Automation in Construction 114 (2020) 103160

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Automation in Construction
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/autcon

BIM-based immersive Virtual Reality for construction workspace planning: T

A safety-oriented approach
Vito Getulia, , Pietro Caponea, Alessandro Bruttinia, Shabtai Isaacb
⁎

a
University of Florence – Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Florence, Italy
b
Department of Structural Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Effective workspace planning is known to play a crucial role in site planning and construction activity sche-
Virtual Reality duling. This research seeks to enhance the usual manual workspace planning process by simulating a con-
Safety management struction activity using both immersive Virtual Reality and Building Information Modeling technologies.
Workspace planning Workspace planning is improved by eliciting experienced workers' knowledge and integrating it with con-
BIM
struction managers' knowledge. The workers' knowledge is elicited both directly, by asking them for feedback
Computational design
Virtual ergonomics
during the activity simulation, and indirectly, by collecting and analysing position tracking data. The application
Game technology of this approach in a real case study demonstrates its beneficial impact in terms of the sharing of planning and
safety-related information between project partners and its formal representation in a Health and Safety Plan.

1. Introduction
Construction is one of the most dangerous of industries, accounting
for 40% of workplace accidents [1] and 20% of worker fatalities in the
U.S. [2]. Improving safety conditions in construction projects continues
to be a challenge worldwide. Achieving an improvement in construc-
tion safety at the project level is seemingly straightforward and could
theoretically be achieved through well-known measures such as im-
proved worker training, a strict adherence to correct instructions and
the proper use of personal protective equipment. However, the impact
of attempts to implement such measures has in practice often been
limited.
The effective communication and management in the project of
safety information (regarding a specific project) and of safety knowl-
edge (based on previous experience, regulations, etc.) is a crucial factor
in improving safety [3–5]. However, in practice communication is often
poor, and misunderstandings are common, resulting in inadequate
support for workers [6–8]. This situation is often portrayed in pub-
lications as being one in which planners and managers typically know
how the construction can be safely executed, and need to inform the
subcontractors and/or workers on this, but these will often fail to fully
understand the instructions or comply with them due to the faulty
communication (e.g. [9,10]).
This study is based on the assumption that a more nuanced ap-
proach is warranted. The sheer complexity of construction projects, and
the fragmentation of their supply chain, makes it very difficult for any
single stakeholder to have all the necessary safety-related information
and knowledge, let alone to fully communicate it to other relevant
stakeholders. Consequently, a major challenge that needs to be met, is
how to support the mutual sharing of information among all partners,
through its effective elicitation, formalization and integration. Such
information may often, but not necessarily always, originate with the
manager or planner. Workers and subcontractors will also often hold
crucial information, which therefore needs to be elicited and dis-
seminated.
Construction activity planning requires, in particular, the allocation
of workspaces on the construction site, to ensure the efficiency and
safety of activities that are simultaneously executed. The definition of
activity workspaces includes their dimensions, usages and spatial con-
figuration patterns, as well as the building components under con-
struction. The accuracy and reliability of the definition of workspaces,
and consequently the consistency of the construction schedule, strongly
relies on the construction managers' experience and knowledge on the
one hand, and on information provided by the subcontractors and
workers involved in the activities on the other hand. It is therefore
essential to provide a solution that will support the integration and
sharing of this information between the project partners.
The hypothesis of this study is that advanced information technol-
ogies, such as Building Information Modeling (BIM) and Virtual Reality
(VR), can be simultaneously used to improve workspace planning

