A Case Study of High School Student Perceptions of K-12 Online Learning and Its Impact

on Student Engagement and Academic Achievement

Dissertation Manuscript

Submitted to Northcentral University

School of Education

in Partial Fulfillment of the

W
Requirements for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
IE
by
EV

SHARLEKO MONTRAY GARNER- MCCASKILL

PR

San Diego, California

March 2022



      

Approval Page
A Case Study of High School Student Perceptions of K-12 Online Learning and Its Impact
on Student Engagement and Academic Achievement

By

SHARLEKO MONTRAY GARNER- MCCASKILL

Approved by the Doctoral Committee:

Ed.D. 05/03/2022 | 12:26:56 MST

W
Brianna Parsons
Dissertation Chair: INSERT NAME Degree Held Date
IE Ed. D 05/03/2022 | 12:42:10 MST

Committee Member: Debra

INSERTBockrath
NAME Degree Held Date
EV

05/03/2022 | 12:53:20 MST

Ph.D.
PR

INSERTShaw
Committee Member: Melanie NAME Degree Held Date
 Abstract

Researchers have shown that the practice of online learning throughout all levels of education

has increased rapidly since the early 1900s (Hu et al., 2019). With the recent and ongoing

Coronavirus pandemic, many learning institutions have shifted to full or partial online learning.

(Lily et al., 2020; Sharfstein & Morphew, 2020; Subramanian et al., 2020). With this immediate

and abrupt shift to online learning, many education leaders, teachers, parents, and even students

became concerned about how learning online would affect the student’s overall success in

education (Sharfstein & Morphew, 2020). Therefore, the problem addressed by this study was

the decrease in academic performance and student engagement related to online learning in the

W
K-12 educational setting, as reported by numerous studies examining online learning in K-12
IE
education. Furthermore, the overall purpose of this qualitative case study served to examine high

school student perceptions of online learning and its impact on the academic achievement and
EV
student engagement of K-12 online learners. A sample size of 20 high school students in grades

10-12 enrolled in online courses during the 2020-2021 school year were chosen to participate in
PR

this study. Data related to student perceptions of their online learning experiences and the impact

on their overall engagement and achievement was collected via semi-structured interviews and

online questionnaires, which was highly effective for data triangulation during the analysis

process. The data from this study were analyzed using a qualitative data analysis software

(NVivo). Overall, in this study are the residual hopes that these findings will influence

educational leaders and teachers to focus on the areas students feel are vital to their success in

the online learning environment.

i
 Acknowledgements

This journey has been one of the most rewarding experiences and has contributed greatly

to my growth as an educator. First and foremost, I want to thank Northcentral University for

granting me the opportunity to continue my studies and perfect my craft. The ongoing support of

everyone involved has been immeasurable. I appreciate you all more than you know. In addition

to this, I want to thank my family and friends for always encouraging me to remain positive and

confident during this treasured experience. To my husband and daughter, Curian and Harley, you

two are my everything and I am ecstatic to share this wonderful experience with the two people

in the world I love most. Finally, I dedicate this major accomplishment to my father Donald

W
Nicholson, and grandmother Carrie Mae Garner. You two were my biggest supporters. I wish
IE
you both were here. Thanks so much for always being on my side and cheering for me every step

of the way. I will always live to make you proud.

EV
PR

ii
 Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1

Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................................... 3

Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................. 4
Introduction to Theoretical Framework .................................................................................... 5
Introduction to Research Methodology and Design ................................................................. 8
Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 9
Significance of the Study .......................................................................................................... 9
Definitions of Key Terms ....................................................................................................... 11
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 13

Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................................ 14

Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................................... 15

W
Reconceptualizing Technology Integration in Education ....................................................... 21
Understanding Distance and Online Learning ........................................................................ 22
Examining Student and Learner Perceptions .......................................................................... 41
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 42
IE
Chapter 3: Research Method ......................................................................................................... 45
EV
Research Methodology and Design ........................................................................................ 45
Population and Sample ........................................................................................................... 47
Instrumentation ....................................................................................................................... 48
Study Procedures .................................................................................................................... 49
Data Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 50
PR

