BrisMUN ‘18

INTRODUCTION
Caesar’s Civil War was one of the most defining moments of the Roman Republic. Gaius Julius
Caesar and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, two incredibly successful military commanders in their
own right, became embroiled in a struggle for ultimate political power and military prestige.
Although the two were once reliant upon each other to achieve their aims, shifting political
loyalties and increasing competitiveness proved to be their downfall.

As this is a an historical crisis, you are probably aware of how the civil war unfolded, and
ultimately ended. However, this briefing paper will not address the events of the civil war.
Instead it will explore the historical and political context of the Roman Republic in the lead up
to the civil war, detail the lives of Pompey and Caesar, and provide you with the starting point
of the crisis.

Therefore as historical characters it is your responsibility to remain true to your political

context. How this crisis unfolds is determined not by the historical record, but by your
decisions and interactions as a group. Nevertheless, you should respond to the actions of
others in a way that is consistent with your context, and the reality of the Roman Republic

We hope you enjoy the conference, and good luck!

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 Caesar’s Civil War

CONTENTS
Introduction 2

History And Context 4

The Roman Senate 4
Two Leading Men 5
Civil War 9
The Status Quo 10

QYSBATA 11

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HISTORY AND CONTEXT

The Roman Senate

The Roman Senate, as the major political foundation of the Roman Republic, was a primary
actor in the development of the civil war. In order to understand the tensions between Caesar
and the Senate, it is necessary to understand how the Senate functioned within Roman
society, as well as their level of power and influence over the people.

Composition and Duty

The Roman Senate, originally created as an advisory council, had by the last two centuries of
the Roman Republic, become an independent, automatically constituted body with extensive
political power.1 In 81 BCE Sulla, dictator of Rome, decided to allow automatic entry of
quaestors to the senate,2 and increase the number of quaestors to 20. After this shift, the
senate became the chief governing body of Rome, and provided advice regarding domestic
and foreign policy, financial and religious questions, as well as legislative procedures.3 They
also acquired the ability to choose the provinces assigned to the consuls, assign duties and
prolong the office of magistrates, as well as appointing commissions that would help organise
conquered territory. Finally, the senate by this point was in charge of finance; meaning that
the senate controlled expenditure and revenue, as well as supervising the treasury.

Optimates and Populares

During the middle of the second century BCE, the aristocratic, ruling class of the Roman
Republic had adopted the moniker “Optimates”, translating to the “best men”.4 Considering
the nature of this name, its acceptance implied a political and social superiority over the lower
classes.

The Populares on the other hand, were more inclined (with an increasingly democratised
Rome), to rely on the assemblies of people in order to pass legislation. Due to the opposition
of the senate during his consulship, Caesar relied on the public assemblies to pass and enact
legislation. Caesar continued to develop his relationship with the public throughout his career,
in which he ultimately gained the respect and support of the public assemblies over the
Senate.

It is important to understand that the Optimates and Populares did not constitute political
‘parties’ in the modern sense. Rather they were “factio”, or a collection of politicians who
followed an unofficial leader who had shifting political aims. This meant that a member of

1 Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998). Senate: Roman History. Retrieved from https://www.bri-

tannica.com/topic/Senate-Roman-history
2 A magistrate in ancient Rome whose traditional responsibility was over the treasury. Ency-
clopaedia Britannica. (1998).Quaestor: Ancient Roman Official. Retrieved from https://www.britan-
nica.com/topic/quaestor-ancient-Roman-official
3 Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998). Senate: Roman History
4 Hammond, N. G. L., & Scullard, H. H. (eds.). (1970). Oxford Classical Dictionary 2nd Ed.
Clarendon Press: Oxford.

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one faction could transfer himself to the other, or a faction as a whole could dramatically shift
their policy to adopt ideas they had previously opposed.

This behaviour was exemplified by Pompey who, as will be explored further on, shifted
his political allegiance multiple times throughout his career. Most significantly, while he
relied upon the popular assembly to enact his policies when he was a member of the First
Triumvirate, he ultimately aligned himself with the Optimates after the dissolution of the
alliance.