⁎
Corresponding author at: University of Florence, DICeA Department, Via di Santa Marta 3, Firenze 50139, Italy.
E-mail address: vito.getuli@unifi.it (V. Getuli).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2020.103160
Received 13 November 2019; Received in revised form 4 February 2020; Accepted 28 February 2020
Available online 20 March 2020
0926-5805/ © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
V. Getuli, et al.
related to construction activities and the sharing of safety-related in-
formation between all partners together with the formal representation
and integration of this information in a multi-dimensional project
model. This in turn will support more realistic project planning, and the
effective communication of the planning and safety information to all
relevant partners.
With this hypothesis in mind, previous studies in two related re-
search areas have been reviewed in the following section. The first area
concerns the incorporation of construction workspace requirements in
activity modelling and planning. The second research area concerns the
use of VR technologies in AEC sector for simulation and visualization
purposes.
2. Background
The success of a construction project strongly relies on its adherence
to its planned duration and cost, while ensuring the construction
workers' Health & Safety (H&S). One of the most important factors that
can adversely influence the H&S conditions on site is the workspace
configuration. Space is a limited resource on a construction site.
Workers, equipment, facilities, and material storage areas require dif-
ferent spaces and they compete with each other for space usage.
Moreover, the space requirement of a construction activity is dynamic,
i.e., the geometry and the location of the workspace continuously
change over time throughout different phases of the construction ac-
tivity, leading to a sequential series of workspaces that are associated
with the construction activity. Nowadays, construction and H&S man-
agers can use 3D and 4D virtual construction prototypes for construc-
tion scheduling, site planning and H&S management, supported by a
constantly improving range of tools and methods [11–13].
The common emerging approach to construction planning is to
provide construction managers with reliable data and analysis tools to
support them in the decision-making process. In this respect, this work
aims to investigate the benefits provided from the integration of
workers' field experience in a BIM-based construction planning process.
This integration is centered on the VR simulation of the construction
activities and their related workspace. However, since there is no evi-
dence of recognized standards in this field, the literature review focuses
on the one hand on findings regarding the integration of activity
workspace in building information models, and on the other hand on
the visualization and simulation of construction activities through VR
technologies.
2.1. Workspace modelling and visualization for construction planning
One of the most important factors able to affect the efficient and
safe delivery of construction projects is the site workspace availability
[14]. Workers, equipment, facilities have different space requirements
and they compete with each other for space usage throughout the entire
life of a project [15]. Furthermore, workspaces interact with each other
dynamically, their locations and volumes change in three dimensions
and across-time. In this context, traditional construction scheduling
techniques such as Gantt charts and network diagrams are inadequate
for managing site workspaces, mainly, due to their lack of spatial re-
presentation [16,17]. For the aforementioned reasons, incorporating
workspace consideration from the spatial and temporal perspective in
construction planning plays a pivotal role. Several expressions have
been used to describe this process to involve workspace management
including ‘spatial modelling’, ‘execution space analysis’, ‘schedule-
workspace management’, ‘workspace planning’ and ‘time-space ana-
lysis’ [18].
Methods and research that focus on the consideration of the loca-
tions of workers while performing activities, in the pursuit of more
accurate forecasting of future performance in the project, are classified
as Location Based Management Systems (LBMS) [19]. However, re-
search on the reliability of location-based plans found that it was often
2
Automation in Construction 114 (2020) 103160
low. The low reliability of plans was mostly related to faulty commu-
nication between project stakeholders, which reduced the sharing of
information [20]. For example, general contractors often lack an un-
derstanding of specialty subcontractors' work; there is a lack of un-
derstanding between them about required resources; and existing
planning decisions often lead to congestion on the site. Such problems
are not openly discussed in project meetings. These findings support the
goals of the present research.
The location of workers has also been considered in research on
safety-oriented construction planning [21]. The objective of these stu-
dies has been to identify in advance dangerous hazard locations on the
site, which may dynamically evolve as the work progresses. Research
by [22] and [23] focused on the development of a tool to support the
allocation of both time and workspace for a project to ensure worker
safety, based on an integrated multi-dimensional model that links the
domains of scheduling, site layout planning, and safety management.
However, these studies did not focus in the elicitation of relevant in-
formation from the project stakeholders.
In the light of this and considering the research purposes, two main
issues deserve further efforts to be addressed:
a) the need of an authoritative categorization of workspaces that are
associated with a construction activity that is important for the
process of workspace planning. As regard to this aspect, from pre-
vious studies [24,25], it has been emerged that a single workspace
for a constant geometry does not reflect real site conditions of a
construction activity. Being able to capture workspaces' typologies
and dimensions in site not only enhances visual interpretation of
workspaces but also lays a foundation for workspaces analysis and
planning that is one of the aims of the presented research.
b) the need of workspaces location tracking in construction activities
