WORKSHOP 4: MICROORGANISMS

IN THE ENVIRONMENT AND IN/ON PEOPLE

Discuss the following questions:

1. Differentiate between the following pairs of terms:

a. Normal flora and Transient flora

Normal flora are microorganisms that are present in the human body in large
numbers.
Transient flora refers to the flora that is only temporarily found in the human
body. Removal by basic hygiene.

Opportunists and Pathogens

Opportunists are microorganisms that don’t normally cause disease but can do so under certain
conditions.

Pathogens are micro-organisms that cause diseases.

2. Define symbiosis. Differentiate between commensalism, mutulism and parasitism, and give an
example of each.

Symbiosis is a closed prolonged association between two or more different biological species.
Commensalism is when organisms benefits from host, but host is NOT affected.
Mutualism is where both organisms benefit.
Parasitism is when one benefits while host is harmed.

3. What sites within the body are normally free from microorganisms?
Internal tissues including blood, brain and tissue.

4. How does contamination differ from infection?

Contamination refers to the presence of harmful substances in an environment, while
infection refers to the invasion and multiplication of pathogens within a host
organism, causing illness.

5. Discuss the importance of gut flora/microbiota to health.

Digestion and nutrition support – They help breakdown complex carbohydrates and fibres that
the body cannot digest on its own.

Immune system support – they regulate and support the immune system, promoting
development.
Function of the immune cells.
Protection against pathogens – Healthy balance of gut flora acts as a barrier against invading
pathogens.

Metabolism and weight regulation – Certain gut flora are involved in regulating metabolism and
energy balance.

Synthesis of vitamin and enzymes –

Mental health – the gut brain axis, is influenced by gut microbiota.

6. What are the differences between probiotics and prebiotics? Give some examples of food
containing probiotics.
Probiotics are referred to as the good bacteria because they have positive effects on the
digestive system and overall health. E.g., yogurt

Prebiotics are non-digestible fibres or compounds that act as food the good bacteria aka
probiotics. E.g. Garlic, bananas.

Case study - Group discussion (5-6 students per group)

Kerry H, aged 20, had brief diarrhoea in the past few weeks. She thought that would go away if she
avoid/reduce raw vegetables (salads) meat and dairy products. In the past few days, she experiences
a strong and persistent urge to urinate, and a burning sensation when urinating. But only passes a
small amount of smelling cloudy urine. She went to see her family doctor and had a urine sample
taken. The urine analysis result showed that she has a urinary tract infection (UTI) caused by
bacteria Escherichia coli (E. coli).

1) E. coli is a group of bacteria that was found in the large intestine of nearly all people and animals
as a normal flora. Explain how they are related to UTI. What is the name given to normal flora
that can also become pathogenic under some circumstances?

2) Discuss the possible routes of E. coli transmission to the urinary tract. Why there are more
women than men suffer from UTI?

3) Describe the possible ways to prevent UTI caused by E. coli.

4) Can E. coli cause kidney infection?

5) Discuss the health benefits of normal flora.

6) There are many different strains of E. coli. Although some cause no illness at all, others can
cause serious illness. Search and discuss the health impacts of pathogenic strains of E. coli.
 Workshop 5: MICROORGANISMS AS AGENTS OF DISEASE

Answer the following questions:

1. Define the terms etiology, reservoir and carrier. Explain the 3 main types of reservoirs.
Etiology – The cause, set of causes for an infectious disease.
Reservoir – Living organism or inanimate objects that provide adequate conditions for
survival and multiplication and the opportunity for transmission of a pathogen.
Carrier – A carrier is a person a person in whom organisms are present and may be multiplying,
but who shows no clinical response to their presence.

2. What are the three principal routes of infectious disease transmission among the population?
Explain the differences between the following pairs:

a) Direct and indirect contact

Direct contact is generally person to person (through touching, kissing, sexual

intercourse, (common cold, influenza, AIDS (examples)).

Indirect contact refers to (reservoir  non living objects  new host).

Fomite – Nonliving objects.

b) Droplet and airborne transmission

Droplet – Microbes that spread in mucus droplets, that generally travel in short
distance through coughing talking sneezing laughing. (<1 meter).

Airborne transmission – spreads > 1 meter (tb, measles), small droplets remain
airborne for prolonged periods e.g aerosols and dusts.

c) Mechanical and biological vectors

Mechanical vectors – Passive transport of pathogens on insects feet or other body

parts, e.g flies and contamination of food.
 Biological Vectors – Biological transmission vectors are infected with a pathogen
e,g bacteria and protozoa and multiply in vectors. E.g. Stomach, saliva or blood.

