Introduction

Numbers and Number Sense as an aspect includes concepts of numbers, properties,

operations, estimation and their applications.

Measurement as an aspect includes the use of numbers and measures to describe,

understand and compare mathematical and concrete objects. It focuses on attributes
such as length, mass and weight, capacity, time, money and temperature among
others, as well as applications involving perimeter, area, surface area, volume and
angle measure.

Geometry as an aspect includes properties of two- and three-dimensional figures

and their relationships, spatial visualization, reasoning and geometric modeling and
proofs.

Patterns and Algebra as an aspect studies patterns including sequences and series,
relationships and changes among shapes and quantities and includes the use of
algebraic notations and symbols, equations and most importantly, functions, to
represent and analyze relationships.

Statistics and Probability as an aspect is all about developing skills in collecting and
organizing data using charts, tables and graphs, understanding, analyzing and
interpreting data, dealing with uncertainty and making predictions and outcomes.

Number and Number sense

A number is a mathematical symbol used to count, measure, and label. Number
sense involves understanding numbers; knowing how to write and represent
numbers in different ways; recognizing the quantity represented by numerals and
other number forms; and discovering how a number relates to another number or
group of numbers.

Whole Numbers
Whole numbers are a set of numbers including all natural numbers and 0. They are a
part of real numbers that do not include fractions, decimals, or negative numbers.
Counting numbers are also considered as whole numbers.

Number Theory Sub-classification

The numbers which are used in our day-to-day life can be classified into different
categories.

 Odd Numbers
Odd numbers are those that are not divisible by the number 2. Numbers like 1, 3, 5,
7, 9, 11, 13, 15, and so on are considered as odd numbers.

 Even Numbers
Even numbers are integers that are divisible by the number 2. For example, 2, 4, 6, 8,
10, 12, 14, 16, and so on are even numbers.

 Square Numbers
Numbers that are multiplied by themselves are called square numbers or perfect
square numbers. For example, in 3 × 3 = 9, 9 is a square number. Similarly, 1, 4, 9, 16,
and so on are square numbers.

 Cube Numbers
Numbers that are multiplied by themselves 3 times are called cube numbers. For
example, 27 is a cube number because 3 × 3 × 3 = 27. Similarly, 1, 8, 64 are cube
numbers.

 Prime Numbers
Prime numbers are numbers that have only 2 factors, 1 and the number itself. For
example, 3 is a prime number because it has only two factors, 1 and 3. In the same
way, 2, 5, 7, 11 are prime numbers.

 Composite Numbers
Composite numbers are those that have more than 2 factors. In other words,
composite numbers can be divisible by more than two numbers. For example, 6 is a
composite number because it has more than two factors, that is, it is divisible by 1, 2,
3, and 6.

 Fibonacci Numbers
A series of numbers where a number is the addition of the last two numbers, starting
with 0 and 1 is known as the Fibonacci sequence. The numbers in this series or
sequence are known as Fibonacci numbers. For example, 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34,
..., is the Fibonacci sequence. Here, we can see that 1 + 1 = 2 , 1 + 2 = 3 , 2 + 3 = 5, 3 +
5 = 8 and so on.

Fraction
Fraction is defined as a part of something, and a quantity that is not a whole number.
It is expressed as the number of equal parts being counted over the total number of
parts in the whole.

Parts of a Fraction
 Denominator
 Numerator
 Fraction bar

Types of Fractions
 Proper Fraction
 Improper Fraction
 Unit Fraction
 Mixed Fraction
 Equivalent Fraction

Decimals
Decimals are used to express the whole number and fraction together. Here, we will
separate the whole number from the fraction by inserting a ".", which is called a
decimal point.

Ratio and Proportion

Ratio is used for comparing two quantities of the same kind. The ratio formula for
two numbers, a and b is expressed as a : b or a/b. When two or more ratios are
equal, they are said to be in proportion.

Percentage
The term "percentage" was adapted from the Latin word "per centum", which means
"by the hundred". Percentages are fractions with 100 as the denominator. In other
words, it is the relation between part and whole where the value of "whole" is
always taken as 100.