with reference to the building component. Some researchers re-
commended using positioning devices to locate construction re-
sources and deliver pro-active information in real-time such as
[26,27]. Many technologies exist today that might offer a solution
for pro-active real-time resource detection in site, but they are not
able to capture workspaces dimensions and for this reason they
seem to be more appropriate for hazard detections. A method able to
capture workspaces allocations of a construction activity before
coming in site in order to visualize such a configuration for safety
training and hazard prevention is still missing.
2.2. VR technologies for construction and working activities communication
Nowadays, many commercial VR technologies – from common
desktop applications to advanced immersive experiences – are available
for use by the AEC sector for different disciplines and purposes, due to
their simulation and visualization capabilities. Along with the increase
in use of BIM and availability of information enriched 3D building
models, a growing number of VR solutions allow practitioners to easily
enter and navigate a building's virtual prototype, mainly for basic de-
sign communication and validation. On the other hand, the application
of these technologies to more specialized matters still represents an
open research field. In this respect, remarkable results have been
achieved both in terms of the integration of BIM with cutting-edge
technologies, and of their application in challenging case studies. For
example: [28] demonstrates the effective use of BIM, VR, image pro-
cessing and machine learning solutions to leverage automation in
construction monitoring activity, which is well known to be particularly
labour intensive and error-prone; [29] reports the use BIM-based ad-
vanced technologies for the design validation of a particularly large and
complex facility such as a hospital. Despite these and several other
works that can be found in literature, there are few examples of the
effective application of such technologies in the fields of construction
planning and management, H&S management and workers' safety
training.
V. Getuli, et al.
Consequently, despite recent contributions which are mostly case
study-related, there is no comprehensive and standard approach yet for
the use of VR for such more advanced applications. For this reason, the
literature review focuses on three specific types of application of VR
technologies for construction and activity simulation that are particu-
larly relevant for the purposes of the present study.
2.2.1. Building construction simulation for construction planning and safety
management
Immersive VR technologies can allow the user to enter the simulated
construction site with the related activities. By providing an enhanced
real-scale spatial perception, they can support a more effective eva-
luation of the construction plan and schedule, along with the identifi-
cation and assessment of related risks. In this regard, a comprehensive
framework for the adoption of immersive Virtual Reality-enabled 4D
BIM simulations in collaborative constructability analysis meetings is
proposed and applied in a case study in [30]. Moreover, [31] show the
successful integration of BIM data, provided in the open IFC format,
with Immersive VR and Augmented Reality (AR) technologies. They
were used to foster the collaboration process and allow the early in-
volvement of a wider range of stakeholders, comprising the end-users.
Keeping this in mind and considering the worker as “end-user” of the
construction planning and safety management activity, many recent
studies have demonstrated the benefits of the implementation of VR/AR
technologies for construction H&S, as thoroughly reviewed in [12]. In
this respect, [32] showed the feasibility and opportunity related to a
construction safety management framework centered on a game tech-
nology-enabled visualization system that integrates BIM, location
tracking and AR for an effective safety-related information sharing
among different stakeholders.
Concerning hazard and risk perception in VR environments, a
number of studies demonstrate the enhanced understanding and
awareness enabled by the adoption of such technologies. [33] explored
hazard awareness and associated risk perception among a population of
subjects with different grades of construction training and experience
(superintendents, civil engineer students and companies' safety direc-
tors), and pointed out how most subjects identified more hazards cor-
rectly experiencing immersive VR environments when compared with
studying photographs and documents. At a different scale, [34] in-
vestigated with an experimental study the effects of human factors and
subjective experiences on a VR-based risk assessment for machine tools,
stressing that it represents an excellent alternative to document-based
or CAD-based approaches, and pointing out that participants value
more detailed machine virtual models.
2.2.2. Construction activities simulation for workers' safety training
The main appeal of VR technologies for workers' training consists in
the opportunity to allow the trainee to experience both general and
specific construction procedures and sequences, while learning in a
risk-free virtual environment where the related safety hazards are re-
produced, thus saving the costs of carrying this out in a real-scale
physical environment. Furthermore, the worker's enhanced involve-
ment and presence provided in an immersive VR, compared to docu-
ment-based passive training methods, increases the effectiveness of
such safety training [35]. [36] developed a game-technology-enabled
multi-user collaborative platform for the VR simulation of tower cranes
and tested it in a case study. They show how even complex construction
tasks, such as the operating procedures of construction equipment, can
be simulated with effective results, while addressing economic and
safety training issues. A more recent contribution [32] underpins the
adoption of VR/AR simulations for operators' training in activities and
tasks with high level of complexity, such as oil and gas facilities'
maintenance operations, hence reducing the time and costs related to
the physical implementation of such scenarios.
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Automation in Construction 114 (2020) 103160
2.2.3. Working activity simulation and workers' position tracking for