Two Leading Men

Although there are a number of characters involved in Caesar’s Civil War Crisis, there are
two main figures that the crisis revolves around. Pompey and Caesar were two of the most
significant military characters within the Roman Republic, and as such it is necessary to detail
the evolution of their careers.

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (September 29th 106 BCE-September 28th 48 BCE)

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, more commonly known as Pompey, descended from a wealthy
and influential landowner who was heavily involved in political and military campaigns.
Pompey spent his initial military years undergoing training within his father’s legions, which
provided the basis of what would be a strong military career. When Sulla returned in 83 BCE
to fight the Marian regime, Pompey assembled three Picenean legions to assist this campaign.
After the defeat of the Marians, Sulla, who was impressed with Pompey’s military prowess,
promoted him to “Imperator”. In essence, this title made Pompey a commander under the
Roman Republic. To further express his admiration, Sulla offered his already married and
pregnant daughter, Aemilia, to Pompey. Both Aemilia and Pompey separated from their
current spouses, and enjoyed a short marriage until Aemilia died in childbirth. Nevertheless,
the combination of this match and Sulla’s exceptional praise of him, significantly furthered his
career and reputation within Roman society.

Under both the Senate and Sulla’s orders, Pompey then engaged in two military campaigns
to reclaim Sicily and Africa from the Marians. During these campaigns, Pompey gained the
reputation of “Sulla’s butcher”, through his brutal yet effective military tactics that ensured his
own prosperity and success. Over the next decade, Pompey continued to change allegiances
based upon his own strategic interests, and asserted his military strength against the Senate
multiple times. Between 76 and 71 BCE Pompey ventured to Spain to continue expanding
his military reputation, which only increased his popularity amongst the Roman people.
Capitalising upon his popularity and reputation, he circumvented Roman law and became a
consul in 70 BCE (partnering with Crassus) without having previously served as a senator.

Following on from his consulship, Pompey was offered a naval force to deal with the issue
of increasing piracy in the Mediterranean. While the senate were not pleased with this
development, Pompey’s popularity among the plebeians reinforced his position, while
additionally bestowing upon him a Lex Gabinia.5 After eradicating piracy and restoring trade
in the Mediterranean region, Pompey was then given a command against Mithradates in Asia-
Minor.

5 A title that allowed Pompey absolute control of the Mediterranean, and 50 miles into the
coastline. Hefele, Sarosky, Elkadi, & Jyegal. (n.d.). Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus. Retrieved from http://
sites.psu.edu/firsttriumvirate/pompey/

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After Mithradates’ death in 63 BCE, Pompey was able to consolidate the eastern provinces
and frontier kingdoms. Academics argue that this was the greatest feat of his career; he had
managed to build a defensive frontier that would remain largely unchanged for the next 500
years. Pompey reached his height of influence at this point by receiving his third triumph, and
at this point dismissed his army.

As can be observed, throughout his career Pompey was incredibly motivated by his own
success. Pompey was rarely intimidated by political or military rivals, and he could justify
this confidence through his continually growing success. Nevertheless, Pompey’s constantly
changing loyalties, as well as his disregard for traditional political restraints meant that his
ability to bypass the senate could only succeed for so long.

Gaius Julius Caesar (~100 BCE- March 15 BCE)

Gaius Julius Caesar was born to parents who adhered to a Populares political ideology,
strongly believing in the democratisation of the government and the advancement of rights
for the lower classes.6 These political beliefs that Caesar adhered to from birth, would
contribute both to his phenomenal success, but also to many of his problems with the Roman
Senate. Caesar began his career by entering into the priesthood as a Priest of Jupiter,7 but was
soon persecuted and forced to leave Rome.

The declaration of Sulla as dictator, which so favoured Pompey, meant that Caesar and
his Populares ideology were not welcome.8 Even at this early stage of his career, Caesar
was heavily entrenched within the context of a frenzied struggle for power between the
conservative Optimates and the more democratic Populares.

After fleeing Rome, Caesar was stripped of his position as a priest, and in order to support
himself, decided to join the army. He enjoyed great initial success, even being awarded the
civic crown, for saving the life of a fellow soldier. Following the death of Sulla, he returned
to Rome as an orator. In 75 BCE, he was briefly kidnapped by pirates in Greece and held for
ransom. On the back of military and oratory success, Caesar believed he was worth a higher
ransom fee than was originally proposed, and after being rescued, returned to crucify the
pirates.