Integers
Integers include positive numbers, negative numbers, and zero. 'Integer' is a Latin
word which means 'whole' or 'intact'. This means integers do not include fractions or
decimals.

Measurement
Measurement is one of the most practical topics in the elementary school
mathematics curriculum. When discussing teaching and learning of measurement,
we need to keep in mind there are three different (yet clearly related) aspects that
students must learn.
They are:
Understanding the attribute being measured (e.g. what is length?)
Understanding the process of measurement (e.g. how do you describe how long
something is?)
Learning how to use measuring instruments (e.g., how do you use a ruler?)

Time
Knowing the concept of time is very essential in planning our day-to-day activities. It
helps us to plan our tasks and makes us more efficient organizers. Time is a period
during which a certain event happens, has happened, or is going to happen. It is a
very dynamic concept that measures events from past to future, throughout a day,
month, year, etc.

Speed
The speed formula can be defined as the rate at which an object covers some
distance. Speed can be measured as the distance traveled by a body in a given period
of time. The SI unit of speed is m/s.
Perimeter
Perimeter is the total length of the boundary of any closed shape. The outer
boundary that makes up a geometrical shape. For example, you have a huge square-
shaped farm. Now, in order to save your farm from street animals, you decide to
fence it. If you know the length of one side of the farm, you just have to multiply it by
4 in order to find the total length of the boundary of the farm.

Circumference of Circle
The circumference of a circle is the perimeter of the circle. It is the total length of the
boundary of the circle. The circumference of a circle is the product of the constant π
and the diameter of the circle.

Area
Space or region enclosed by a closed geometric figure in 2-D plane is called the area.
Also, it is a quantity that expresses the extent of a two-dimensional figure or shape
or planar lamina, in the plane.

Volume
Volume is the measure of the capacity that an object holds. For example, if a cup can
hold 100 ml of water up to the brim, its volume is said to be 100 ml. Volume can also
be defined as the amount of space occupied by a 3-dimensional object. The volume
of a solid like a cube or a cuboid is measured by counting the number of unit cubes it
contains.

Surface Area
The surface area of a three-dimensional object is the total area of all its faces. In real-
life we use the concept of surface areas of different objects when we want to wrap
something, paint something, and eventually while building things to get the best
possible design.

Temperature
Temperature is the measurement of the hotness and coldness of a body/object. It is
measured with the help of a device called thermometer. The three units in which
temperature is measured are Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin.

Reading a Meter
Meter is the SI unit of length. Length can be expressed in other units like,
centimeters, inches, feet, and yards which can be converted to meters.
Conversions of Meters
Meter to Centimeter. 1 m = 100 cm.
Meter to Millimeter. 1 m = 1000 mm.
Meter to Inches. 1 m = 39.37 in.
Meter to Feet. 1 m = 3.28 ft.
Meter to Yards. 1 m = 1.094 yd.

Geometry
Geometry is the branch of mathematics that deals with shapes, angles, dimensions
and sizes of a variety of things we see in everyday life. Geometry is derived from
Ancient Greek words – ‘Geo’ means ‘Earth’ and ‘metron’ means ‘measurement’. In
Euclidean geometry, there are two-dimensional shapes and three-dimensional
shapes.

Parallel Lines
Parallel lines are those lines that do not
intersect anywhere and are always the same
distance apart.
The symbol used to denote two parallel lines: ||

Perpendicular lines
Lines that intersect each other forming a right angle are called perpendicular lines.
The symbol used to denote two perpendicular lines: \

Angles
Angles are formed when two lines intersect at a point. The measure of the 'opening'
between these two rays is called an 'angle'. It is represented by the symbol ∠. Angles
are usually measured in degrees and radians, which is a measure of circularity or
rotation.

Triangle
A triangle is a closed shape with 3 angles, 3 sides, and 3 vertices. A triangle with
three vertices P, Q, and R is represented as △PQR.