Assumptions............................................................................................................................ 51
Limitations .............................................................................................................................. 52
Delimitations ........................................................................................................................... 53
Ethical Assurances .................................................................................................................. 53
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 55

Chapter 4: Findings ....................................................................................................................... 56

Trustworthiness of the Data .................................................................................................... 57

Results ..................................................................................................................................... 58
Evaluation of the Findings ...................................................................................................... 72
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 79

Chapter 5: Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusions .................................................... 81

Implications............................................................................................................................. 82
Recommendations for Practice ............................................................................................... 86
Recommendations for Future Research .................................................................................. 89
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 90

iii
References ..................................................................................................................................... 92

Appendix A Interview Protocol ................................................................................................ 108

Appendix B Google Form Questionnaire Items ........................................................................ 110

Appendix C Parental Consent Letter ......................................................................................... 112

Appendix D District/ Site Approval .......................................................................................... 115

Appendix E NCU IRB Approval ............................................................................................... 116

W
IE
EV
PR

iv
 List of Tables

Table 1 Participant Demographic Information……………………………………………59

Table 2 Major Themes of the Study……………………………………………………....60

W
IE
EV
PR

v
 List of Figures

Figure 1 Online Learning Instructional Strategies.…………………………….........63

Figure 2 Parent Involvement in Student Education……………………………........70

W
IE
EV
PR

vi
 1

Chapter 1: Introduction

According to the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES), approximately 19%

of all elementary and secondary schools offered one or more courses entirely online during the

2017-2018 academic year, which suggests that the majority of the K-12 learning institutions are

traditional in nature, allowing most of the learning to occur via direct instruction provided by

educators to students in a classroom-based setting (NCES, 2019). The recent SARS-CoV-2

(Coronavirus) pandemic left many educational leaders and researchers struggling to determine

the best approach in educating students without increasing the spread of this deadly virus

(Subramanian et al., 2020). However, under careful consideration, most schools have now

W
opened their doors welcoming learners back to school, while others have chosen to implement
IE
full or partial online learning programs that allow K-12 students to continue receiving high-

quality instruction without being subjected to possible exposure to the virus from physically
EV
attending a traditional learning environment (Besser et al., 2020). This unplanned shift in

instruction had many parents and students worried about overall academics and the future of
PR

education worldwide as some students are not as proficient in this type of learning environment.

(Sharfstein & Morphew, 2020). In fact, numerous studies have found evidence that online

course-taking is less effective in the K-12 educational setting, citing poor academic performance,

decreased engagement, and low retention rates as specific areas of concern (Ahn & McEachin,

2017; Hart et al., 2019; Heissel, 2016; Woodworth et al., 2015).

Research in K-12 online learning remains ongoing as many studies often produce mixed

results about the effectiveness of online learning. Numerous studies have examined online

learning compared to traditional face-to-face learning throughout various levels of education.

However, very little research has focused primarily on student perceptions of the practices and
 2

strategies used in online learning to promote increased student engagement and academic

achievement, particularly in the K-12 educational setting (Kumi-Yeboah et al., 2018). This gap

in research exists because many K-12 schools utilize face-to-face learning but are now moving

towards more innovative learning techniques and strategies that involve online instruction to

accommodate this ongoing health crisis in our country (Hart et al., 2019).

Online learning is a form of distance education in which students are provided course

content, lessons, activities, and other learning resources over the internet while also allowing

them to participate in virtual class discussions and receive feedback on submitted work and other

course assignments (Laaser, 2011; Nwankwo, 2015). The concept of online learning is often

W
used interchangeably with virtual or blended learning. However, virtual and blended learning are
IE
considered components or separate elements that fall underneath the wide-ranging concept

known as distance education (Khalil et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2019). According to Tzu-Chi
EV
(2020), distance education environments such as online, virtual, or blended learning are typically

considered self-directed. Tzu-Chi also asserts that students should be highly motivated and
PR

efficiently manage their time to succeed in this type of learning environment.