workplace design
In contrast to the construction sector, where research efforts often
focus on the visualization of the construction site and its 4D simulation,
interesting suggestions come from the manufacturing industry where
tasks are of a repetitive nature. Consequently, the ergonomic assess-
ment of the workplace design is a core requirement in manufacturing,
one for which VR activity simulations and worker's position tracking
tools are implemented. Recent studies demonstrate the effectiveness of
VR simulations of assembly lines and task scenarios in an ergonomic
approach to workplace design, aimed to optimize the production and
the human-machine interaction [37–40]. Human motion and posture
tracking systems have been applied to obtain reliable and repeatable
measures to be used for a fast and automatic evaluation of activity and
workplace-related working postures [41,42]. [43] proposed a method
to enhance the design of industrial workplace and support decision-
making, through the collection and analysis of the position tracking of a
worker. This is facilitated by performing assembly tasks in an im-
mersive VR-simulated work environment, significantly reducing the
costs and time related to their physical implementation.
2.3. Open issues
Two main issues that remain open have emerged from the review of
previous applications of advanced technologies and methodologies such
as BIM and VR, for the enhancement of safety-related information
sharing among stakeholders, and of the construction planning process
in general:
a) There is a need for a comprehensive approach for the modelling,
visualization and communication of safety information, which
considers the steadily changing environment of a construction site,
and the complex definition of the workspaces required for the
construction activities (e.g. workspace dimensions, typologies, risk
identification, time-dependent relations, etc.). Different approaches
have been proposed, mostly tailored for specific purposes, yet a
repeatable and flexible method is required that will enable con-
sistent safety information visualization and sharing between the
construction planner and manager on one side, and the sub-
contractors and workers on the other.
b) Significant efforts have been made to improve the communication of
safety-related information, as defined in the construction plan and
safety procedures, from the construction manager to subcontractors
and site workers. However, as has been noted, there is a need to
elicit, collect and formalize crucial worker's knowledge and field
experience in order to contribute to a more realistic definition of the
workspaces related to each site activity and thus improve the con-
struction planning process. This worker-centered approach to
workspace design, which leverages the adoption of immersive VR
activity simulation and worker's position tracking, has been proven
to be effective for the manufacturing domain. The application of a
similar approach in the construction domain is consequently sug-
gested, together with its integration in a comprehensive framework
for workspace modelling, visualization and communication.
3. Proposed methodology
In this study, a methodology was developed for site activity work-
space planning that enhances the usual manual workspace planning
process, by simulating a real-scale virtual construction activity using
both immersive VR technologies and BIM. This allows the elicitation of
workers' knowledge and its integration with construction managers'
knowledge. The methodology can be used by construction managers
and planners, responsible for preparing and implementing the schedule,
site plan and H&S plan. The use of the methodology should ensure that
these plans are based on correct assumptions regarding the workspaces,
V. Getuli, et al.
which will reflect actual requirements. This will in turn reduce H&S
risks and increase the probability of achieving the planned productivity
targets. To ensure that users will be willing to adopt the approach in
practice, the methodology should be user-friendly and easy to apply.
In order to define a sound methodology, a range of methodological
and technological objectives have been identified, which the proposed
working prototype fulfils:
1. Activity workspace modelling. To create a BIM-based multi-di-
mensional modelling and planning environment, a consistent
method is presented for the classification and representation of
construction activity workspaces. Such a method considers also the
workspaces 3-Dimensional visualization that shall be both effective
for workspace planning purposes and clearly understood by the
worker in the immersive VR construction activity simulation.
2. VR activity simulation. A VR environment is defined in which
activities can be simulated and workers' knowledge elicited for the
planning of workspaces. The definition includes the features, con-
tents and tasks to be included in the activity simulation.
3. Data collection and analysis. A process is defined for collecting,
formally modelling and analysing the information provided by
workers in the VR simulation. For this, the types of data that shall be
collected in the simulation are identified and a standard data col-
lection method is defined, along with an effective data analysis
criterion able to drive the planning process.
4. Workspace modification. Definition of a working procedure used
to modify and/or validate the configuration of workspaces in the
construction plan. The modification shall be based on the informa-
tion collected from workers through the VR simulation, after it is
integrated in the workspace modelling environment with the ex-
isting workspace configurations suggested by the construction
manager.
5. Onsite validation of the proposed workspaces. A procedure is
defined for the post-planning validation of the workspaces during
the onsite execution of the activities. This involves the definition of
an evaluation criterion to assess and quantify the consistency be-
tween the worker's spatial perception and space usage in the VR
simulation, and actual site conditions (see Section 6).
For each objective, the hardware and software setups are defined in
order to provide an efficient information flow through the different
steps of the methodology.
Addressing those objectives, the paper is organized as follows. First,
the top-level architecture of the proposed integrated solution for con-
