Thursday, October 22, 2015

Physics of solids
Crystalline Solids:
 In crystalline solids, the molecules are arranged in regular pattern, called crystal lattice.
 They have specific melting point.

Amorphous Solids:
 In amorphous solids, there is no regular arrangement of molecules.
 They have no definite melting point.

Polymeric Solids:
 They have a structure which is between the order and disorder.
 They are classified poorly or partially crystalline solids.

Crystal lattice:
In solids, the basic and smallest three dimensional structure is called unit cell and the whole
arrangement which is obtained by repetition of the unit cells is called Crystal lattice.

Mechanical properties of Solids

Elasticity:
The ability of the body to return to its original shape is called elasticity.

Stress:
The force applied on the unit area is called stress. Mathematically,

Force(F)
Stress ( σ )=
Area( A) ------------------------(1)

The SI unit of stress is newton per square meter ( N m−2 ) which is given by the name pascal ( Pa).

Strain:
Strain is the measure of the deformation of a solid when stress is applied to it. It is given by:

 Tensile strain

Change∈length(∆l)
Strain ( ε )=
orignal length (l) -------(2)

 Volumetric strain is given by:

 ∆V
volumetric strain=
V˳ ---------------(3)

 Shear strain is given by:

∆a
γ= =tan θ ------------------------(4)
a

Elastic constants:
The ratio of stress to strain is a constant for a given material. This ratio is called Modulus of elasticity and
is given by:

Stress
Modulus of elasticity=
Strain

 In the case of linear deformation, the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain is called Young’s
Modulus.

F
A
Y=
∆ l ------------------------------------------------------------------(5)
l

 In the case of volumetric deformation, the ratio of applied stress to volumetric strain is called
Bulk modulus and is given by,

F
A
K=
∆ V ---------------------------------------------------------(6)
V

 In the case of shear deformation, the ratio of shear stress to shear strain is called shear
modulus.

F
A ---------------------------------------------------(7)
G=
tanθ

Elastic Limit and yield strength:

 Proportional limit:
Up to this amount of stress, the stress is proportional to the strain.

 Yield point
The stress beyond which the material becomes plastic. The value of stress at yield point is called elastic
limit of the material.

 Ultimate tensile strength (UTS)

The maximum stress that a material can withstand. Beyond the UTS the material break. The responding
stress is called the fracture stress.

 Plasticity
When stress is increased beyond the yield point or elastic limit then the material becomes permanently
changed and does not recover its original shape or dimension after the stress is removed. This kind of
behavior is called plasticity.

 Ductile material and Brittle material

 The substance which undergo plastic deformation until they break is called Ductile material. e.g.
lead, copper and wrought iron etc.
 The substance which break just after the elastic limit are called Brittle material. e.g. glass and
high carbon steel are brittle.

Strain energy in Deformed material:

When a force is applied to the stretched wire and its extension is l , then the work done is given by,

1
work done= l × F -------------------------(8)
2

This is the amount of the energy which is stored in the wire. It is the gain in the potential energy of the
molecules due to their displacement from their mean position.

The above equation is also expressed in the terms of elastic of modulus.

F L
As E= ×
A l

EA ×l
⇒ F=
L

Substitute in equation (8) we have,

[ ]
2
1 EA ×l
Work done= ------------------------------(9)
2 L

Where L is the actual length, E is the elastic modulus, A is the cross-sectional area, l is the extension of
the wire.

Electrical properties of Solids

We divide the solids in three types in the nature of electrical properties.

I. Conductors:
The metals which have the conductivities of the order of 107 ( Ω m )−1, are called conductors.

II. Insulators
The solids which have conductivities in the order between 10−10∧10−20 ( Ωm )−1 , these are called
insulators.

III. Semiconductors
The solids which have conductivities in the order between 10−6 ¿ 10−4 ( Ω m )−1, these are called
semiconductors.

There are two theories which explain the diversity in the electrical behavior.

 The conventional free electron theory based on Bohr model of electron distribution is
completely failed to explain the electrical behavior.
 The energy band theory is based on the wave mechanical model has been found successful.

Energy band theory:

The electrons in the outermost shell is called valence electrons and the energy band occupying these
electrons is called valence band. It may be either completely filled or partially filled with electrons and
can never be empty. The band above the valence band is called conduction band. In conduction band
the electrons move freely and conduct electric current through solids. It may be empty or partially filled
with electrons.

Now we discuss the three types of solids in nature of energy band theory.

 Insulator:
In insulators, there are:
1. An empty conduction band,
2. A full valence band,
3. A large energy gap.