To help inform the field of distance education, student experiences and perceptions of

online learning and its impact on student engagement and overall academic achievement must be

examined. In fact, several studies often regard the position and views of students on certain

educational issues as highly insightful (Eom & Ashill, 2016). In other words, if students are

being forced to learn in an online manner through no choice of their own, their perceptions of

online learning strategies and the practice of online learning overall could contribute to the

growing body of research related to K-12 online learning.

 3

Statement of the Problem

The problem addressed by this study was the decrease in academic performance and

student engagement related to online learning in the K-12 educational setting. According to the

National Education Policy Center (2019), many K-12 online, virtual, or blended schools

continued to show low-performance ratings during the 2018-2019 academic year, although the

proportion of schools illustrating considerably acceptable ratings was higher than reported in the

previous year. Due to the recent coronavirus pandemic, educational leaders are working tirelessly

to determine the most effective approach in educating students through the implementation of

full or partial online learning environments that minimize student-teacher contact throughout the

W
instructional process (Lily et al., 2020, Sharfstein & Morphew, 2020; Subramanian et al., 2020).
IE
Even though many studies related to K-12 education have found positive effects of

online learning on student engagement and achievement, numerous findings suggest the opposite
EV
(Hart et al., 2019; Nyugen, 2015). A recent study examining enrollment, academic achievement,

and the effectiveness of K-12 online learning at an Ohio charter school found evidence that
PR

online instruction was, in many ways, less effective in comparison to students engaged in face-

to-face learning (Ahn & McEachin, 2017). In taking a closer look at the global shift to online

learning, a similar study examining student perceptions of distance learning strategies during the

coronavirus pandemic revealed evidence of an increase in student burnout and a decrease in

academic engagement and retention since shifting to complete online instruction (Chen et al.,

2020). Students involved in this study also reported that their learning had worsened since the

move to online education.

Viewing the concept of online learning through the lens of students, their preferred

learning styles, and factors they believe impacts their learning is critical to help inform the field
 4

of online learning, specifically in the K-12 educational setting (Curtis & Werth, 2015; Eom &

Ashill, 2016; Garthwait, 2014). Modern classrooms are filled with diverse student learners in

relation to their language development, learning abilities, and learning styles and preferences

(Kumi-Yeboah, 2020). Veletsianos (2020) argued that “in order to critique, understand, and

improve online learning, it must be examined with a full sense of empathy that student learners

deserve” (p. 6). Understanding student views will help improve online learning in many ways,

such as aiding curriculum and instructional developers in designing more effective online

courses and making data-driven decisions about online education.

Purpose of the Study

W
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to examine high school student perceptions
IE
of online learning and its impact on the academic achievement and student engagement of K-12

online learners. Additionally, this study explored factors related to student perceptions that also
EV
impact online learning, such as motivation, learning preferences, and engagement strategies that

can ultimately help educational leaders improve K-12 online learning. The sample for this study
PR

included 20 students (grades 10-12) taking online courses at one of the largest high schools in

Jefferson County located in Birmingham, Alabama. Purposive sampling was used in selecting

participants for this study. Participants were chosen on the basis of meeting the eligibility criteria

and their availability to participate in the study. Study participants participated in informal open-

ended interviews or online questionnaires in which they were able to share their experiences and

perceptions of online learning. Additionally, other factors affecting online learning, such as

learning preferences and engagement strategies, were also examined. Of the 20 total participants

of this study, five students chose to engage in semi-structured interviews to share their

perceptions of online learning, while a second group of 15 students were provided similar online
 5

questionnaires for the same purpose. This method of triangulation in case studies involves the

researcher using different data collection techniques within a single study to gain a deeper

understanding of the issue at hand. The two previously mentioned data collection techniques

were the primary form of data collection for this study. NVivo, a computer-assisted qualitative

data analysis software (CAQDAS), was the computer software that was chosen for data analysis

using its coding mechanism. Coding involves organizing and arranging qualitative data to search

for themes and relationships among the gathered information (Woods et al., 2016). Studies

exploring the future of secondary schools in our country expresses that there is a gap in research

related to student perceptions of online learning in K-12 as most studies focus on online

W
instruction as it related to colleges, universities, and other higher learning institutions (Jacobs,
IE
2016; Nguyen, 2015). Taking into account student perceptions and experiences with online

learning can provide insight into improving the field, ultimately improving education for all
EV
student learners.