struction activity workspace planning is described step-by-step. Next,
the operational framework and its computerization are described. This
is followed by two in-depth sections. The first details - in terms of both
hardware setup and simulation procedure - the proposed immersive VR
activity simulation during which worker's knowledge is elicited. The
second presents two algorithms, developed by the authors, for the ac-
quisition and analysis of data regarding the worker's position tracking
during the VR simulation. Finally, the application of this approach in a
real case study is provided, followed by the assessment of its beneficial
impact on the Health and Safety Plan.
A total of 9 workers were involved in 3 VR activity simulation
sessions for testing the proposed methodology. Future works foresee the
extension of the protocol implementation, with the involvement of a
larger sample of workers and the simulation of several different activ-
ities, in order to enable a statistical interpretation of the collected data.
The following section present the data collected, analysed and inter-
preted for a single activity simulation carried out by one worker that
was chosen as representative of the whole sample. In view of a larger-
scale application of this approach, a consistent data processing method
is one of the main issues to be addressed (see Section 8). The description
of the case study and the discussion of the implications of the related
protocol application can be found in Section 6.
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Automation in Construction 114 (2020) 103160
4. Top-level architecture
The top-level architecture of the proposed methodology is presented
in Fig. 1. The architecture shows the relationships between the work-
space planning processes, their interdependence with the 3D building
objects and the potential benefits provided by the use of immersive VR
for construction activity planning before commencing with the execu-
tion of onsite activities.
The methodology is explained through the example of a specific
construction activity, namely the installation of a Cross-Laminated
Timber (CLT) wall panel. This activity was also used as a case study for
the implementation and validation of the methodology, presented in
Section 6. In the same section, additional details concerning this ex-
ample can be found.
The process starts with the BIM-based models of the building and
site, containing all the building elements and site layouts in the dif-
ferent construction phases. Then, according to the H&S manager's ex-
perience, the building components whose installation implies relevant
safety issues are each analysed in terms of their workspace require-
ments. An initial workspace configuration, independent of the site
boundary conditions, is modelled according to the approach proposed
below. This represents the first step of the proposed planning approach
which eventually, by leveraging the tacit worker's knowledge via VR
activity simulation, will provide a validated workspace configuration
that is integrated in the Site Information Model and used for the
planning process. For interoperability purposes, the proposed in-
tegrated solution relies on the use of BIM authoring platforms able to
export 3D building objects using IFC standards. In the next paragraphs
the subsequent steps for the approach implementation are presented:
Activity workspace modelling (Step 1); VR activity simulation (Step 2);
Data collection (Step 3); Data analysis (Step 4); and Workspace mod-
ification (Step 5).
4.1. Step 1. Activity workspace modelling
The lack of an accepted standard for the virtual representation of
construction activity workspaces is a long-lasting open issue. The
classification and representation method adopted for this study is the
one proposed in previous publications by the authors [44,45] and relies
on the following space typologies:
• Workers' space: represents a space required by the workers for the
installation of the building component
• Hazard space: represents a space required to carry out the con-
struction activity, and which is exposed during the operations to
hazards due to its proximity to the building component, a Workers'
space or an Equipment space (Inward hazards)
• Equipment space: represents a space required by the equipment
supporting either the building component or the workers
• Safety space: represents a tolerance (safety distance or buffer) for
workspaces to prevent safety hazards such as a collision with sur-
rounding elements (e.g. building elements, workers, equipment), or
between two spaces, or a tolerance space required to avoid objects
falling from heights (Outward hazards).
On that basis, the required workspaces for the construction activity
of a building component are geometrically represented in a
3Dimensional environment through bounding boxes featuring different
colours and conveniently arranged around the component, generating a
semi-transparent envelope that spatially represents the volume in
which the construction activity is executed onsite. The workspace
classification and its colour scheme are proposed and assigned in order
to communicate their different usage in the planning process and thus
coherently communicate it to the workers in the following VR activity
simulation. The use of basic static envelopes representing the activity
workspaces - dynamically occupied on site - is therefore chosen due to
V. Getuli, et al.
Fig. 1. VR-based construction workspace planning workflow.
its effective implementation via parametric objects in a BIM-based
modelling environment.
For this study's purposes, the BIM objects dedicated to the re-
presentation of activity workspaces should fulfil the following
minimum requirements in terms of geometrical and non-geometrical
parameters, informative content and constraints:
• Workspace typology: workers' space, hazard space, equipment space
5
Automation in Construction 114 (2020) 103160
or safety space.
• Dimensions: length, width and height of the box volume representing
the workspace
• Colour and transparency: All the faces of the box volume representing
the workspace must be of a single colour with no pattern applied
and transparent. In fact, the material or aspect that characterizes the
visualization of the workspace both in the BIM authoring environ-
ment and in the VR simulation environment is crucial to its
V. Getuli, et al. Automation in Construction 114 (2020) 103160