Back in Rome, Caesar was elected as a military tribune9 and was married to Pompeia, the
wealthy granddaughter of Sulla, after his previous wife had died.10 After gaining significant
influence within the Roman Republic, Caesar began his professional interactions with Gnaeus
Pompeius Magnus and Marcus Lucinius Crassus.

Caesar used his prestige to support Pompey for his bid for a generalship, and it is believed

6 Mark, Joshua, J. (2011). Julius Caesar. Retrieved from https://www.ancient.eu/Julius_Caesar/

7 Also referred to as Flamen Dialis. The priests were supervised by the Pontifex Maximus, and
offered sacrifices to their chosen deity. Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998). Flamen. Retrieved from
https://www.britannica.com/topic/flamen
8 Mark, Joshua, J. (2011). Julius Caesar.
9 Or tribuni militum were responsible for administrative and logistics duties, and were allowed
to lead a section of a legion under the command of a consul. Cartwright, M. (2016). Tribune. Re-
trieved from https://www.ancient.eu/Tribune/
10 Mark, Joshua, J. (2011). Julius Caesar.

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Crassus funded Caesar’s bid for the election of Pontifex Maximus which he won in 63 BCE.11 In
62 BCE he was elected as Praetor,12 and sailed to Spain in 61 BCE as the Governor of Hispania.
During this year, Caesar “defeated the warring rival tribes, brought stability to the region, and
won the personal allegiance of his troops through his skill on the battlefield”.

Although these years were only the formative base of Caesar’s career, he showed tremendous
military skill from a young age, and was already winning public support amongst the Roman
people. Nevertheless, his belief in the Populares ideology, while incredibly beneficial in gaining
support amongst the lower classes, had already caused periods of turmoil between him and
the Senate.

The First Triumvirate

Although both Caesar and Pompey were enjoying success within their individual careers,
Caesar’s Populares ideology and Pompey’s constantly changing loyalties meant that their
position within Roman society was constantly precarious. Combining their influence therefore,
would better ensure their popularity, and help them to achieve their ambitious career goals.

The First Triumvirate was an alliance formed between Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, Marcus
Lucinius Crassus, and Gaius Julius Caesar lasting from 60 BCE until 53 BCE.13 Even from its
inception, this alliance was filled with tension between Pompey and Crassus dating from the
Spartan revolt in 73 BCE, when Pompey took credit for a military victory that was actually
Crassus’. However, considering the contemporary political climate in Rome, one fraught with
conspiracies, potential civil war and corruption, the three overcame their differences and
joined together. This alliance was intended to earn gloria and dignitas (glory and dignity) for
the trio, as well as using their combined power to achieve their political and military aims. As
a final gesture of goodwill to ease past tensions, and to promote a future of success, Caesar
married his daughter Julia to Pompey.

The first goal of the alliance was realised when Caesar was named co-consul of Rome in
59 BCE with Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus. Through Caesar’s position, Pompey hoped that
his proposal to reward his military veterans with land and settlement in the East would be
approved by the senate, who had previously denounced it. However, Caesar’s co-consul
Biblius, a close friend of Cato the Younger (the leader of the Optimates), vetoed the proposal.
As a result, Caesar concluded that it would be more effective to present Pompey’s proposal
before the popular assembly. Despite Bibulus’ interference, which resulted in him being
removed as Caesar’s co-consul, the bill was accepted. By achieving two of the primary goals of
the trio, the immediate success of this alliance was clearly apparent.

