(x + y) + sec2(x - y)]
dx

dy - [sec 2 (x + y) + sec 2 (x - y)] sec 2 (x + y) + sec 2 (x - y)

 = =
dx [sec 2 (x + y) - sec 2 (x - y)] sec 2 (x - y) + sec 2 (x + y)

(iii) Differentiation of Parametric function:

Let y = f(x) be the given function. If the variables ‘x’ and ‘y’ are represented by a new
third variable namely ‘θ’ (or) ‘t’ then x and y are called parametric function and the new variable
‘θ’ (or) ‘t’ is called parameter.

(ie) x = f(θ) and y = g(θ)

dx dy
= f (θ ) and = g (θ )
dθ dθ

dy
dy dθ differenti ation of y w.r.t parameter
= =
dx dx differenti ation of x w.r.t parameter
dθ

Example:

dy
If x = a (1 + cos θ), y = b (θ + sin θ), find .
dx

Solution:

x = a (1 + cos θ)

dy
Differentiate w.r.t ‘θ’, = a(−sin θ) = − a sin θ
dθ
 dy
y = b (1 + sin θ); = a(θ + cos θ) = a(1 + cos θ)
dθ
dy θ θ
2 cos 2 cos
dy a(1 + cos θ) 2 = − cot θ
= dθ = = 2 =
dx dx − a sin θ θ θ θ 2
dθ 2 sin cos sin
2 2 2
(iv) Logarithmic Differentiation:

dy
For some problems, first by taking logarithms and then differentiating, it is easier to find .
dx
Such process is called logarithmic differentiation.

❖ If the function appears as a product of many simple functions, then by taking the
logarithm the product is converted into a sum. It is now easy to differentiate them.

❖ If the variable x occurs in the exponent then by taking logarithm, it is reduced to a

familiar form to differentiate.

Example:

Differentiate: y = (x + 1)2 (x + 2)3 (x + 3)4

Solution:

Taking logarithm on both sides

log y = 2 log(x + 1) + 3 log(x + 2) + 4 log(x + 3)

Differentiating on both sides,

1 dy 1 1 1
=2 +3 +4
y dx x +1 x + 2 x +3

dy  2 3 4 
= (x + 1)2 (x + 2)3 (x + 3)4  + +
dx  x + 1 x + 2 x + 3 

Differentiation Formulae:

dy
Function(y) Derivative ( )
dx

xn n xn-1
c
0
1 −n
xn x n +1
ex
ex
1
log x
x
sin x cos x
 cos x
- sin x
tan x
sec2 x
cot x
- cosec2 x
sec x
sec x tan x
cosec x
- cosec x cot x
1
sin -1 x
1− x2
1
cos -1 x −
1− x2
1
tan-1 x
1+ x2
1
cot-1 x −
1+ x2
1
sec-1x
x x 2 −1
1
cosec-1 x −
x x 2 −1

Higher Order Derivatives:

dy
Let y = f(x) be the given function. The derivative of ‘y’ with respect to ‘x’ is , called
dx
dy dy
the first derivative. This is also function of ‘x’ then it will be differentiable. If this function
dx dx
is differentiated once again with respect to ‘x’ we get second derivative denoted by

d 2 y d dy
= ( )
dx 2 dx dx

d3y d d2 y
Similarly = ( ) called third derivative.
dx 3 dx dx 2

d4 y d d3y
= ( ) called fourth derivative.
dx 4 dx dx 3

……….

………..
dn y d d n −1 y
n
= ( n −1 ) called nth derivative.
dx dx dx

This method of finding derivatives successively is called successive differentiation or higher

derivatives.
Inference of the differentiation:
dw
Let w= f(t) be a given function then the first order derivative is .
dt
The geometrical meaning of the first order derivative is that it represents the slope of the curve
w = f(t) at t.
The physical meaning of the first order derivative is that it represents the rate of change of w
with respect to t.

Notation:

Function 1st 2nd 3rd 4th ………….. nth

derivative derivative derivative derivative derivative

y = f(x) dy d2y d3y d4y dn y

…………..
dx dx 2 dx 3 dx 4 dx n
y = f(x)
y y  y  y  …………… yn
y = f(x)
y1 y2 y3 y4 …………… yn
y = f(x)
f (x) f (x) f (x) f (x) ……………. f n (x)
y = f(x) Dy D2y D3y D4y ……………. Dny

Example:
d3y
If y = (ax+b) 3; find
dx
Solution:

y = (ax+b) 3

Differentiate w.r.t ‘x’, we get

dy
= 3(ax + b) 2 . a
dx
d2y
2
= 3.2(ax + b) a 2
dx
d3y
3
= 3.2.1(a) .a 2 = 3!a 3
dx

Application of Differentiation:

Growth rate – Relative growth rate, Marginal cost, Marginal revenue

The growth of the plant is usually measured in terms of the dry matter accumulation and is
denoted by ‘W ‘. Growth is a function of time t and is denoted by W = f (t) it is called a growth
function. Here ‘t’ is the independent variable and w is the dependent variable.

Similarly absorption is a function of time t and is denoted by A= h (t), it is called a

Absorption function. Here‘t’ is the independent variable and A is the dependent variable.
Absolute Growth Rate:

Let w = f (t) be the growth function. The derivative of ‘W’ with respect to ‘t’ is called Absolute
Growth Rate (AGR) and is denoted by

dW
AGR = is the growth rate (or) the absolute growth rate.
dt

(i.e) the rate of change of growth ‘W’ with respect to time ‘t’.

Absorption rate:

Let A= h (t) be the absorption function. The derivative of ‘A’ with respect to ‘t’ is called
dA
Absorption Rate and is denoted by
dt

Relative Growth rate:

dW
Let W = f (t) be the growth function. The absolute growth is denoted by . In growth
dt
analysis absolute growth rate is not useful concept. The relative growth rate is a measure of the
efficiency of plant. The relative growth rate is defined as

dW
Absolute Growth Rate AGR dt
RGR = = =
Dry Weight W W

1 dW
RGR = .
W dt

Example:

If W = e t + Sint . Find the growth rate.

Solution:

W = e t + Sint

dW
= e t + cost
dt

Marginal cost and marginal revenue:

Let C = f (Q) be the total cost function and R =  (Q) be the total revenue function, where Q
is the output.

C
Average cost (AC) =
Q

R
Average Revenue (AR) =
Q
 dC
Marginal cost (MC) =
dQ

dR
Marginal Revenue (MR) =
dQ

Profit Function ( ) =R–C → (1)

dR dC
Marginal Profit = -
dQ dQ

d 2R d 2C
For Profit maximization MR = MC and 
dQ 2 dQ 2

Example:

1.The demand function of a firm is P = 500 – 0.2 Q and its cost function is C = 25
Q+10,000. Find the output at which the profits of the firm are maximum. Also find the
price it will charge (P = Price; C = Cost; Q = Output).

Solution:

We know that for maximum profit, MR = MC

Total Cost = (T.C) = 25 Q +10,000

dc
Marginal Cost (MC) = = 25
dQ

Revenue = R = PQ = (500 – 0.2Q) Q = 500Q – 0.2 Q2

dR
Marginal Revenue (MR) = = 500 – 0.4 Q
dQ

For Profit maximization MR = MC  500 – 0.4 Q = 25

(i.e) 0.4 Q = 475

475
 Q= =1187.5
0.4

(i.e) Profit maximum output level is Q = 1187.5

The corresponding price P = 500 – 0.2 Q = 500 – 0.2 (1187.50) = Rs. 262.50

2.Consider the growth function w = t2+3t+7. Also find the Absolute Growth Rate.