identification and distinction among the other typologies.

Furthermore, transparency is required for the VR simulation in
order to allow an effective spatial perception from both inside and
outside the workspace itself.
• Configuration constraints: The activity workspace configuration is
obtained as an assembly of several workspaces, possibly but not
necessarily of different typologies. It represents the activity for a
given time, considered to be the most relevant for planning purposes
by the construction planner. Therefore, the workspaces can be ad-
jacent but cannot intersect, since otherwise the definition of a space
at the intersection would be inconsistent.

The chosen workspace representation method is also able to provide

a virtual shape to those spaces that are required for the construction
activity execution, that are in fact usually not physically delimited nor
continuously occupied on site. The outcomes of such a workspace
modelling approach are presented in Fig. 2, which shows the config-
uration of the workspace related to the installation activity of the CLT
wall panel for the case study. The activity consists in positioning and
fixing a suspended wall panel, by means of a tower crane, to its footing
structure, and involves two workers and a crane operator. The modelled
workspace for the activity simulation comprises the spaces reported and
explained as follows:

i) Workers' spaces on opposite sides of the panel's edges facilitate the

panel's alignment and attachment to the concrete footing;
ii) Hazard spaces along both sides of the panel are required to fix
intermediate footing attachments once the panel has been secured
at its edges. The hazard is generated by the temporary use of these
spaces for materials and tools' storage and by the presence of a
push-pull prop;
iii) Safety spaces at the opposite sides of the panel's edges are not to be
entered by either the workers involved or others before the panel
has been secured, so as not to be exposed to impact or crush ha-
zards;
iv) Equipment spaces are required for the push-pull prop and hoist
belts.

The workspace modelling activity can be carried out on any BIM

authoring platform that enables the definition of their informative
contents in terms of the requirements listed above. Nonetheless, the
choice of the authoring platform must also be based on the ease of
analysis and visualization of the data collected in the VR activity si-
mulations (see Section 5).

4.2. Step 2. VR activity simulation

Having defined and modelled the initial workspace configuration

based on the construction manager's experience, a simulation of the
activity is conducted by an experienced worker in an immersive Virtual
Reality (VR) environment in order to collect data and validate or adjust
the aforementioned configuration. Immersive VR allows the worker to
enter and evaluate with a real-scale first-person spatial understanding
the modelled workspace configuration while replicating his activity
tasks. Furthermore, the worker is asked to provide feedback, based on
his fieldwork experience, regarding the workspaces' position, dimen-
sions and type, with reference to the building component. This data is
used to validate the initial configuration or modify it. An overview of
the operational framework and specification for the immersive VR ac-
tivity simulation are presented below to allow a comprehensive un-
derstanding of the approach:
Fig. 2. BIM model of the workspace configuration for the installation activity of
a Cross-Laminated Timber wall panel: top, photo of the activity taken on site
a) Activity workspaces geometries and typologies are exported from
(30/07/2018); center, workspace model axonometric view; bottom, workspace
the BIM-based modelling environment to a game-engine: The
model plan view (dimensions in [cm]).
Information Model containing the building component, for which
the construction activity is planned, and its related installation

