Prepared by: Mr.

Ahmed Yasser │ +20 106 913 7970

Biological molecules
• Carbohydrates
▪ Definition
 They are compounds in which each molecule is formed of
oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon atoms.
 Carbohydrates include starch, glucose, cellulose, and
glycogen.
▪ Characteristics of carbohydrates
 The simplest and the smallest type of carbohydrate is
glucose.
 Glucose is one of the sweet sugars.
 Glucose is soluble in water, while other molecules such as
cellulose, glycogen, and starch are insoluble.
 Carbohydrates are dissolved in the blood and transported
in the body in form of glucose due to their solubility.
▪ Functions of carbohydrates
1. Storage in humans
 When blood glucose level increases, glucose molecules
will be linked together forming glycogen.
 Glucose will be stored in the liver in form of glycogen
 Glycogen can break down into glucose again to provide
glucose when there is a decrease in the blood glucose
level.
2. Storage in plants
 Glucose molecules can be linked in another way to be
stored in the plants in form of starch.
 Starch can be broken down into glucose when there is a
need for glucose.
3. Formation of cell walls in plants
 The cell wall is made of cellulose.
 Cellulose is formed by linking the glucose
molecules in a chain.

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• Lipids
▪ Definition
They are formed of three fatty acids and glycerol and each molecule
is formed of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen atoms.
▪ Characteristics of lipids
 Lipids are insoluble in water, but they are soluble in ethanol
 Fats: lipids that are solid at room temperature.
 Oils: lipids that are liquid at room temperature.
 They have fewer oxygen atoms compared to carbohydrates.
▪ Function of lipids
 They form part of the cell membrane.
 They are stored underneath the skin for heat insulation.
 They also act as an energy store.
• Proteins
▪ Definition
A substance whose molecules are made of many amino acids.
▪ Characteristics of proteins
 Each molecule is formed of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and
nitrogen.
 There are 20 different kinds of amino acids.
 Each protein molecule has a different amino acid sequence.
▪ Functions of proteins
1. Protein shares in the formation of biological molecules such as
enzymes, hemoglobin, and antibodies.
 Hemoglobin in the RBCs carries the oxygen to be
transported throughout the body.
 Antibodies fight pathogens.
2. Keratin will form the hair and fingernails.
• DNA molecule (deoxyribonucleic acid)
▪ Definition
 It is a molecule formed of two strands that will be twisted around
each other to give a double helix shape.
 It is the material that makes our genes and chromosomes
▪ Characteristics of DNA
 DNA is made up of nucleotides.
 DNA is found in the nucleus of the cell.

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 Each nucleotide has nitrogenous bases, a pentose sugar, and a

phosphate group.

 Nitrogenous bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine(G),

and cytosine(C).
 A binds with T /G binds with C (by complementary base
pairing )
 The sequence of bases determines the sequence of amino
acids that form the proteins.

Biological molecules testing

1. Starch
 Add iodine solution
 +ve result: color changes from brown to
blue-black.
 -ve result: color remains orange-brown.
2. Reducing sugar
 Add Benedict's solution with heating.
 +ve result: color changes from blue to
green>yellow>orange>red.
 -ve result: color remains blue
3. Vitamin C
 Add DCPIP solution.
 +ve result: color changes from Purple to
colorless.
 -ve result: color remains purple.
4. Lipids
 Carry out the ethanol emulsion test by adding
ethanol with some distilled water.
 +ve result: milky appearance

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 -ve result: clear solution

5. Proteins
 Add Biuret solution.
 +ve result: color changes from blue to violet.
 -ve result: color remains blue.

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