Solution:

The growth function is w = t2+3t+7.

 dw
Absolute Growth rate (AGR)= = 2t + 3
dt

3.The growth function of LRA cotton variety is w = 2.5 e0.2t where w is the dry matter
production in gms/plant and ‘t’ measured in days. Estimate growth rate and relative
growth rate.
Solution:
For LRA cotton variety growth function is w = 2.5e0.2t
dw
Growth Rate (GR) on 20th day is = 2.5×0.2e0.2t =0.2×136.5=27.3gms/plant
dt
1 dw absolute growth rate
The RGR on 20th day is = . =
w dt total dry matter production
27.3
=
136.5
=0.2gms/plant
 Exercise problems
1. Find the growth rate and relative growth rate the following growth functions.
1) G = at + bt2 + ct3 2) G = (1+at)ebt
2
+ bt b
3) G = e at 4) G = log (at +
t
)

2. Find the marginal cost and average cost from the following cost functions
1) C =Aq3+Bq2+Dq+e 2) C= 6Q3-12Q2+7 13
3) C= -Q3+8Q2+
Q

3. Find the marginal revenue and average revenue from the following total revenue
functions
1) TR = 6Q2+7Q+8 2) TR=12Q4+12Q+7 log Q 3) TR=(Q+4) ( 1- log Q)
4. Find the marginal revenue using the following demand function
1) P = a – bq + Cq2 2) P = 6 +7Q + 8Q2+Q3 3) P =(7Q+8Q2) (8+ log Q)
5. Consider the response function y=1800+7x-0.03x2 where y is the yield and x is the
fertilizer application find the following
(a) Estimate yield without application of fertilizer.
(b) Obtain yield when 50kg of fertilizer is applied per hectare.
(c) Estimate the rate of change of yield at the level of 30kg of fertilizer.
(d) Estimate the relative growth rate.
6. If the total consumption function C = 0.8+0.6I-0.004I2. Obtain the consumption when
there is no disposable income. Also estimate the Marginal propensity to consume.
100(1 + 4t)
7. The bacteria population in a broth (culture) varies with time as follows P(t) =
(50 + t 2 )
where t is time in hour. Find the growth rate at t = 2 hours.
8. The population of a city increases from 25,000 in the year 1990 exponentially
P(t) = 25000exp0.03t where t is in years since 1990. Find the rate population growth and
the value after 5 years.

PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION

Function of two or more variables:

If to each pair (x,y) of values of two independent variable quantities x and y there
corresponds a definite value of the quantity z, we say that z is a function of two independent
variables x and y defined in D.

A function of two variables is symbolically given as z = f(x,y).

Partial Derivatives:

Let z = f(x,y) be a function of the independent variables x and y. Since x and y are
independent ,(i) while y is held fixed, x may be allowed to vary (ii) while x is held fixed, y may
be allowed to vary (iii) x and y may be allowed to vary simultaneously.

In the first two cases, z is an effect a function of a single variable and can be
differentiated according to the usual rule.

If x varies while y is held fixed, z is a function of x, and its derivative with respect to x,
f(x + Δx, y) − f(x, y)
lim is called the partial derivative of z = f(x,y) with respect to x, and
x → 0 Δx
z
is denoted by or fx(x,y).
x

If y varies while x is held fixed, z is a function of y, and its derivative with respect to y,
f(x, y + Δy) − f(x, y)
lim is called the partial derivative of z = f(x,y) with respect to y, and is
y→ 0 Δy
z
denoted by or fy(x,y).
y

z f(x + Δx, y) − f(x, y)

Thus fx(x,y) = = lim
x x → 0 Δx

z f(x, y + Δy) − f(x, y)

fy(x,y) = = lim
y y → 0 Δy

Partial Derivatives of Higher Orders:

z
The partial derivatives of z = f(x,y) may in turn be differentiated partially with
x
respect to x and y yielding the second order partial derivatives.

 2z   z  2z   z 
= f (x, y) =   and = f yx (x, y) =  
x x  x  yx y  x 
2 xx

z
Similarly from may be obtained
y

 2z   z   2z   z 
= f xy (x, y) =   and = f yy (x, y) =  
xy x  y  y 2
y  y 
Note:

If z = f(x,y) and its partial derivatives are continuous the order of the differentiation is
 2z  2z
immaterial. (i.e) = .
yx xy

Example:

u u
1. If u= x3 + y3 + 3xy, find and .
x y

Solution:

u = x3 + y3 + 3xy-------------(1)

u
Differentiate (1) partially with respect to x, = 3x2 + 0 + 3y (1) = 3x2 + 3y.
x

u
Differentiate (1) partially with respect to y, = 0 + 3y2 + 3x (1) = 3y2 + 3x.
y

 x 2 f 2 f
2. If f = tan-1  y  , verify that =
  yx yx

Solution:

 x
f = tan-1  y  ------------------------------------(1)
 

f 1 1 y
= .  .(1) = -----------(2)
x x
2
 y x + y2
2

1 +  
y

 2f   f    y  (x 2 + y 2 )(1) − y(2y) x 2 − y2
=  =  2  = = --(3)
yx y  x  y  x + y 2  (x 2 + y 2 ) 2 (x 2 + y 2 ) 2

f 1  − 1 −x
= (x)   = 2 ------------------ (4)
y  y  x +y
2 2
x
1 +  
y

 2f   f    -x   (x 2 + y 2 ) 2 (1) − x(2x)  x2 − y2
=  =   = − = 2 ---(5)
xy x  y  x  x 2 + y 2   (x 2 + y 2 ) 2  (x + y )
2 2

2 f  2f
From (3) and (4), =
yx xy
 Hence verified.

Homogeneous functions:

A function in which each term has the same degree is called a homogeneous function.

A function is a homogeneous function of degree n in x and y if

f (tx,ty) = tnf(x,y)

Example:

x2 –2xy +y2 = 0 is a homogenous function of degree 2 in the variables x and y.

To find the degree of a homogeneous function we proceed as follows.

Consider the function f(x,y) replace x by tx and y by ty if f (tx, ty) = t n f(x, y) then n gives
the degree of the homogeneous function. This result can be extended to any number of
variables.
Example:
1.Find the degree of the homogeneous function
1.f(x, y) = x2 –2xy + y2
x− y
2.f(x,y) =
x+ y

Solution:
1. f(tx, ty) = (tx)2 –2(tx) (ty) + (ty)2
= t2x2 –2t2xy + t2y2
= t2(x2 –2xy + y2)
The given function is a homogeneous of degree 2.
tx − ty
2. f ( tx , ty ) =
tx + ty
t ( x − y)
=
t ( x + y)

t 0 ( x − y)
=
( x + y)
The given function is a homogeneous of degree 0.

Euler’s theorem on homogeneous function:

If u=f(x,y,z) is a homogeneous function of degree n in the variables x,y,z ,then

u u u
x +y +z =nu
x y z

Example:
Verify Euler’s theorem for the function u(x,y) = x2 –2xy + y2
Solution:
The given function is a homogeneous function of degree 2.
u u
(i.e) to prove x. +y = 2.u
x y
Let u = x2 –2xy + y2

u u
= 2x − 2 y = −2 x + 2 y
x y
u u
 x. +y = 2 x 2 − 2 xy − 2 xy + 2 y 2
x y
(
= 2 x 2 − 2 xy + y 2 )
= 2u
u u
x +y = 2.u
x y
Hence verified.
 Exercise problems
1. Differentiate the following Logarithmic functions
1) y = (x+1)2 (x+2)3 (x+3)4 2) y = (sinx)x 3) y= xsinx
4) y = cosx cos2x cos3x 5) y = ax
6) y = 1 + x 2
2

1− x
7) 8)

dy
2. Find for the following parametric functions
dx
1 2) x = a(1+cos  ) , y = a(  + sin  )
1) x = t , y=t+
t
c 4) x = a sec t , y = b tan t
3) x = ct , y =
t
5) x = a(t – sin t), y = a(1-cost)
dy
3. Find for the following implicit functions
dx
x2 y2 2) xy2 = k 3) y2 = 4ax
1) 2 + 2 = 1
a b
4) y = cos ( x+y ) 5) xy = yx
4. Find the first ,second order derivatives for the following
1) y = (ax + b )3 2) y = e5x+6 3) y = x logx
4) y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d 5) y = (4 – x2)3 6) y = 1
x

7) y = 1 8) y = eb-x
ax + b

1.Find all possible first order and second order partial derivatives of
1. w = xyz 2. w = xy + yz + zx
2 2 2
3. w = x + y + z + 2gx + 2fy + 2hz +c 4. w = (x+y+z)3
5. w = xy2 + yz2 + zx2 1 1 1
6. w = 2
+ 2 + 2
x y z
7. w = sin(xy) + cos (yz) + sin (yz) 8. w = eSin(xyz)
9. w = log (xy + yz + zx) 1
10. w = xyz +
(xyz)2
2. Verify Euler’s theorem for the following homogeneous functions
x 2 + y2 2. u = x3 + y3 –x2 y + xy2
1. u =
xy

x2 − y2
3. u =
x2 + y2
 Lecture-13

Maxima and Minima of the functions of the form y=f (x) and y=f(x1,x2) (Simple problems
based on it).
Maxima and Minima of single variables- Applications in Agriculture

Maximum point:

If the function y =f (x) increases upto a certain point x = a and then decreases, the point x = a is
called a maximum point. The value of y = f (x) at x = a is called a maximum value of the
function.