Introduction to Theoretical Framework

PR

The practice of online learning has increased rapidly since the early 1900s (Hu et al.,

2019). Researchers have shown that online learning in the K-12 educational setting has grown

exponentially over the past 15 years, with nearly 4.5 million K-12 online course enrollments via

online program providers during the 2014-2015 academic year (Evergreen Education Group,

2015; Hart et al., 2019). Early research in online learning aimed to understand the effectiveness

of online instruction compared to the traditional modes of teaching and learning since the

demand for distance learning seemed to increase during that time (Hu et al., 2019). Additionally,

much of this research focused primarily on postsecondary and higher education in regard to

learning styles, student effectiveness in self-regulated learning, motivation, and preferred

 6

instructional strategies when engaging in online learning (Hart et al., 2019; Martin et al., 2017).

The theoretical framework for this study is grounded in constructivist views of teaching and

learning the theory of social constructivism, Moore’s transactional distance model, and the how

people learn (HPL) framework as the foundation for exploring online learning in education.

The constructivist model provided a more suitable and appropriate theoretical basis for

studying student perceptions of online learning in K-12 education as it often emphasizes student-

centered learning that aims to increase motivation, engagement, and the overall autonomy of

learners in any instructional environment (Eom & Ashill, 2016; Pande & Bharathi, 2020).

Online learning requires a certain degree of self-regulation and self-control over what is being

W
learned (Alan, 2020; Greene et al., 2015; Tzu-Chi, 2020). The constructivist theory of learning is
IE
based on the belief that the student learner constructs knowledge and that effective learning

occurs when students can discover knowledge themselves at their own pace (Eom & Ashill,
EV
2016). Social constructivism is a branch of the constructivist model that also emphasizes

building knowledge by learning, but in a collaborative sense (Wolf, 2015). During this process of
PR

discovery, either in an individual or collaborative environment, students can become

independent, self-regulated, and active learners.

Heavily influenced by constructivist principles, this study also highlighted Moore’s

transactional distance model as a theoretical basis for understanding online and distance learning

in education. Developed in 1997 by educational researcher and distinguished professor Michael

G. Moore, this model assumes that if the transactional distance in online or distance learning is

reduced, learners will feel more satisfied with their learning experience (Major & Sumner, 2018).

In 1993, Aixu Zhang built upon Moore's theory by proposing that transactional distance can also

be a useful tool in measuring the difficulty students encounter in becoming actively engaged with
 7

their online learning environment (Swart et al., 2014). This link between transactional distance

and student engagement and achievement in online learning constitutes the main theoretical

contribution of this study. In a recent study revisiting Zhang’s transactional distance scale, Paul

et al. (2015) explained that Moore and Zhang’s idea of transactional distance in education

focuses on three key elements related to the interactions online learners experience throughout

the instructional process. These three elements include examining the transactional distance of

student and teacher interactions, student and student interactions, and finally, student interactions

with course content. Analyzing these three elements is critically important as an increase in

transactional distance can often prohibit students’ active engagement with learning in the online

W
course (Bollinger & Halupa, 2018).
IE
Another educational, literary model that helps explain effective online learning is the

HPL framework, developed by the National Research Council. Similar to Moore’s transactional
EV
distance theory, the HPL framework also embraces active learning and comprises four important

principles, two of which contribute to the online learning literature. The learner-centered element
PR

focuses specifically on the learner, their learning styles, and characteristics while also

acknowledging the learners' prior knowledge and skills to the learning environment. The

community-centered element takes into account the context in which learning takes place while

also promoting a sense of community with similar shared goals (Bransford et al., 2000). Overall,

this study considered how students perceive online learning and how these perceptions can

contribute to the previous and ongoing research of online and distance learning to improve the

field for modern day student learners.