Unfortunately, these initial successes were not enough to prevent further tensions and
jealousies from developing between the trio over the next decade. Nevertheless, all three

11 The Pontifex Maximus was responsible for maintaining the “peace of the gods”, and did this
through recording celestial and other signs in a collection of omens, in order for future generations
to better understand the divine. Livius.org. (2002). Pontifex Maximus. Retrieved from http://www.
livius.org/articles/concept/pontifex-maximus/
12 Praetors were judicial officers who held broad authority in cases of equity, produced public
games, and in the absence of consuls, exercised authority on their behalf in the Senate. Encyclopae-
dia Britannica. (1998). Praetor. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/praetor
13 Wasson, D. L. (2016). First Triumvirate. Retrieved from https://www.ancient.eu/First_Trium-
virate/

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members of the alliance did continue to enjoy success within their careers during this
time. After a series of food riots in 57 BCE, Pompey was granted control over Rome’s grain
supply,and following on from this Pompey was named as the Governor of Spain. Crassus
was awarded the command of an army in the East, giving him the opportunity to increase his
personal fame. Finally, even while facing hostility from the Roman senate, Caesar negotiated
a military campaign in Gaul that would last him a decade, and earn him much gloria and
dignitas.

Caesar’s Gallic Conquests

While Caesar was protected from the indictment of the Optimates during his consulship, he
knew this would not last at the end of his term. Furthermore, at this point Caesar was heavily
indebted politically and financially, mainly to Crassus, and wanted to raise both his finances
and prestige.14 Therefore, the triumvirate negotiated a generalship in Gaul for Caesar, for him
to avoid the persecution of the senate and to begin paying off his debts.

Caesar’s time in Gaul presented a defining moment for his military career; throughout his
time in the region he had significant military successes, dramatically increased his finances,
and won the support of both his soldiers and the Roman people. Therefore, it is important
to explore how Caesar’s actions brought jealousy and suspicion upon him, and how this
contributed to the emergence of the Civil War.

Gaul was composed of a variety of states with differing ethnic origins. In the lead up to
Caesar’s Gallic exploits, Germanic tribes had begun to migrate into the region, which was an
uninviting prospect for the Romans.15 Initially however, Caesar was not intending on invading
Gaul, but rather the mineral rich province of Rumania. Nevertheless, the migration of the
Helvetians through Roman territories convinced Caesar that at least some of his attention
should be focused towards the region. Moreover, military success against the Helvetians and
Germanics would greatly impress the Senate, and promote him to the same rank as his Uncle
Marius.

After successfully defeating the Helvetians in Bibracte and the Suebians in Colmar, he decided
to leave his legions nearby in the area of Besançon as a deliberate provocation to other tribes.
By this time, Caesar had proven himself as a more than capable military leader, and was
intent upon conquering all of Gaul. Aside from his military victories, Caesar could also see
that there were significant trade opportunities in the region. The Rhône-Saône-Rhine corridor
was the most important trade route within pre-industrial Europe, specialising in amber and
slaves. By engaging in trade in the region, Caesar could expand into new markets for the
Mediterranean by exporting Roman luxury items, and creating access to British tin.

During a winter spent in Cisalpine Gaul working on his Commentary on the war in Gaul,
northern Gallic tribes (around modern day Reims) formed an anti-Roman coalition. This
provided Caesar with a legitimate reason for warring with the northern Gallic tribes, and
his Belgian campaigns in 57 BCE were successful. After these victories, Caesar moved south
into the Loire valley. Meanwhile in Rome he was awarded with an unprecedented public
thanksgiving ceremony lasting fifteen days. With the majority of Gaul under (at least nominal)
Roman control, Caesar spent the winter in Illyricum, before heading back to Italy.

14 Mark, Joshua, J. (2011). Julius Caesar.

15 Livius.org. (1997). Gaius Julius Caesar: Conquest of Gaul. Retrieved from http://www.livius.
org/articles/person/caesar/caesar-04/

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In 56 BCE at a meeting in Luca, Pompey, Crassus and Caesar reaffirmed their commitment
to the triumvirate.16 Through the continuation of this alliance, Caesar supported Pompey
and Crassus returning to a joint consulship in 55 BCE, and Caesar’s generalship in Gaul was
extended until 50 BCE.17 With his generalship extended, Caesar engaged in a naval battle at
the Bay of Quiberon, in order to subdue the Bretons who had revolted in Caesar’s absence.
Unsurprisingly, the Bretons were quickly defeated. The extension of Caesar’s generalship
in Gaul, as well as the nature of some of his campaigns, were starting to create suspicions
amongst the Senate, particularly Cato the Younger.