(i.e). Let y = f(x) be a given function having the curve as shown in figure. A1 is said to be a
maximum point if the value of the function at A1 is greater than the values of the function in the
immediate neighborhood i.e. if A1’ and A1’’ are the neighboring points on the curve, then A1 L
should be greater than both A1’ L’ and A’1’ L’’.

Minimum Point:

If the function y =f (x) decreases upto a certain point x = b and then increases, the point x
= b is called a minimum point. The value of y = f (x) at x = b is called a minimum value of the
function.

(i.e). B1 is said to be a minimum point if the value of the function at B1 is less than the values
of the function in the immediate neighbourhood. i.e. if B1’ and B1’’ are the neighbouring points on
the curve, then B1 M should be less than both B1’M’ and B1’’M’’.

Stationary points:

The maximum and minimum points are also called Stationary points or Turning points.
The values of the function at the Maximum and Minimum points are called Maximum and
Minimum values respectively.

Global maximum and Global minimum:

 The maximum of the maximum values is called Global maximum and the minimum of the
minimum values is called Global minimum.

Local maximum and local minimum:

The values at A1,A2 and A3 and at B1, B2 and B3 are called local maximum and local
minimum since they are the maximum and minimum values in that particular locality.

Working Procedure:

Consider the function y = f(x)

dy d2y
1. Find and
dx dx 2

dy
2. Equate =0 and solve for x. This will give the turning points of the function.
dx

d2y
3. Consider a turning point x = a then substitute this value of x in and find the
dx 2
d2y
nature of the second derivative. If  2  < 0, then the function has a maximum
 dx  x = a
d2y
value at the point x = a. If  2  > 0, then the function has a minimum value at
 dx  x = a
the point x = a.

4. Then substitute x = a in the function y = f(x) that will give the maximum or minimum
value of the function at x = a.
The necessary and the sufficient condition for the function y=f(x) to have a maximum or
minimum can be tabulated as follows
Maximum Minimum
First order or necessary dy dy
=0 =0
condition dx dx
Second order or sufficient d2y d2y
<0 >0
condition dx 2 dx 2

Example:

1. Find the Maxima or Minima if any of x3 + 2x2 – 4x – 8

Solution: Let y = x3 + 2 x2 – 4x – 8-----------(1)

dy
= 3x2 + 4x – 4, for maxima and minima
dx

dy
=0 (i.e) 3x 2 + 4x − 4 = 0
dx
 − 4  16 + 48 − 4  8
x= = = 2/3 or − 2
6 6

d2y
Also = 6x + 4
dx 2

d2y
When x = = 6(−2) + 4 = −8 < 0
dx 2

y is maximum at x = - 2 and the maximum value is obtained by putting x = -2 in (1),

Max y = (-2)3 + (2) (-2)2 – 4(-2) – 8.

=-8+8+8–8=0

 Maximum value of the given function is zero.

d2y
When x = 2/3, = 6(2/3) + 4 = 8 > 0.
dx 2

 y is minimum at x = 2/3. The minimum value is obtained by putting x = 2/3 in (1).

− 256
(i.e) y = (2/3)3 + 2 (2/3)2 – 4(2/3) – 1 = .
27

− 256
 Minimum value of the given function is .
27

2. The response function y = 3000 + 5x – 0.04x2 , obtain the level of fertilizer(x) application
for which yield (y) is maximum and find the maximum yield.

Solution:

dy
= 5 − 0.08 x = 0
dx

0.08x=5

x=0.08/5

x = 62.5 kgs/hectare

d2y
= −0.08  0 , it is maximum.
dx 2

The maximum yield at x = 62.5 is y = 3000+5(62.5)-0.04(62.5)2

= 3000+312.5-156.25
 = 3156.25 kgs/hectare

3. A seed corporation finds that it can sell LRA cotton seeds at the rate of Rs. 10 per kg.
2
1Q 
It estimates the cost function of the product to be C = 1000 +   for Q units
2  50 
produced.

i) Find an expression for the total profit, if Q units are produced and sold.

ii) Find the number of Kgs produced that will maximize the profit.

iii) What is the amount of this maximum profit.

Solution:

2
1Q  Q2
C = 1000 +   = 1000 +
2  50  5000

R= Revenue from sale of Q kgs

= 10 x Q = 10 Q

i)Profit = R-C

 Q2 
= C = 10Q - 1000 + 
 5000 

ii) To find Q when profit is maximum

Q2
 = 10Q - 1000 −
5000
…………………(1)
d Q
= 10 −
dQ 2500

d
For Max and Min =0
dQ

Q
i.e 10 − =0
2500

d 2 −1
Q = 25000 Also 2
= = negative
dQ 2500

 Profit is Maximum when Q= 25,000 Kgs.

 iv) Putting Q= 25,000 in (1)
(25,000) 2
 max = 10  25,000 − 1000 −
5000
= Rs.1,24,000

Physical and Economic optimum

Let y = f (x) be a response function. Here x stands for the input in kgs of fertilizer applied per
hectare and y the corresponding output i.e kgs of yield per hectare. We have already seen that

dy d2y
the maximum yield is obtained only when = 0 and < 0. This optimum is called
dx dx 2
physical optimum, since we are not considering the profit with respect to the investments
made.

dy Px
The necessary condition for the economic optimum of the response function is =
dx Py

where PX = per unit price of input i.e price of fertilizer per kgs , PY = per unit price of output i.e
price of yield per kgs. Here we are considering the maximum profit.

Example:

The response function of paddy is y = 1400 + 14.34x -0.05 x2 where x represents kgs of
nitrogen/hectare and y represents yield in kgs/hectare. 1 kg of paddy is Rs. 2 and 1 kg of
nitrogen is Rs. 5. Find the physical and economic optimum. Also find the corresponding
yield.

Solution:

y = 1400 + 14.34x -0.05 x2

dy
= 14.34 − 0.1x
dx

d2y
= −0.1 = negative value
dx 2

d2y
i.e., 0
dx 2

Therefore the given function has a maximum point.

Physical Optimum:

dy
=0
dx

i.e., 14.34-0.1x = 0
-0.1 x = -14.34

14.34
x= = 143.4 kgs/hectare
0.1

The physical optimum level of nitrogen is 143.4 kgs/hectare.

Therefore the maximum yield is

Y = 1400 + 14.34(143.4) -0.05(143.4)2

= 2428.178 kgs/ hectare.

Economic optimum:

dy Px
=
dx Py

Given

Price of nitrogen per kg = Px = 5

Price of yield per kg = Py = 2

dy 5
Therefore = 14.34-0.1x =
dx 2

28.68 - 0.2 x = 5

- 0.2 x = 5 - 28.68

23.68
x= = 118.4 kgs/hectare
0 .2

The economic optimum level of nitrogen is 118.4 kgs/hectare.

Therefore the maximum yield is

Y = 1400 + 14.34(118.4) -0.05(118.4)2

= 2396.928 kgs/ hectare.

Maxima and Minima of several variables without constraints:

Consider the function of several variables

y = f (x1, x2…xn)

where x1, x2 … xn are n independent variables and y is the dependent variable.

Working Rule:

Step 1 : Find all the first order partial derivatives of y with respect to x1, x2, x3 ……xn..
 y
(ie) = f1
x1

y
= f2
x2

y
= f3
x3

.
.
.
.
y
= fn
x n

Step 2:

Find all the second order partial derivatives of y with respect to x1, x2, x3 …xn and they
are given as follows.