Circles
A circle is a 2-dimensional closed shape that has a curved side whose ends meet to
form a round shape. The word ‘Circle’ is derived from the Latin word 'circulus' which
means a small ring. Let us learn more about the circle definition, the circle formulas,
and the various parts of a circle with a few circle practice problems on this page.
Quadrilateral
A quadrilateral is a closed shape that is formed by joining four points among which
any three points are non-collinear. In simple words, a quadrilateral is a polygon with
4 sides, 4 angles, and 4 vertices.

Polygon
In geometry, the definition of a polygon is given as a closed two-dimensional figure
which is formed by three or more straight lines.
Solid Shapes
Solid shapes are nothing but solids that consist of 3 dimensions, namely length,
breadth, and height. Solid shapes are also known as 3D shapes. These solid shapes
occupy space and are found in our day-to-day life. We touch, feel, and use them.

Pattern
A pattern is a particular way in which some is done, is organized or happens. It also
refers to any regularly repeated arrangement, especially a design made from
repeated lines, shapes or color on a surface.

Types of Patterns
 Repeating Pattern - A pattern that keeps repeating over and over again in the
sequence of numbers is called the repeating pattern.
 Growing Pattern - If the numbers or objects are arranged in an increasing order
in a sequence, that pattern is called a growing pattern.
 Shirking Pattern - A shirking pattern is a pattern where numbers or objects are
 arranged in a decreasing order.

Number sentence
A number sentence is a combination of numbers and mathematical operations that
children are often required to solve. Example of a number sentences include: 32 + 57
=? 5x6=?

Sequences
A sequence is an ordered list of numbers or other mathematical objects that follow a
particular pattern.

Order of the Sequence

The order of a sequence can be either ascending or descending order.

 Ascending Order
If the elements of the sequence are in increasing order, then the order of the
sequence is ascending.
 Descending Order
If the elements of the sequence are in decreasing order, then the order of the
sequence is descending.

Other patterns:

Linear Equation
Simple equations can also be called Linear Equations where there is more than one
variable and can be solved by using different methods such as using a graph,
balancing the equation by making LHS = RHS, and by transposing. To solve a linear
equation it will be helpful to know how to transpose or rearrange formulas. When
solving a linear equation we try to make the unknown quantity the subject of the
equation.

For example: 4x + y = 11 with values of x and y being 2 and 3 respectively.

4(2) + 3 = 11
8 + 3 = 11

11 = 11

Probability And Statistics

Probability And Statistics are the two important concepts in Maths. Probability is all
about chance. Whereas statistics is more about how we handle various data using
different techniques. It helps to represent complicated data in a very easy and
understandable way.

Bar Graph
A bar graph is a specific way of representing data using rectangular bars in which the
length of each bar is proportional to the value it represents. It is a graphical
representation of data using bars of different heights.

Line Graph
Line graphs, also called line charts, are used to represent quantitative data collected
over a specific subject and a specific time interval. All the data points are connected
by a line. Data points represent the observations that are collected on a survey or
research. The line graph has an x-axis and a y-axis.

Pie Chart
A pie chart is a pictorial representation of data in the form of a circular chart or pie
where the slices of the pie show the size of the data. A list of numerical variables
along with categorical variables is needed to represent data in the form of a pie
chart. The arc length of each slice and consequently the area and central angle it
forms in a pie chart is proportional to the quantity it represents.

Example: The whole pie represents a value of 100. It is divided into 10 slices or
sectors. The various colors represent the ingredients used to prepare the cake.

Simple Probability
The chance or occurrence of a particular event is termed its probability. The value of
a probability lies between 0 and 1 which means if it is an impossible event, the
probability is 0 and if it is a certain event, the probability is 1.

Experimental Probability
It is based on the data which is obtained after an experiment is carried out. It is the
result of: the number of occurrences of an event ÷ the total number of trials.

Example: A coin is tossed 20 times. It is recorded that heads occurred 12 times and
tails occurred 8 times.
P(heads)=12/20= 3/5
P(tails) = 8/20 = 2/5

Theoretical Probability
This is based on what is expected to happen in an experiment, without actually
conducting it. It is the result of: the number of favorable outcomes ÷ the total
number of possible outcomes.

Example: A coin is tossed.

P(heads) = 1/2
P(tails) =1/2