Airborne transmission is a type of vehicle transmission. What are other types of

vehicles for microbial transmission?
Direct, indirect, droplet, oral transmission (when fecal matters from an infected
person is ingested by another person), blood and contaminated vaccine, Vertical
transmission (from a pregnant woman to her fetus, during pregnancy, childbirth or
breastfeeding.

3. What are the three portals of entry for microbes? Describe how microbes gain access to the
hosts through each.
Respiratory entry( through nose and mouth), gastrointestinal entry (contaminated food,
water or objects), Urogenital entry (microbes entering through breaks,

4. Compare and contrast the endotoxins and exotoxins. You may use a Table. Included in your
answers:

a) the type of bacteria involved

b) sites of production
b) their chemical makeup, toxicity and action (outcome)

Aspect Endotoxins Exotoxins

Types of Bacteria Present in the cell wall of Secreted by both Gram –
Gram – Negative bacteria Positive and Gram – Negative
bacteria.
Sites of Production Found within the bacterial Secreted by bacteria into the
cells surrounding environment.
Chemical Makeup Composed of (LPS) Proteins
Lipopolysaccharides
Toxicity Generally less toxic compared Highly toxic and can cause
to exotoxins. specific cellular damage.
Action/Outcome Activation of host immune Specific actions of host cells,
responses,including leading to various outcomes
inflammation such as cell death, paralysis or
disruption of normal cellular
functions.

5. Describe the five stages of disease development.

Incubation period – Time between the actual infection and the appearance of any signs or
symptoms.
Prodromal period – relatively short time in which preliminary mild symptoms may occur.

Period of illness/invasion – Time of most active and severe stage of illness with all
symptoms apparent.

Period of decline – Signs and symptoms subside and host beings to overcome infection.

Convalescences – The person regains their normal state of health.

Case study

Michael Robertson, aged 4, fell off the monkey bars at Kinder and hurt his wrist. His mother was
called to pick him up. She was worried that the wrist was broken and took him to the doctor’s
clinic. When they arrived, the doctor’s waiting room was full of people. While Michael’s mother
read Women’s Weekly, Michael and the other children played with the toys. Michael pointed out
to his Mum that many of the other children looked sick and were coughing and sneezing. He also
pointed out that some of the children had very bad manners and were not covering their mouth
with their hand. Michael went to the toilet and was disappointed to find there was no toilet paper
and soap.

The doctor examined Micheal’s arm and luckily it was not broken. He suggested that Michael’s
mum give him Panadol for pain relief. He then offered Michael a jelly snake to cheer him up.
However, Michael’s mums bought him back to the clinic within a few days. Michael had a fever, a
cough, a runny nose and a sore throat. He was lethargic and did not want to eat or play. The doctor
suggested that Michael probably had a viral infection and so he should be given Panadol to relieve
his symptoms. However, Michael’s mother was adamant that the doctor prescribes Michael
antibiotics. The doctor prescribed antibiotics for Michael for 5 days. He also suggested that Michael
should also take a probiotic. Michael did not enjoy taking his medication or the probiotic. It was a
struggle to get him to take it. However, after Michael took Panadol and the antibiotics for 2 days, he
no longer had fever and he was playing and eating normally. Michael’s mother decided that she
would stop giving him his medication.

1. Is it possible that Michael contracted the infection from visiting the doctor’s clinic? If so
explain how this may have occurred. In your explanation include who is the reservoir
and give examples of how transmission may have occurred.

The reservoirs could have been the other children as they looked sick, were coughing, and
sneezing without covering their mouths therefore the bacteria would be present in the
surrounding air (near Michael). It could’ve been the toys that the children were playing with, it
could’ve have also been the door handle or the tap when Michael entered and left the toilet, since
there was no soap or toilet paper present.
2. What is the chain of transmission? What simple measure(s) may be able to help to break
the ‘chain of infection’?

The chain of transmission involves a susceptible host (Michael) being exposed to the infectious
agent (possibly a virus) through contaminated surfaces or respiratory droplets. To break the chain
of infection, simple measures such as regular handwashing with soap and water, covering the
mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing, and proper sanitization of toys and clinic facilities
are essential. Educating both children and parents about the importance of these practices can
significantly reduce the risk of infection transmission.

3. What is the possible etiologic agent of Michael’s condition?

The symptoms described (fever, cough, runny nose, sore throat, lethargy) are common in
viral infections, such as the flu or common cold. The exact etiologic agent cannot be
determined without specific diagnostic tests. Viruses like influenza viruses or
rhinoviruses could be potential causes based on the symptoms mentioned.