2 y
= f11
x1
2

2 y
= f 21
x2 x1

2 y
= f 22
x 2
2

2 y
= f12
x1 x 2

2 y
= f 33
x3
2

2 y
= f 31
x3 x1

2 y
= f13 and so on
x1 x3
Step : 3

Construct an Hessian matrix which is formed by taking all the second order partial derivatives is
given by

 f11 f12 f13 .............. f1n 

f f 22 f 23 .............. f 2 n 
 21
. 
 
H = 
.
. 
 
. 
. 
 
 f n1 f n2 f n 3 .............. f nn 

H is a symmetric matrix.

Step : 4

Consider the following determinant of order 1, 2, 3 ……….

H 1 = f11 = f 11

f 11 f 12
H2 =
f 21 f 22

f 11 f 12 f 13
H 3 = f 21 f 22 f 23
f 31 f 32 f 33
.
.
.

f11 f12 f13 ..............f1n

f 21 f 22 f 23 ..............f 2 n
. . . .
Hn = . . . .
. . . .
. . . .
f n1 fn2 f n 3 ..............f nn
Step : 5

The necessary condition for finding the maximum or minimum.

Equate the first order derivative to zero (i.e) f1 = f2 = …fn = 0 and find the value of x1, x2,
…xn.

Step : 6

Substitute the values x1, x2 …xn in the Hessian matrix. Find the values of

H1 , H 2 , H 3 ... H n

H1  0
H2  0
If
H3  0
H 4  0 ... and so on.

Then the function is maximum at x1, x2 …xn.

If H1  0 , H2  0, H 3  0 ... then the function is minimum at x1, x2…

xn.

The necessary and the sufficient condition for the function y = f (x1, x2…xn) to have a
maximum or minimum can be tabulated as follows

Conditions Maximum Minimum

First Order f1 = f 2 = ......... = f n = 0 f1 = f 2 = ......... = f n = 0

Second Order H1  0, H 2  0, H 1  0, H 2  0,
H 3  0, H 4  0,............... H 3  0, H 4  0,...............

Note :

If the second order conditions are not satisfied then they are called saddle point.

Example:

Find the maxima (or) minima if any of the following function.

4 3
y= x1 + x 2 − 4 x1 + 8 x 2
2
________(1)
3

Solution:
Step 1: The first order partial derivatives are

y
f1 = = 4 x1 − 4
2

x1

y
f2 = = 2x2 + 8
x 2

Step 2: The second order partial derivatives are

2 y
f 11 = = 8x1
x1
2

2 y
f 21 = =0
x 2 x1

2 y
f 22 = =2
x 2
2

2 y
f 12 = =0
x1 x 2

 f 11 f 12 
Step 3: The Hessian matrix is H = 
 f 21 f 22 

 8x 1 0
H=
 0 2

Step 4:

| H1| = | 8|

8 x1 0
| H2| = 
0 2

Step 5:

Equate f1, f2 = 0

f1  4x12 - 4 = 0

x12 = 1

x1 =  1

x1 = 1, x1 = -1

f2  2 x 2 + 8=0

2 x2 =- 8
 x2 = - 4

The stationary points are (1,- 4) & (-1, - 4)

Step 6:

At the point (1, - 4) the Hessian matrix will be

8 0
H= 
0 2

| H1| = | 8| > 0

8 0
| H2| = 
2
= 16 > 0
0

Since the determinant H1 and H2 are positive the function is minimum at (1,- 4).

The minimum value at x1 = 1 & x2 = - 4 is obtained by substituting the values in (1)

4
y= (1) 3 + (- 4)2 – 4 (1) + 8 (- 4)
3

4
y= + 16 – 4 - 32
3

4
y= - 20
3

4 − 60 − 56
y= =
3 3

− 56
The minimum value is
3

At the point (-1, - 4)

−8 0
H=
0 2

| H1 | = | - 8 | = - 8 < 0

| H 2| = - 16 < 0

Both the conditions are not satisfied. Hence the point (-1, - 4) gives a saddle point.

2. From the response equation Z = -0.02 N2 + 0.03 NK – 0.01 P2- 0.03 K2 + 2 P+2 N + 3 K
find the optimum level of N, P and K which maximize the yield and also obtain the
maximum yield.

Solution:
Consider Z = -0.02 N2 + 0.03 NK – 0.01 P2- 0.03 K 2 + 2P + 2 N +3 K

Z
= fN = - 0.04 N + 0.03 K + 2
N

Z
= f P = - 0.02 P +2
P

Z
= f K = 0.03 N – 0.06 K
K

Equating f N = fP = fK = 0 gives

- 0.04 N + 0.03 K + 2 =0 --------- (1)

- 0.02 P +2 = 0 --------- (2)

0.03 N – 0.06 K + 3 =0 --------- (3)

From (2) - 0.02 P + 2 = 0

i.e. P = - 2/ - 0.02 = 100 kgs/ha

Solving (1) and (3) we get

N =7/0.05 = 140 kgs/ha

K = 7.02/0.06 = 120 kgs/ha

i.e.The optimum level of N = 140 kgs/ha

P = 100kgs/ha and

K = 120 kgs/ha

Also

2Z 2Z 2Z

= fNN = -0.04 = fPP = -0.02 = fKK = -0.06
N 2 P 2 K 2

2Z 2Z 2Z

= fPN = 0, = fNP = 0 = fNK = 0.03
PN NP NK

2Z 2Z 2Z

=fKN = 0.03 =fKP = 0 =f PK= 0
KN KP PK

The Hessian Matrix is

f NN f NP f NK  − 0.04 0 0.03
H = f PN f PP f PK  =  0 − 0.02 0 

f KN f KP f KK   0.03 0 − 0.06 

Here H1 = −0.04  0 ,
 0.04 0
H2 = = .0008  0
0 −0.02

− 0.04 0 0.03
H 3 =  0 − 0.02 0  = −0.00003  0
 0.03 0 − 0.06

 The yield is maximum at this level of N, P and K.

The maximum Yield is Z = -0.02 N2 + 0.03 NK – 0.01 P2- 0.03 K 2 + 2P + 2 N +3 K

Z = - 0.02 (140)2 + 0.03 (140)(120) – 0.01 (100)2- 0.03 (120) 2 +

2(100) + 2 (140) +3 (120)

= 420 kgs/ha
 Exercise problems

1. Find the maxima or minima if any of

1) y = x3 + 2x2 – 4x - 8
2) y = 4x2 – 2x +1
3) y = x3 – 12x + 12
2. Find the maximum and minimum values of the function y = x3 – 3x2 +1
3. Find the profit maximizing level of output for the following
1) C = 25 + 10000 P = 500 - 2
2) C = 8 - 2 P = 12 - 4
4. For the following response function, obtain the level of fertilizer application for which yield
is maximum and find the maximum yield.
1) y = 1800 + 7x – 0.03x2
2) y = 4000 + 6x – 0.02x2
5. The daily profit, P, of an oil refinery is given by P = 8x − 0.02x2, where x is the number of
barrels of oil refined. How many barrels will give maximum profit and what is the maximum
profit?
6. The Response function of paddy is y = 1800 +15x – 0.05x2, where x = Kgs of
Nitrogen/ha, y = yield in Kgs/ha. 1Kg of paddy is Rs.2 and 1 Kg of Nitrogen is Rs.5. Find
the Physical and Economic optimum.Also find corresponding maximum yield.
7. For the following response function obtain physical and economic optimum level of output.
Also find corresponding maximum yield.
Response function Per unit price of y Per unit price of x (input)
(output)
a. y = 2000 + 12 x – 0.03x2 Rs. 3 Rs. 6
b. y = 1900 + 11x – 0.02 x2 Rs. 4 Rs. 6
8. Find the Maximum & Minimum if any of the following Functions.
1. Z = y3 + y 2 – x y + x 2 + 4 5. Z = - x2 + xy – y2 + 2x + y
2. Z = x2 + xy + y2 6. Z = 4x2 – xy + y2 – x3
3. Y = x12 _ x1 x 2 + 3x22 + 4x2 x3 + 6 x32 7. Z = 3 x2 + y2 –3 xy
4. Z = 16 – (x+2)2 – (y-2)2
**********
 Lecture 14
Integral Calculus - Integration of simple functions and Product of two functions- Definite
Integral (simple problems based on it)

Introduction

Given a functional relationship between two variables we know that how to find the rate
of change of one variable with respect to another variable is called differentiation. Some times
we may have a situation to find the functional relationship between two variables from the rate
of change of one variable with respect to another or marginal values only. The problem is how
to find the functional relationship between the variables involved from the rate of change. The
technique of finding the functional relationship thus is called “Integration
Integration is a process, which is a inverse of differentiation. As the symbol d
dx

represents differentiation with respect to x, the symbol  dx stands for integration with respect to

x. Here indefinite and definite integrals are dealt with. Using substitution method and integration
by parts the problems are solved. We will find later on that integration is nothing but a process
of summation and hence this notation.
Definition:
If
d
 f (x ) = F (x ) then f(x) is called the integral of F(x) denoted by  F ( x)dx = f ( x) + c . This
dx
can be read it as integral of F(x) with respect to x is f(x) + c where c is an arbitrary constant. The

integral  F ( x)dx is known as Indefinite integral and the function F(x) as integrand.