 8

Introduction to Research Methodology and Design

A qualitative case study method and design was used to examine how students perceive

online learning and the impact these perceptions have on student engagement and the overall

academic achievement of K-12 learners. Quantitative research focuses on quantifying a problem

and usually aims to address the question of “how many” (McCusker & Gunaydin, 2015).

Therefore, it was decided that the quantitative methodology would not be appropriate for this

issue in education. Qualitative research involves gaining insight into the experiences of the

subject participants. Additionally, it allows researchers to obtain a deeper understanding of an

issue and the interpretation of events based on the experiences and perspectives of others

W
(Cooley, 2013; Austin & Sutton, 2014). Numerous studies exploring student perceptions in
IE
education that were qualitative in nature have contributed significantly to helping inform the

field of teaching and learning (Berry, 2018; Martin et al., 2020). This study involved
EV
understanding and providing a more in-depth look at student perceptions and the role they could

possibly play in improving online learning.

PR

The primary source of data collection for this study was individual semi-structured

student interviews and online free-response questionnaires. A case study design was chosen as it

allows the researcher to use multiple sources of data gathered in different forms (interviewing,

online questionnaires). This method of triangulation in case studies often results in a deeper

understanding of the issue while helping the researcher present a more concise study (Santos et

al., 2020). Qualitative research usually consists of small sample sizes, which creates the

opportunity for increased interactions between researcher and participants. This study included

20 students being surveyed or interviewed. Data analysis was done via coding using a qualitative

data analysis software called NVivo, which involves organizing the qualitative data to identify
 9

different themes and patterns that helps inform the study. The case study methodology allowed

the participants to share their thoughts and experiences by freely explaining their perceptions of

online. Overall, insights into how students perceive online learning will ultimately contribute to

the body of research related to improving online learning in elementary and secondary education.

Research Questions

Taking into account students’ perceptions and experiences related to online instruction is

critical to help inform distance learning in the K-12 educational setting. This qualitative study

focused on online learning, specifically in secondary education, and how students perceive

online instruction. Additionally, this study examined these perceptions and the impact they have

W
on academic achievement and student engagement in efforts to improve this particular area of
IE
teaching and learning. Two research questions were formed to address the purpose of this study:

RQ1
EV
How do high school students perceive the impact of online learning on student engagement?

RQ2
PR

How do high school students perceive the impact of online learning on academic

achievement?

Overall, it is important to understand how to effectively educate students through carefully

planned online instruction that considers their perceptions and experiences with online learning.

Significance of the Study

Many believe that the role of an educator is to provide high-quality instruction to student

learners while also teaching other important skills necessary for them to be successful throughout

and beyond their time in academia. In fact, an educator’s charge is far more extensive as they

often brand themselves, life-long learners, in efforts of seeking out ways to continuously
 10

improve learning for students (Grigoropoulos & Gialamas, 2018). During this confusing time in

education, educators are placing themselves in learning mode in order to figure out ways to help

those students placed in a full or blended online environment gain the most from learning. There

is a need for a sense of uniformity, structure, and consistency in the practice of online learning, a

set of standards that can be used to ensure that learning online is effective throughout all levels

of education. This study is important as it will help leaders understand what works well in

increasing student engagement and helping students achieve academic success in the online

learning environment using student perceptions and experiences from their role as an online

learners.

W
Many K-12 schools have reopened, some of which provide students with only one option
IE
of learning online. Many believe that online learning is possibly one of the most effective

strategies in minimizing the possible exposure of students and teachers to the deadly coronavirus
EV
(Bouznad & Ibourk, 2020; Sharfstein & Morphew, 2020). Understanding how to get students

actively involved in the learning process, particularly in an online environment, is a common

PR

area of interest among educational leaders and reformers during this detrimental time. Providing

students with more independence and a greater sense of control and autonomy over what is being

taught, the instructional methods used, and the pace at which learning occurs are critical factors

in getting students fully invested in the learning process (Arman, 2019).