6
V. Getuli, et al.
activity workspaces, are exported to a game-engine environment
while keeping the informative contents in terms of the workspaces'
geometry and their visual representation (through the previously
described colour scheme). The adoption of a game-engine platform
for the production of the VR activity simulation related to the
workspace BIM model is preferred over integrated BIM-to-VR solu-
tions available for the main BIM authoring software, because of the
customization features they offer in terms of the addition of multi-
media contents (e.g. 3D geometries, realistic materials, audio con-
tents, etc.) and of scripting both the user's interaction with the vir-
tual environment and embedded data acquisition algorithms. As for
the BIM authoring platform, besides the game-engine adopted in
this work (see Section 5), any platform that fulfils the requirements
discussed below is to be considered suitable for the implementation
of the proposed approach.
b) VR activity simulation production: Within the game-engine platform
the imported BIM model is set in a blank space. Additional graphic
contents are then added and the user's interaction together with the
virtual environment is implemented, depending on the specific tasks
within the activity which the worker is supposed to replicate.
Furthermore, an automatic user's position data acquisition proce-
dure is provided during the VR experience.
c) Immersive mobile VR experience delivery: A staff member asks the
worker to move around the building components, as if he is carrying
out the construction activity. The VR activity simulation is ad-
ministered as a stand-alone mobile app for compatible mobile de-
vices. The worker experiences the VR simulation by means of a
smartphone, a headset and a paired Bluetooth controller for move-
ment and interaction inputs. During the VR simulation staff mem-
bers and construction manager monitor and support the worker
while his point-of-view is mirrored and shown by a connected pro-
jector.
In Fig. 3 is shown the VR session during which the case-study CLT
wall panel installation activity was simulated by one of the workers
appointed for its actual onsite later installation.
4.3. Step 3. Data collection
From the previous step (i.e. immersive VR experience), data are
collected and analysed with the aim of integrating the first workspace
configuration, proposed by the construction manager, with the
Fig. 3. Immersive VR simulation for the installation activity of the studied CLT wall panel.
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Automation in Construction 114 (2020) 103160
information provided by the worker. For that purpose, a twofold data
collection approach is proposed according to the following com-
plementary methods.
a) Active: worker's feedback. During the VR activity simulation, the
worker is asked to assess the experienced workspaces in terms of
their position, dimensions, type and overall configuration. This in-
formation is collected for the validation or modification of the
workspaces.
b) Passive: worker position tracking. The worker's position in the VR
environment is acquired for the whole duration of the activity si-
mulation to further analyse its spatial characteristics and the effec-
tive usage of workspace, by mean of a customized application
(which is further described in Section 5). The worker's position
during the VR activity simulation, with reference to its centroid 3D
coordinates, is recorded with a data acquisition rate of 1 Hz. The
resulting sequence of 3D points is saved in a common text format file
and then transferred into the BIM model of workspaces, where it is
visualized as the worker's positions through the simulated activity.
Fig. 4 shows the data collection method and the graphical output
obtained by tracking and visualizing the worker position in a BIM-
modelling environment, with reference to the CLT wall panel installa-
tion activity of the case-study.
4.4. Step 4. Data analysis
At this step the proposed planning architecture relies on the analysis
of the previously collected active and passive data from the worker's
immersive VR activity simulation.
The active feedback given by the worker deals with the position,
dimensions, type and overall configuration of the workspaces, and is
collected in the form of a structured list of recommendations regarding
those parameters that are eventually considered incorrect according to
the worker's knowledge. Nevertheless, those qualitative corrections,
based on the active feedback of the worker, need to be confirmed and
geometrically assessed through further analysis of precisely acquired
data: worker position tracking recorded during the VR activity simu-
lation (previous step 3). This is done by visualizing the worker's use of
space on the basis of a time-related heatmap, which consists of a 2D
representation of the worker's recorded 3D position points. The time
dimension of the worker's tracked position is graphically represented by
V. Getuli, et al. Automation in Construction 114 (2020) 103160