Formulae:

x x n +1
n
dx
+c ( n -1)
n +1
1
 x dx log x +c
 dx x+c
 a dx ax
x
+c
log a
 e dx
x
ex +c
 (u ( x) + v( x)) dx  u ( x)dx +  v( x)dx
 (c u ( x)  c v( x))dx
1 2
 c u ( x)dx   c v( x)dx
1 2

 cdx cx+d
 sin x dx − cos x +c
 cos x dx sin x +c
 sec xdx
2
tan x +c
  cos ec xdx
2
− cot x +c
 sec x tan x dx sec x + c
 cos ecx cot x dx − cos ec x +c
dx
 1− x2 sin-1 x + C (or) –cos-1 x + C
dx
 1+ x2 tan-1 x + C (or) –cot-1 x + C
dx
x x 2 −1 sec-1 x + C (or) –cosec-1 x + C
 tan x dx log sec x + C

 cot x dx log sin x + C

 sec x dx log sec x + tan x + C

 cosec x dx − log cosec x + cot x + C

dx 1 x
x 2 + a2 a
tan −1 ( ) + C
a
dx x −a
 x2 − a2 1
2a
log
x+a
+C

dx a+x
a 2 − x2
1
2a
log
a−x
+C

dx x
 a2 − x2
sin −1 ( ) + C
a
dx
 x2 +a2 log x + x 2 + a 2 + C

 a 2 − x 2 dx x a2 − x2 a2 x
+ sin −1 ( ) + C
2 2 a
 x 2 + a 2 dx x x2 + a2 a2
+ log x + x 2 + a 2 + C
2 2
 x 2 − a 2 dx x x2 − a2 a2
− log x + x 2 − a 2 + C
2 2

Example:

 (x + 2x 2 + x + 2)dx =  x dx + 2 x dx +  xdx + 2  dx
3 3 2
1.

x4 x3 x2
= +2 + + 2x + C
4 3 2
2. Integrate the  x dx with respect to x

Solution:
x n +1
 x dx =
n
The formula is +c
n +1
 3
1 3

 x dx =  x dx = x = 2 x 2
2
So 2

3 3
2

3. Integrate the  ( x 3 − x + 1)dx with respect to x

Solution:

x n +1
 x dx =
n
The formula is +c
n +1
4 2
So  ( x 3 − x + 1)dx = x − x + x + c
4 2
4.If the growth rate is a + 2bt + 3ct2. Find the growth function.
Solution:
dg
It is given that the growth rate = a + 2bt + 3ct2
dt
Now integrating the growth rate we will get the growth function.

 Growth function G(t) =  (a + 2bt + 3ct )dt

2

2bt 2 3ct 3
= at + + + (where  is a constant)
2 3
= at + bt2 + ct3 + 
When t =0 ,  =0
 The growth function is given by G(t) = at + bt 2
+ ct3

Definite integral
b

If f(x) is indefinite integral of F(x) with respect to x then the Integral  F ( x)dx is called definite
a

integral of F(x) with respect to x from x = a to x = b. Here a is called the Lower limit and b is
called the Upper limit of the integral.

 F ( x)dx =  f ( x)ba = f(Upper limit ) - f(Lower limit)

a

= f(b) - f(a)
Note :
While evaluating a definite integral no constant of integration is to be added. That is a definite
integral has a definite value.
Example:
2

 (x − x
2
1. Evaluate: ) dx
1
Solution:
2
2
 x2 x3   2 2 2 3   12 13  8 1 1 5
1 − −  −  −  −  = 2 - − + = −
2
( x x ) dx =   =
2 3 1  2 3  2 3 3 2 3 6

2.Integrate the ( x + 1)dx with respect to x

2


1
x

Solution:
( x + 1)dx =  1  = [x + log
2 2

 1 1 + x dx x]12 =2+log 2-(1+log 1)

1
x

=1+log 2 –log 1
=1+0.3010-0
= 1.3010


2
3.Integrate the  sin xdx with respect to x
0

Solution:
 

= (cos x )02 = cos
2

 sin xdx – cos 0 = 0-1 = -1

0
2

Integration by Parts:
The derivative of the product of two functions is
d(uv) = udv + vdu
Integrating on both sides, we get

 d(uv) =  udv +  vdu

uv =  udv +  vdu
  udv = uv −  vdu

is called the method of integration by parts.

The following table may be helpful in proper selection of u and v:
S.No Integral u dv
1.  xn log x dx logx xn dx
2.  xn sin-1x dx Sinx xn dx
3.  xnex dx xn ex dx
4.  xn sinx dx (or)  xn cosx dx xn Sinx dx (or) cosx dx
5. ex sinx dx (or) ex cosx dx ex (or) sinx (or) cosx Remaining
Example:

xe
x
1. Evaluate: dx

Solution:
Put u = x and dv = ex dx
du = dx and v = ex

 udv = uv −  vdu
xe dx = x ex -  e x dx = x ex - ex + C = ex (x – 1) + C.
x

2. Evaluate  log xdx

Solution:

The formula for integration by parts is  udv = uv -  vdu

Here u = log x dv = dx
1
du = dx v=x
x
x
 log xdx = x log x −  xdx
= x logx –x + c
= x[log x+1] +c

Exercise Problems
Integrate the following with respect to x.
1. 4
 (5e
x
− x −2 + )dx
x
2.
 x(1 + x)(1 − x)dx
3. 3 − x2
 x2
dx

4. 2

x
4
dx
−1

5. Given the marginal cost function f’(x) = 2 +x+x2, x being the output and fixed cost is 50
units find the total cost function.
6. If the marginal cost function MC = 2 + 3Q –Q2, Q being the output .Find the total cost
function given the fixed cost is 750.
7. If the marginal revenue function is 0.5 + 0.2 q2 find the revenue function

8. dg
If = 7 + t is the growth rate. Find the growth function
dt
9. dc
If = b+2cQ + 3dQ2 is the marginal cost, and fixed cost is Rs. 5000, find the cost
dq
function.
Integrate the following with respect to x by using Integration by parts.
10.

x vii)
x
3 n
i) log xdx log xdx
2 −x
x x
e dx viii) 2
ii) cos xdx

iii)  x sin xdx ix)

 sin
−1
xdx
−1
 tan
log x x)
iv)
 x 2
dx xdx

v)  x sin
2
xdx xi)
 x sec x tan xdx
 (x +1)e e
x xii) −2 x
vi) dx x 3 dx

 x sec
2 xiv)
xe
x
xiii) xdx dx

***********
 Lecture 15
Integration by substitution method- Area under simple well-known curves (simple
problems based on it).
Introduction:
In calculus, integration by substitution, also known as u-substitution or change of variables, is a
method for evaluating integrals and antiderivatives. It is the counterpart to the chain rule for
differentiation, in fact, it can loosely be thought of as using the chain rule "backwards".

Method of substitution
Method –1
Formulae for the functions involving (ax + b)
Consider the integral

 (ax + b ) dx -------------(1)
n
I=

Where a and b are constants

Put a x + b = y
Differentiating with respect to x
a dx + 0 = dy
dy
dx =
a
Substituting in (1)
1
y
n
I= . dy +c
a
1 n
a
= y .dy +c

1 y n +1
= +c
a n +1

1  (ax + b )n +1 
=  + c
a  n + 1 

Similarly this method can be applied for other formulae also.