K-12 Online learning programs are becoming increasingly popular with the advancement

of technology in our society (Heissel, 2016; Sharfstein & Morphew, 2020). Increasing our

understanding of how students perceive online learning and how these perceptions may help

improve online learning in K-12 education can help minimize the risk of our students falling

behind academically due to this major disruption we are experiencing globally (Coetzee, 2018).
 11

The research relative to online K-12 learning is often quantitative in nature, focusing primarily

on student achievement/ academic performance in a traditional learning setting compared to

online or distance learning. (Goralski & Falk, 2017; Jacobs, 2016). Therefore, more qualitative

studies in K-12 online learning could be beneficial as they are considered more exploratory,

allowing the researcher to unearth underlying reasons for a specific problem. The significance of

this study as compared to other online learning research is the fact that the views and feelings of

subject participants are the primary tools used in understanding how to increase and improve

student engagement and academic achievement in online learning and can ultimately help drive

new strategies and inform new theories and concepts related to the issue at hand. Overall, further

W
research into online learning could potentially shed light on some of the factors related to
IE
improving K-12 online learning, which is critical due to the challenges in education we are

currently facing.
EV
Definitions of Key Terms

Academic Achievement
PR

The extent to which a student has met their long or short-term learning goals and are

demonstrating positive results in relation to knowledge and material being provided in a course

(Nguyen, 2015).

Blended Learning

The practice of combining and/or integrating technology and online educational materials

with traditional learning practices often provides students with more flexibility to customize their

learning experiences (Fazal & Bryant, 2019).

 12

Distance Learning

A domain of learning characterized by instructional and learning activities being

provided to students through technological means in efforts to decrease the physical separation

of student and teacher during the learning process (Costa et al., 2020).

Face-to Face (F2F) Instruction

In-person instruction is provided to students in a traditional manner and is often

characterized by the students engaging in learning and learning activities being facilitated by the

teacher in a physical classroom setting (Williams, 2020).

Learner Autonomy

W
Refers to the learners’ ability to foster or take control of their own learning (Greene,

2015).
IE
Online Learning
EV
A form of distance learning in which all or a portion of course instruction and learning

activities are delivered online in order to engage students in the learning process (Garthwait,
PR

2014).

Self-Regulated Learning (SRL)

Heavily guided by the learners’ metacognition, SRL is characterized by a student’s

motivation to learn and their ability to monitor, direct, and regulate actions that helps them meet

their specific learning goals (Tzu-Chi, 2020).

Student Engagement

Student engagement refers to the psychological investment of students in the learning

process. This includes learning and understanding course material while also mastering the

associated academic knowledge and skills in the process. (Martin & Bollinger, 2018).
 13

Summary

Well-known author and motivational speaker Leo Buscaglia once stated, “Change is the

end result of all true learning.” Education in today’s society is constantly evolving. Change is

unavoidable, as we have all witnessed with the recent coronavirus pandemic. However, in the

midst of all of the doubt and uncertainty, learning must persist. In this particular case, online

learning is the solution many school leaders are turning to for education to continue globally

(Besser et al., 2020; Subramanian et al., 2020). Research in online learning has produced many

mixed results concerning the effectiveness of online learning. There are numerous studies related

to online learning that have shown an overall decrease in academic performance and engagement

W
of students learning online as opposed to their peers attending traditional learning institutions
IE
(Ahn & McEachin, 2017; Hu et al., 2019). With this unplanned shift to online learning being the

primary mode of instruction in K-12 education, it is highly important to examine how students
EV
perceive online learning as it will be vital to their overall success in education. This qualitative

case study examined online learning in secondary education by taking a deeper look at how
PR

students perceive online instruction. Furthermore, these perceptions were explored along with

their impact on academic achievement and student engagement in efforts to improve this

particular area of teaching and learning. Considering student perceptions and the factors related

to these perceptions that impact their success in online learning is necessary and may help

contribute to distance learning.