4. In your opinion, should Michael have been prescribed antibiotics? Why or why not?
Antibiotics are not appropriate for viral infections; they are more effective for bacterial
infections. Excessive and unnecessary use of antibiotics can lead to an antibiotic
resistance, meaning the bacteria is harder to eliminate. Even if the doctor suspected a
viral infection, antibiotics would not have any effect on the illness,

5. Why did the doctor suggest that Michael take a probiotic?

Probably to counteract or reduce the side effects of antibiotics. Even though antibiotics
are ineffective against viral infections, they can still kill the good bacteria present in the gut.
Probiotics are beneficial bacteria that can help restore the natural balance of gut flora which was
disrupted by the antibiotics. They can also help aid in preventing other potential side effects such
as diarrhea and other gastrointestinal issues.
 Workshop 6: VIRUSES AND FUNGI

Answer following questions on viruses:

1. Explain why viruses are classified as obligate intracellular parasites.

Viruses are classified as obligate intracellular parasites because they can only replicate and
complete their life cycle inside host cells. They lack the essential cellular machinery and
metabolic processes necessary for independent life.

2. Describe five (5) characteristics that differentiate a virus from other microorganisms.
- Lack of cellular structure
- Inability to carry out metabolic processes.
- Obligate intracellular parasitism.
- Genetic Material
- Size and Morphology
-
3. What are the seven steps involved in virus reproduction.
- Attachment (adsorption)
- Penetration (injection)
- Enzymes Synthesis
- Replication of nucleic acid
- Synthesis of protein coats
- Assembly and packaging
- Release (lysis of budding)

4. Briefly explain the following two configurations of nucleic acids in viruses:

plus (+) minus (-).
These configurations refer to the polarity of their single stranded RNA (ssRNA) molecules.
The orientation of the RNA strand is essential for the replication process.

In viruses with a plus configuration, the single strand RNA molecule serves as

4. Discuss the lytic and lysogenic cycles of bacteriophage replication.

In the lytic cycle, the phage replicates and lyses the host cell. In lysogenic cycle,
phage DNA is incorporated into the host genome, where it is passed on to
subsequent generations.

5. Briefly discuss the four consequence of virus infection in humans.

 Disease – Virus can cause diseases in humans.

Immune response – immune system responds by producing antibodies and activating immune
cells to fight the infection.
Long term health effects – Long term consequences even after the acute phase of the illness
has passed.

Epidemics and pandemics – potential to cause widespread outbreaks.

Case study:

Mariam is 8 years old and already knows what she wants to be when she grows up - "a health
minister can help others and wants everyone to be healthy," she says. "I have good grades, I
know I can make it". In February 2005, soon after she experienced increased bleeding and
bruising, Mariam was diagnosed with Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) caused by virus, the
most common type of cancer in childhood. She has been receiving chemotherapy and
radiotherapy treatment since then – an almost unbearable experience.

ALL affects immature lymphocytes (lymphoblasts) developing in the bone marrow and fast
cell proliferation results in crowding in the bone marrow and interfering with normal blood
cell production.

1) Explain how viruses cause the cancer.

Lysogenic, elongating the host cells etc.
Genetic mutations, immune system suppression, Chronic inflammation, Direct
transformation.

2) The ALL that caused by viruses is usually latent. What is a latent infection?

3) Based on your knowledge of Human Physiology, what symptoms do you expect to see in ALL
patients?

4) Explain if ALL can be prevented. Through what general ways?

Answer following questions on Fungi:

1. How to differentiate fungi from bacteria. Fungi are:

All bacteria are prokaryotes. All fungi are eukaryotes. Fungi are characterised by chitin in
their cell walls.
2. Describe the two main types of fungi. How they are different?
Yeasts and mould. Yeasts are microscopic fungi consisting of solitary cells
that reproduce by budding. Molds, in contrast, occur in long filaments
known as hyphae, which grow by apical extension.

3. Explain how fungi reproduce.

Fungi reproduce asexually by fragmentation, budding (up to 24 daughter cells) or
producing spores. Some non-pathogenic yeasts have sexual production 
production of spores.

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4. What is the difference between fungal spores and bacterial endospores?
Fungal spores can make man spores whereas bacterial endospores are “one cell
makes one endospore”. Endospores exhibit no signs of life, however when
the environment returns to a favourable state for bacterial growth the
bacterial endospore will germinate and return to a normal state.

5. What is a mycosis? Describe superficial, cutaneous, and subcutaneous and systemic

mycoses.

Mycosis is a general term used to describe fungal infection in animals, including humans.
Superficial mycoses affect the outermost layer of the skin, hair, and nails.
Cutaneous mycoses affect the epidermis, dermis, and hair.
Subcutaneous mycoses involve deeper layers of the skin, including the subcutaneous tissue,
muscles and fascia.
Systemic Mycoses are severe fungal infections and can affect internal organs.