Example:

(2 x + 3)5  1 
 (2 x + 3) dx =
4
Evaluate  
5 2

=
1
(2 x + 3)5 + c
10
Example:

Evaluate:  Sin(ax + b) dx
Solution:
 Put ax + b = t
a dx = dt
1
 dx = dt
a
1 1 1
 Sin(ax + b) dx = a  Sin t dt =
a
(−cos t) + C = − cos(ax + b) + C
a
Method II:
Integrals of the functions of the form

 f (x )x
n n−1
dx

put x n =y,
dy
nx n −1 =
dx
dy
x n −1dx =
n
Substituting we get

I = f (y)
dy
 n
and this can be integrated.

Example:

 ( )
Evaluate I= x 2 cos x 3 dx ---------(1)

Put y = x3
dy = 3x2 dx
dy
= x 2 dx
3
Substitute in (1) we get
dy
I=  cos y
3
1
3
= cos y dy

1
= sin y + c
3

=
( )
sin x 3
+c
3
Method –III
Integrals of function of the type

  f (x ) f 1 (x )dx
n

when n  -1, put f(x) = y then f 1 (x )dx = dy

   f (x ) f 1 (x )dx =  y dy
n n


y n+1
=
n +1

=
 f (x )n+1
n +1
when n= -1, the integral reduces to

f 1 (x )
dx
f (x )
putting y = f(x) then dy = f1(x) dx
dy
  y
= log y =log f(x)

Example:

Evaluate  x 2 + a 2 x dx

Differentiating x2+a2 we get 2x so we choose y = x2+a2

Put x2+a2 = y
2x dx = dy
dy
x dx =
2
3
1 y
dy 1 1 2
 y
2 2
= y 2 dy =
2 3
+c

( )
3
1 2
= x + a2 2 +c
3
Example:
2x
Evaluate: 1+ x 2
dx

Solution:
Put 1 + x2 = t
2x dx = dt
1
dx = dt
2x
2x
1+ x 2
dx = = log t + C = log f(x) + C

Example:
 Sec 2 x
1. Evaluate:  tanx
dx

Solution:
Put t = tanx
dt = sec2 x dx
1
1 − +1
Sec 2 x 1 − t 2

 tanx
dx =  t
dt =  t dt = 2
1
=2 t +C=2 tanx + C
− +1
2

 (3x + x −1) 7 (6x + 1) dx

2
2. Evaluate:

Solution:
Put t = (3x2 + x – 1)
dt = (6x + 1) dx

t8 1
 (3x + x −1) (6x + 1) dx =  t dt = + C = ( 3x2+ x – 1)8 + C
2 7 7

8 8

Method IV
Method of Partial Fractions
dx
Integrals of the form  ax 2 + bx + c
Case.1
If denominator can be factorized into linear factors then we write the integrand as
the sum or difference of two linear factors of the form
1 1 A B
= = +
(ax + bx + c
2 (ax + b)(cx + d ) ax + b cx + d
Case-2
dx
In the given integral  ax 2 + bx + c
the denominator ax2 + bx + c cannot be factorized into

linear factors , then express ax2 + bx + c as the sum or difference of two perfect squares and
then apply the formulae
1 1 −1 x
 a 2 + x 2 dx = a tan a
1 1 a+x
 a 2 − x 2 dx = 2a log a − x
1 1 x−a
 x 2 − a 2 dx = 2a log x + a
Example:
dx
Integrate: x 2
+ 3x + 2
 Solution:
x2 + 3x + 2 = (x +2)(x +1)
Apply partial fractions
1 A B
Let = +
(x + 1)(x + 2) (x + 1) (x + 2)
1 = A(x+2) + B(x+1)
Put x = -1, 1 = A (-1+2) + B (-1+1)

A=1

Put x = -2, 1 = A (-2+2) + B (-2+1)

B = -1

1 1 1
 = −
(x + 1)(x + 2) (x + 1) (x + 2)
dx dx dx  x +1 
x 2
+ 3x + 2
=  x + 1 −  x + 2 = log(x+1) – log(x+2) + C = log  x + 2  + C

dx
Integrals of the form 
ax 2 + bx + c
Write denominator as the sum or difference of two perfect squares
dx dx dx dx
 =  or  or 
ax 2 + bx + c x2 + a2 x2 − a2 a2 − x2
and then apply the formula
dx
 = log(x+ x 2 + a 2 )
x +a
2 2

dx
 = log(x+ x 2 − a 2 )
x2 − a2
dx x
 = sin −1  
a2 − x2 a

Example:
dx
Integrate:  x 2 − 4x + 2
Solution:
x2 - 4x + 2 = x2 – 4x +22 – 22 + 2 = (x – 2)2 – 2
dx dx
  x − 4x + 2
2
=  (x − 2) − ( 2 )
2 2
= log ((x -2) + ( x − 2) 2 − ( 2) 2 ) + C
 = log ((x -2) + x 2 − 4x + 2 ) + C

Where ax2+bx+c is not factorisable.

To evaluate the above integrals, we have to express the numerator px + q into two parts with
suitable constants. One in terms of differential coefficient of denominator and the other without
‘x’ term.
Then the integrals will be separated into two standard form of known integrals and can easily be
evaluated.

Example:

Solution:
Application of Integration:
Area:

Let y = f(x) be a continuous function defined on [a, b], which is positive (f(x) lies on or above x-
axis) on the interval [a, b]. Then, the area bounded by the curve y = f(x), the x-axis and the
ordinates x = a and x = b is given by

b b

Area =  y dx or
a
 f(x) dx
a
If f(x) ≤ 0 (f(x) lies on or below x-axis) for all x in a ≤ x ≤ b then area is given by

b b

Area =  (- y)dx or  (- f(x) )dx

a a

Example:

1.Find the area of the region bounded by y = 2x + 1, y = 3, y = 5 and y – axis.

Solution:

The line y = 2x + 1 lies to the right of y-axis between the lines y = 3 and y = 5.

5
d
y -1
5
1
5
1 y2   1  25 9 
c

∴Required area = x dy =
3
2  23 
dy = (y − 1)dy =
2 2
−y
 
= 
2 2
− 5 − + 3
2 
3

Required area = 3 Sq. units

2. Find the area of the region bounded y = 2x + 4, y = 1 and y = 3 and y-axis.

Solution:

The curve lies to the left of y-axis between the lines y = 1 and y = 3

∴ Area is given by


A = -x dy = − 
c 1 
3
 y − 4
 2 
1
21
3


1
 dy = ( 4 -y)dy = 4y − y
2
2
 
1 9
3
1
= 12 − − 4 + 
2 1 2 2 2
 ∴Required area = 3 Sq. units.

3. Find the area between the line y = x + 1 and the curve y = x2 – 1.

Solution:
To get the points of intersection of the curves we should solve the equations
y = x + 1 and y = x2 – 1.
We get, x2 – 1 = x + 1
x2 – x – 2 = 0
 (x – 2) (x + 1) = 0
 x = -1 or x = 2.
 The line intersects the curve at x = -1 and x = 2.

 (x + 1) − (x 
2
Required Area = 2
− 1) dx
−1

2
 x2 x3 
 2 + x − x 
2
= 2
dx = 2x + − 
−1  2 3  −1

 8  1 1 9
= 4 + 2 −  − − 2 + +  = sq.units.
 3  2 3 2
4.Find the area between the curve y = x2 + 1,the x-axis and the ordinates x = 0,x = 3.