 14

Chapter 2: Literature Review

The purpose of this qualitative case study was to examine student perceptions of online

learning and the impact it had on their overall engagement and academic achievement in

education. Numerous research studies related to K-12 online learning provided positive results of

academic achievement and student success in online learning (Arnesen et al., 2020; Martin et al.,

2020). However, many recent online learning studies have also shown a decrease in academic

performance and student engagement, specifically in the K-12 educational setting (Ahn &

McEachin, 2017), which is the problem this study addressed. As a result of the current

coronavirus world health crisis, many schools of all levels of education around the globe are now

W
implementing full or partial online learning to circumvent teachers and students being exposed to
IE
the virus throughout the learning process (Julien & Dookwah, 2020; Schlenz et al., 2020). As

such, the abrupt transition to online learning has presented many challenges as educators
EV
continue to seek ways to improve learning for students in this particular type of learning

environment. (Kuhfeld et al., 2020).

PR

Online learning has been a very controversial topic since the early 1900s. Much of the

research is mixed (positive, negative, or null) concerning its effectiveness in helping students

reach academic success in education (Nguyen, 2015). As many schools and universities continue

to grow more diverse in relation to student learners, it is more important than ever to understand

how to maximize learning regardless of the type of learning environment students decide to be a

part of. This literature review delves into specific elements related to online learning, including

factors influencing its effectiveness and the theoretical frameworks that support and provide

insight into online learning in education. The specific components of the literature review

include: (a) defining online learning as an entity of distance education, (b) examining the modes
 15

of online learning and factors affecting its success (c) understanding the importance of student

perceptions of online learning in education, (d) exploring learning styles and self-regulated

learning as two important factors impacting the success of online learning, (e) defining student

engagement, motivation, and academic achievement in education and (f) discussing the

theoretical framework that supports the need for improving online learning in education.

The literature for this study was compiled using research databases of psychology,

technology, and education library journals, including Sage Journals Online, ProQuest, ERIC,

APAPsycInfo, ScienceDirect, and EBSCOhost refined to only include recent studies conducted

within the past five years. Database searches included keywords and search phrases relevant to

W
online or distance learning, such as student perceptions of online learning, learner autonomy,
IE
student engagement, academic achievement, self-regulated learning, and effective online

learning strategies. Finally, the remainder of this chapter shares the theoretical basis and
EV
foundation for studying and understanding ways in which we can improve online learning for our

students as we realize that an increase in distance learning in secondary and postsecondary

PR

education is inevitable.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework for this qualitative case study is heavily grounded in

constructivist views of teaching and learning and uses the theory of social constructivism,

Moore’s transactional distance model, and the How People Learn (HPL) framework as the

foundation for exploring online learning in education. The practice of online learning has

increased exponentially over the past decade (Evergreen Education Group, 2015; Hart et al.,

2019). Research in online learning is steadily growing as many leaders in education aim to
 16

examine the effectiveness of online learning throughout the many levels of education (Hart et al.,

2019).

The theory of constructivism in education is based on the belief that the learner constructs

knowledge and that effective learning occurs when students use active learning techniques such

as experimentation and real-world problem solving to build on pre-existing knowledge and then

reflect on and discuss why and how their understanding is changing (Costa et al., 2019; Eom &

Ashill, 2016; Neutzling et al., 2019). Social constructivism, introduced by educational

psychologist Lev Vygotsky in the 1930s, is a separate entity of the aforementioned theory that

extends on the constructivist viewpoint by noting that a constructivist learning environment also

W
supports the collaborative construction of knowledge through social interactions and
IE
collaboration throughout the learning process (Vygotsky, 1978; Wolf, 2015). Wolf stated that

Vygotsky believed that learning could be considered a social process. In other words, students
EV
could accomplish more academically in an appropriate learning setting consisting of students

collaborating and learning along with their peers while the educator monitors and facilitates. This
PR

process allows students to foster their learning (Costa et al., 2019; Greene et al., 2015). One of

the challenges of social constructivism as it relates to online learning is the fact that students are

interacting and collaborating less than they typically would if they were in the traditional

learning environment. This is due to the physical distance between them and the problems some

students may face when using technology to collaborate in groups online (Berry, 2018; Besser,

2020; Gillett-Swan, 2017). The issue of the distance encountered by online learners and how this

distance affects learner autonomy, engagement, and academic achievement in a virtual

environment was addressed by professor and educational theorist Michael G. Moore in 1997.

Reproduced with permission of copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.