Firstly, two tribes from the opposite side of the Rhine had crossed the river, and Caesar’s
legions attacked them during an armistice. Many women and children were killed during
this attack, which prompted Cato the Younger to offer Caesar over to the Germanic tribes.
Considering the negative attention that this attack drew from the Senate, Caesar decided to
divert their focus elsewhere. Therefore he crossed into the Germanic towns and destroyed
them. This impressed both the Gauls and the Senate, and with his reputation reinstated, he
turned west towards Britain. Although the Britons were considered primitive, Caesar’s short
campaign against them only continued to increase his standing with the Senate, and he was
awarded with a thanksgiving ceremony that lasted twenty days, as well as a tribute for his
second campaign in 54 BCE. By this point, Caesar’s military campaigns had extended the
Roman Republic to the “mythological edges of the earth”.

The End of the Triumvirate

Although the members of the triumvirate had each been enjoying political and military
success during this period, jealousies and tensions began to once again develop. The death
of Caesar’s daughter Julia in 54 BCE widened the already growing gap between Pompey and
Caesar.18 Moreover, any hope of restoring this relationship was destroyed when Crassus was
decapitated in the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BCE. With the remaining ties between the alliance
now severed, Pompey’s jealousy and Caesar’s ambition could no longer be contained.

Civil War

Caesar’s time in Gaul had greatly increased both his influence and wealth, and this success
was seen as destabilising and threatening by the Roman senate. Moreover, with the
dissolution of the triumvirate alliance, Pompey aligned himself with the Optimates. As the sole
political and military power within Rome, he had the Senate, in 49 BCE, demand that Caesar’s
generalship had ended, and that he should transfer his control over his legions to a new
governor, returning to Rome as a private citizen. Caesar was told of this news in Ravenna, and
was forced to make a difficult decision between prosecution and rebellion. After his actions
in Germania, Cato the Younger had charged Caesar with war crimes; therefore by defying
the orders of the Senate, he would be declared an enemy of the state. Nevertheless, Caesar
preferred the dignity of war over the humiliation of a trial. Therefore on the 10th and11th of
January, Caesar ordered the Thirteenth legion to advance to Rimini, where he could control
the Apennines. By doing this, he crossed the Rubicon river.

The significance of the Rubicon, is in its location rather than its size. The Rubicon creates a
natural border between Italy and Cisalpine Gaul, which is the region Caesar was governing.

16 Wasson, D. L. (2016). First Triumvirate.

17 Livius.org. (1997). Gaius Julius Caesar: Conquest of Gaul.
18 Wasson, D. L. (2016). First Triumvirate.

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Under the law of the Roman Republic during this time, troops were required to disband
outside of the borders of Italy before returning to Rome. Crossing this river with a trained and
loaded army was tantamount to a declaration of war.

The Status Quo

This crisis officially begins with Caesar’s crossing of the Rubicon. Therefore, it is important
for you to not only understand the political and military context outlined within this briefing
paper, but also know what role your characters have played within this context, and where
they are now.

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QYSBATA
(Questions You Should Be Able To Answer)

• What are the major political factions in Rome, and how has this impacted upon the
emergence of the civil war?

• Why was Caesar’s crossing of the Rubicon such a significant political and military
statement?

• How did the First Triumvirate challenge the role of the Senate, and what impact did this
have on the political climate in Rome?

• How did Caesar’s military career influence his reputation within Rome, both with the
Senate and the people?

• To what extent did gloria and dignitas impact upon career advancement during the Roman
Republic?

• How is your character related to Caesar, Pompey, or the Roman Senate?

• Is your character driven by political ideology, military values, or personal relationships?

Please note: Although it will be helpful in your research to research how this war actually played
out, Crisis Councils aim to revisit historical events and create an alternate historical path based on
your actions as a participant.

This means that you are not only barred from ‘metagaming’ the crisis (e.g. by ‘knowing’ things that
your character ought not know at the time, and using that to inform your actions), but that your
Directors will actively reshape the crisis if necessary to make such attempts ineffective.

Thus we ask you to, during your research, keep clearly distinct in your mind information which
you may know and use during the crisis, and information which is solely useful to gain a general,
retrospective understanding of the context of the crisis.

If you have any questions on this matter, please contact your Directors.

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