Solution:
3
3 3
 x3 
Required area =  y dx =  ( x + 1) dx =  + x 
2

0 0 3 0

 33 
=  + 3 = 9 + 3 = 12 sq.units.
 3 
5.Find the area between the upper branch of y2 = 4x, the x-axis and the lines x = 1 and

x = 4.
Solution:

y2 = 4x  y = 2 x
4
 x 3/2 
 
4 4
4 3/2
Required area =  y dx =  2 x dx = 2   = 4 −1
1 1  3/2  1 3
 Exercise Problems
1 + cos x

1. 2. e cos x sin xdx
 x + sin x dx
4x + 5
3.
 sec xdx 4.
 2 x 2 + 5x + 7dx
5.
 cos ecxdx 6.
x
1
− 25
2
dx

7.
 cot xdx 8. 5
 (x − 1)(x − 2) dx
9.
 tan xdx 10.
 (x 2
1
− 4x + 4
dx
)
11. 1 12. 1
 sin 2 x cos 2 xdx x 2
− 15 x + 50
dx

13. 2 14. 1
1 
  x + x  dx x 2
+ 2x − 3
dx

15. 1 16. 1
 16 x 2 − 9dx  (x 2
+ 6x − 3
dx
)
17.  x 18. 1
 sin  2 dx x 2
+ 10 x + 27
dx

19. 1 20. x3
 x log x dx  dx
1− x4
tan −1x
π
21. 2 22.
 sinx dx  1+ x 2 dx
0

23. sinx 24. a

 (1+ cosx) 2 dx  x (a
2
− x 2 ) dx
0
π
25. (logx) n 26. 4

 x dx  tan
2
x dx
0

27. 4x − 3 28. sec 2 (log x)

x 2
+ 3x + 8
dx
 x dx
29. 3x + 2 30. 3x + 1
x 2
+ x +1
dx  2x 2 + x + 3
dx

31. Find the area between the line y = 3x x-axis between the ordinate x = 0 and x=4.
32. Find the area between line y = 4x and axis of x and the ordinate x=4.
33. Find the area bounded by the parabola x2=4 by the x-axis and the ordinate at x=3.
34. Find the area underneath the curve y = x2 + 2 from x = 1 to x = 2.
35. Find the area bounded by y2 = 4ax, x-axis between the ordinates x=0 and x=4
*********
 Lecture 16
Agricultural systems - Mathematical models - classification of mathematical models-
Linear model.
Introduction

The principal aim of scientific investigation of any real world problem is to understand the
system, explain its behavior and discover the laws governing the observed situation. The laws
formulated by the scientists will help to predict the future behavior. Unfortunately many real
world systems such as agricultural systems are quite complex and are influenced by
innumerable factors like genotypic characters of the seed, condition of the soil, quantity of water
and its time of availability, irrigation frequency, attack of pests, quantity of applied fertilizer,
environmental conditions like temperature, humidity, wind velocity and so on. To study such
complex systems, the investigator first constructs a model and form this he/she will try to infer
the properties of the system. Thus a model can be thought of as a representation of the system;
it is an abstraction of the real phenomenon.

Classification of Models
Models can be broadly classified into physical and abstract. Scale model of a dam, an
aircraft, road map of a city etc are all physical models for they physically represent the original.
On the contrary, models used in mathematics, economics, biology etc are all abstract in nature.
They are conceptual models. Whether physical or abstract, models do not include all the
important features of the original. For example, a model of a dam will not exactly tell us what will
be the area irrigated in the head and tail reach regions. It will not tell us at what time points the
dam will be dry. Similarly a mathematical model that predicts the yield of a crop given the
quantity of applied fertilizer may not tell us what will be the most optimal time of application of
fertilizer. To answer such questions the modeler has to refine the model again and again.

Definition:
A model is defined as a physical representation of any natural phenomena
Example:
1. A miniature building model.
 2. A children cycle park depicting the traffic signals
3. Display of clothes on models in a show room and so on.

Mathematical Models
Mathematical Models is a representation of phenomena by means of mathematical
equations. These equations may be algebraic, differential or difference, difference-differential or
integral equations.
Examples: 1) W = a + bt (Linear model)
2) W = a + bt + ct2 (Quadratic model)
3) W =  et (Exponential model)
are examples of growth models.

Features of Mathematical Models

The mathematical modeling of a real system involves the following distinct phases:
1. Identifying the problem
2. Identifying variables
3. Formulating the model by writing the systems of equations connecting the variables
4. Analyzing the model mathematically
5. Interpreting the model
6. Testing and refining the model with observed data and
7. Concluding and predicting the real world system.

Classification of Mathematical Models

Mathematical models can be broadly divided into two categories, deterministic and
stochastic.
In deterministic models random fluctuations are ignored and events associated with
the system are assumed to occur in a deterministic way. For example, in deterministic models of
population growth the birth and death rates are assumed to be constants so that the size of the
population at any time is a deterministic quantity. So, given the initial population size, the size at
any future time can be exactly predicted. So given the initial population size, the size of the
population at any time is a deterministic quantity.
Stochastic models take into account the random behavior of the system and so
events associated with the system are assumed to occur with probability. For example, in a
small population it cannot be expected that the occurrence of birth and deaths be evenly
distributed over time. Each birth and death has a probability of happening. So the size of the
population at any time t is a stochastic or random variable. Therefore the system is analyzed by
using results from probability theory. These models are mathematically more complex than their
deterministic counterparts.
Use of growth models
Models are useful in drawing inferences. When a scientist looks at a growth model, he
will be able to draw the following inferences.
1. The exact relationship between time & growth.
2. The quantity growth at a specified point of time.
3. The rate of growth at each point of time.
4. In the case of perennial crops the asymptotic behaviour can be obtained.
5. The turning point in the growth can be estimated by so many methods.
A model can be estimated by so many methods. But the best way of estimating a model is by
the method of least squares.
Types of Growth Models
The Models which are mostly used in Agriculture are
1. Linear Model
2. Quadratic Model
3. Exponential Model
Models and their Equations:
Sl. No. Name of the Models The equation of the Models
1. Linear Model W = a + bt
2. Quadratic Model Y = a + bx – cx2
rt
3. Exponential Model W=Ae

Fitting up of linear models

1. Using normal equations
In a linear model, these points lie close to a straight line. Suppose w = a+bt is a linear model to
be fitted to the given data, the expected values of w corresponding to t1, t2…tn are given by
(a+bt1) , (a+bt2),………………… (a+btn). The corresponding observed values of w are w1
w2…wn. The difference between the observed value and the expected value is called a
residual. The Principles of least squares states that the constants occurring in the curve
of best fit should be chosen such that the sum of the squares of the residuals must be a
minimum. Using this for a linear model we get the following two simultaneous equations in a
and b, given by
w = na+bt --------------------------- (1)
wt = at+bt2 -------------------------(2)
where n is the no. of observations. Equations 1 and 2 are called normal equations.
Given the values of t and w, we can find t, w, tw, t2. Substituting in equations (1) and (2)
we get two simultaneous equations in the constants a and b solving which we get the values of
a and b.
2. Using regression coefficient
 By substituting the appropriate values in the following formula we can find the value of a
and b
Σt ΣW
ΣtW −
b= n

Σt −
2 (Σt )2
n
ΣW Σt
a = W - b t where W = , t =
n n
‘a’ stands for the constant term which is the intercept made by the line on the w axis. When t =
0, w = a ie ‘a’ gives the initial DMP ie. Seed weight) ; ‘b’ stands for the slope of the line which
gives the growth rate.
Note:
There are two types of growth models (linear)
1. w = a+bt (with constant term)
2. w = bt (without constant term)
The graphs of the above models are given below:

Example:
The dry matter accumulation observed on various days for Black gram is given below.
Calculate the seed dry weight and growth rate.

t measured in days 10 20 30 40 50 60
W total dry weight in
gm/plt 0.7 1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7 3.2

Solution:
The linear model is given by the equation W = a + bt
Σt ΣW
ΣtW −
ΣW Σt n
where a = W - b t , W = ,t = ,b=
n n
Σt −
2 (Σt )2
n
 t W tW t2
10 0.7 7 100
20 1.2 24 400
30 1.7 51 900
40 2.2 88 1600
50 2.7 135 2500
60 3.2 192 3600

 t =210  W =11.7 t W =497 t

2
=9100

Σt ΣW
ΣtW −
b= n =

Σt 2 −
(Σt )2
n

(210).(11. 7)
497 −
6 497 − 409.5 87.5
= = = 0.05
9100 −
(210 )
2
9100 − 7350 1750
6
ΣW 11.7 Σt 210
W = = = 1.95; t= = = 35
n 6 n 6

a = W - b t = 1.95 – (0.05*35) = 1.95 – 1.75 = 0.2

Therefore, the linear growth model is W = 0.2 + 0.05 t
Seed Dry Weight is =a = 0.2 gms
Growth rate = b =0.05
 Exercise Problems

1. The table below gives the DMP in kgs of a particular crop. Taken at different stages. Fit
a linear growth model of the form w=a+bt to the following data.

t in days 0 15 25 35 45
DMP in 0.05 0.40 2.97 21.93 162.1
gm/ha.