 Conductor:
In conductors, there are

1. Valence band and conduction band largely overlap each other.

2. There is no physically distinction between the two bands.
  Semiconductors:
Semiconductors are those materials in which:

1. Partially filled conduction band,

2. Partially filled valence band,
3. A very narrow forbidden energy gap. (of the order of 1 eV ¿

At 0 kelvin there are no electrons in the conduction band and their valence band are completely filled. It
means that at 0 kelvin the piece of Ge or Si is a perfect insulator.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic semi-conductor

Intrinsic Semi-conductor:
A semi-conductor in its extreme pure form is called intrinsic semi-conductor.

Extrinsic Semi-conductor:
When an impurity atoms are added to the intrinsic semi-conductor then the semi-conductor is said to be
extrinsic semi-conductor. The adding of impurity is called doping. Doping is done in the ratio 1 :106.
There are two types of extrinsic semi-conductors. Which are given below:

A. n-type semi-conductor:
When a pentavalent atom is doped in the intrinsic semi-conductor the resultant product is called n-type
semi-conductor. The pentavalent atom such as phosphorous when doped in the semi-conductor then
the one electron of pentavalent atom remains free which cause to conduct electricity. The impurity
atom is called donor because they provide free electrons.

B. p-type semi-conductor:
When a trivalent atom is doped in the intrinsic semi-conductor then the resultant product is called p-
type semi-conductor. The trivalent atom such as aluminum when doped in the semi-conductor then a
hole is produced in the crystal of semi-conductor which cause to conduct electricity. The impurity atom
is called acceptor because it accepts the electron and produce the hole.

When a covalent bond is broken then the electron-hole pair is produced. In semi-conductors there are
two types of charge carriers i.e. electrons and holes.

Super conductors:
There are some materials which offer no resistance below the critical temperature called critical
temperature. They are called super conductors.

Magnetic properties of Solids

The magnetic field of an atom is due to its orbital motion of electrons and spin motion of electrons.
These magnetic fields due to spin motion and orbital motion may be cancel or support each other. In
terms of magnetic properties there are three types of solids which are describes below:

1. Paramagnetic substances:
In these substances the magnetic fields of electrons due to their spin motion and orbital motion support
each other and behaves like a tiny magnet. Substances with such atoms are called paramagnetic atoms.

2. Diamagnetic substances:
In these substances the magnetic fields of electrons due to their spin motion and orbital motion cancel
the effect of each other. These are called diamagnetic substances such as the atoms of water, copper,
bismuth, and antimony.

3. Ferromagnetic substances:
There are some substances such as Fe, Co, Ni, etc. in which the atoms co-operate with each other such
that to exhibit the strong magnetic field. Such substance is called ferromagnetic substances. In these
substances the atoms forms domain which is the small magnet in the order of millimeters and contain
12 16
10 ¿ 10 atoms. In each domain the magnetic field of electrons are parallel to each other, i.e., each
domain is magnetized to saturation. When the ferromagnetic material placed in the external magnetic
field the domains of ferromagnetic material arranged their selves and the material becomes the strong
magnet which is known electromagnet. Iron is soft magnetic material, its domains are easily arranged on
applying magnetic field and its domains are easily dis-arranged on removing the magnetic field. So it is
used in electromagnet and in transformers as having a less hysteresis area. On the other hand, the steel
is strong magnetic material and it is used to made permanent magnet.

Curie temperature:
It is the temperature when the material is heated above this
temperature, the domains of the ferromagnetic do not maintain their ordines and becomes
paramagnetic. The curie temperature of iron is about 750 ° .

Hysteresis Loop:
We study the ferromagnetic material by using an alternating current carrying solenoid. We study the
following elements:

1. Hysteresis
The magnetism lags behind the current, which is called hysteresis. i.e., when the magnetizing current
zero but the magnetic density is not become to zero.

2. Saturation:
At maximum value of flux density, the material is said to be fully magnetized. It is called saturation.
 3. Remanence or Retantivity:
When the current becomes zero, the material still remains magnetized. This behavior of material is
called remanence or retantivity. This is due to the domains which still remains aligned when the current
becomes zero.

4. Coercivity:
To demagnetize the material a more reverse current is required which is called coercive current. Once
the material magnetized its magnetization curve does not pass from the origin.

5. Area of the hysteresis loop:

Area of the hysteresis loop gives us the work done which is required to magnetize and demagnetize the
material in one cycle of the alternating current.

Numerical:

Monday, October 26, 2015