2. The height of the plant at different stages of its development are given. Fit the model of
the form w=a+bt to the given data.

t in days 10 40 60 80 90
w in Cms 40 98 148 185 205

3. The dry matter accumulation observed on various days for blackgram is given below. By
estimating the linear growth model calculate the seed dry weight and growth rate.

t in days 10 20 30 40 50 60
w total dry weight in gms/plant 0.7 1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7 3.2

4. Estimate the seed weight and growth rate of groundnut from the following observed
data.
t-in days 0 5 10 15 20 30
W total dry
weight measured 0.4 1.15 1.9 2.25 3.4 4.9
in gm/plant
5. From the following observed data estimate the seed weight and growth rate of paddy.
t-in days 0 10 20 30 50
W total dry weight
0.05 2.05 4.05 6.05 10.05
measured in gm/plant
***********
 Lecture 17

Quadratic and Exponential models- applications of mathematical models in

agriculture.

Exponential Model:

The Exponential growth Model will be of the form W = A ert. Here ‘W’ stands for the
total dry weight of the plant at time‘t’. In this Model when t = 0, the value of W = A. Therefore, ‘A’
stands for the initial dry weight, i.e. The dry weight of the seed at the time of sowing.

W = A e rt

Fitting up of Exponential Model

For fitting exponential model (W = A ert), the following steps are followed.

Step:-1

Take logarithmic transformation and convert into linear one.

log W = log A + rt

Assume log W= W, log A= a; rt = bt

Then W = a+ bt

Step:-2

Now apply methods of least squares principle and find out the constant a and b.

Step:-3

Finally take antilog of a, we can get the value of A. Then substitute the values of a and b
in the exponential model.

The fitted exponential model is W = A ert

Note:

The Exponential growth Model will be of the form W = A ert.

dw
Growth rate = = Are rt
dt

1 dw Are rt
Relative growth rate = = =b
w dt Ae rt

Here RGR = r which is also known as intensive growth rate or Malthusian parameter.
Example:

The following data gives the Green gram dry matter accumulation during different
days. Calculate the seed dry weight and relative growth rate of Green gram using
exponential growth model.

t in days 10 20 30 40 50

DMP

W- gms/plant 0.13 0.6 2.7 12.1 54.24

Solution:

The Exponential model is given by the equation W = A e rt

Take logarithmic transformation and convert into linear one.

ln W = log A + rt

Assume ln W= W, log A= a; rt = bt

Then W = a+ bt

Where A= antilog of a or eAt ; r = b

t W W=lnw tW t2

10 0.13 -2.040 -20.402 100

20 0.6 -0.511 -10.217 400

30 2.7 0.993 29.798 900

40 12.1 2.493 99.728 1600

 50 54.24 3.993 199.671 2500

 t =150  W =4.929 t W =298.578 t

2
=5500

Σt ΣW (150).(4.9 29)
ΣtW − 298.578 −
n = 5 298.578 − 147.865 150.713
b= = = = 0.151
(Σt )2
5500 −
(150 ) 2
5500 − 4500 1000
Σt 2 −
n 5

ΣW 4.929 Σt 150
W = = = 0.986; t= = = 30
n 5 n 5

a = W - b t = 0.986 – (0.151*30) = 0.986 – 4.53 = -3.544

A = ea = e-3.544 =0.029 and r = b = 0.151

Therefore, the exponential growth model is W = 0.029 e0.151t

Seed Dry Weight is =a = 0.029 gms

Relative Growth rate = r =0.151

Crop Response Model

Crop response models provide a convenient framework to understand the relationship

between various inputs like fertilizer doses, irrigation level, pesticide doses etc to output (yield).
They determine the optimum level of inputs to maximize yield or profit. The inputs may contain
many factors such as levels of N, P, K nutrients. The researcher wants to formulate a model
suitable to his experimental data set and to develop an optimal fertilizer prescription.

Quadratic Model

The general form of a quadratic Model is y = a + bx + cx2 where a, b and c are

constants. Usually plant growth will not occur in the form of a Quadratic Curve. But in crop
response curves, cost curves, supply curves and demand curves can be in this form.

The general form of quadratic model is y = a + b x + c x2 where a is the dry weight, b is

the linear response coefficient and c is the quadratic response coefficient. The normal equations
are

 y =na +b  x +c  x
2

 xy =a  x +b  x x
2 3
+c

x y = a  x x x
2 2 3 4
+b +c

Solve the three simultaneous equation and find the value of a, b and c.
 When c < 0 the curve attains maximum at its peak

C<0

When c < 0 the curve attains maximum at its peak

C>0

The parabolic curve bends very sharply at the maximum or minimum points.

Example:
The following data gives the yield in kgs of paddy at different levels of fertilizer applied.
Estimate the model.

X in kgs/
0 20 40 60 80
Acre

Y in kgs/
1800 1892 1928 1908 1832
acre

Solution:
 The quadratic equation is of the form y = a + bx + cx2

The normal equations are

 y =na +b  x +c  x
2

 xy =a  x +b  x +c  x
2 3

x y = a  x x x
2 2 3 4
+b +c

x y xy x2 x2y x3 x4
0 1800 0 0 0 0
0
20 1892 37840 400 8000 160000
756800
40 1928 77120 1600 64000 2560000
3084800
60 1908 114480 3600 216000 12960000
6868800
80 1832 146560 6400 512000 40960000
11724800

 x =200  y =9360  xy = x 2
= x 2
y= x 3
= x 4
=
376000 12000 22435200 800000 56640000

9360 = 5a + 200b + 12000c

376000 = 200a + 12000b + 800000c

22435200= 12000a +800000b + 56640000c

This can be rewritten as

0.005a + 0.2b + 12c = 9.36…………….(1)

0.002a + 0.12b + 8c = 3.76…………… (2)

0.12a + 8b + 566.4c = 224.352…….(3)

We can solve the above equations by crammer’s or determinant method.

0.005 0.2 12
 = 0.002 0.12 8
0.12 8 566.4

= 0.005(67.968-64) – 0.2(1.1328-0.96) +12(0.016-0.0144)

 = 0.00448 0

9.36 0.2 12
 a = 3.76 0.12 8 = 8.064
224.352 8 566.4

0.005 9.36 12
 b = 0.002 3.76 8 = 0.02688
0.12 224.352 566.4

0.005 0.2 9.36

 c = 0.002 0.12 3.76 = -0.00031
0.12 8 224.352

a 8.064  0.02688  − 0.0031

 a= = =1800 , b = b = =6 , c = c = = − 0.07
 0.00448  0.00448  0.00448

 The Quadratic model is y = 1800 + 6x -0.07x2

 Exercise Problems

1. Fit the Quadratic model for the following data

X(kg. P/ha) 0 2 4 6 8 10
Y (Quintal / ha) 28 32 36 39 35 34
Where X is the fertilizer applied and Y is the yield obtained.

2. Fit the quadratic model and draw the graph for the following data
x 0 5 10 15 20 25
y 56 68 75 78 77 74
3. Fit the Quadratic model and draw the graph for the following data
x 0 5 10 15 20 25
y 45 72 78 80 81 80
4. The DMP of a crop absorbed over a period of 50 days is given below. Fit a exponential model of
the form w=aebt.
t in days 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
DMP w in gms 3.9 5.3 7.3 9.6 12.9 17.1 23.1
5. The growth of the Bacteria in a culture of the ‘T’ hrs is given in the following table. Fit an
exponential model to the above data.
t in hrs. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
No. of bacteria w 32 47 65 92 132 190 275
6. The following data gives the black gram dry matter accumulation during different days. Calculate
the seed dry weight and relative growth rate of black gram. using Exponential growth model.
t-in days 10 20 30 40 50
DMP W
0.13 0.60 2.7 12.10 54.24
gms/plant
7. Estimate the Relative growth rate and the Exponential growth Model from the following data.
W dry matter accumulation of cotton plant in gms and t-in days
t-in days 20 40 60 80 100 120

DMP W
0.2 0.8 3.3 13.52 55.0 222
gms/plant

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