Fig. 4. Data collection: collection and transfer into the BIM workspace model of the worker's feedback and position tracking data. (Dimensions in [cm].)

means of a colour gradient (from green to red), so that an area coloured Section 5). The comparison of the generated heat-map with the initial
in red stands for a position that was occupied for a longer time during workspace configuration, in a BIM modelling environment, supports the
the VR simulation. The heatmap is automatically generated by means of early identification of possible planning errors.
a customized algorithm that was developed by the authors (described in The implementation of the approach for the data analysis is

Fig. 5. Data analysis: Interpretation of the worker's feedback and position track heatmap visualization together with the workspace model in plan and axonometric
views.

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V. Getuli, et al. Automation in Construction 114 (2020) 103160

Fig. 6. Workspace modification: Plan and axonometric views of the modified workspace model together with the worker's position track heatmap.

presented in Fig. 5 with reference to the CLT wall panel installation combination then drives the workspace assessment or modification in
activity. This activity was analysed for the case-study, and the analysis the same BIM environment. As a result, a modified workspace model is
resulted in the following recommendations: obtained and set for the last validation step. For this purpose, the re-
commendations derived from the worker's active feedback are com-
1) Start position: The worker's initial position in the activity simulation pared with the worker's position heatmap. A positive result of this
provides him with an immediate view of all the workspaces. comparison leads to the completion of the validation process. On the
2) Validated spaces: Before reaching the main position for executing other hand, a negative result showing a mismatch indicates the
the activity, the worker enters and evaluates the different work-
spaces. In the case study, the worker provided a positive feedback
regarding the workspaces positioned on the opposite sides of the
CLT wall panel, in terms of their position, dimensions and type.
3) Wrong dimensions and type: Otherwise, a negative feedback was
provided regarding the safety spaces positioned at the ends of the
CLT wall panel. According to the worker's knowledge, those spaces
were under-sized and are actually needed by the workers during the
CLT wall panel positioning, alignment and fastening to the concrete
footing.
4) Wrong dimensions: The hazard space located along the side of the
CLT wall panel was considered to be under-sized. As shown in the
heatmap, the worker needs a larger space to carry out secondary
activity-related tasks.
5) Worker main position: From a direct analysis of the heatmap re-
presenting the worker's use of space, it is clear that on the sides of
the CLT wall panel a larger space is needed for the team to carry out
the activity main tasks.

The results of the data analysis described above represent the input
drivers for the following planning step, namely the modification of the
workspace configuration.

4.5. Step 5. Workspace modification

The output of the data analysis is combined with the initial work- Fig. 7. Workspace modification: comparison between initial and modified
space configuration in the BIM modelling environment. This workspace configurations in plan view.

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V. Getuli, et al.
necessity for further changes in the workspace configuration. With re-
ference to the case-study, the following changes were made in the in-
itial workspace model for the CLT wall panel installation activity, re-
sulting in a second workspace configuration, which was validated by
matching it with the worker's position heatmap (Fig. 6) (Fig. 7):
1) Enlargement of the spaces for the workers: Initial under-sized
Fig. 8. Operational framework and tools (with reference to Fig. 1 for workflow's steps).
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Automation in Construction 114 (2020) 103160
Workers' spaces (60 × 60 cm) are doubled (120 × 120 cm) to meet
the worker's feedback and the position heatmap results.
2) Safety spaces changed into workers' spaces: With reference to the
previously discussed workspaces, the adjacent safety spaces are
enlarged and turned into workers' spaces due to activity-related
needs such as the positioning, alignment and fastening of the CLT
wall panel to the concrete footing.
V. Getuli, et al. Automation in Construction 114 (2020) 103160

3) Hazard space enlargement: The width of the hazard spaces along the
sides of the CLT wall panel is changed from 60 cm to 150 cm to meet
both the worker's feedback and the position heatmap results.
5. Operational framework
The top-level architecture of the working prototype, described step-
by-step in the previous section, needs to be fully operational in order to
be effectively reproduced by construction and HS managers in the
construction industry. This section describes the operational framework
and tools that were designed and tested by the authors to implement the
proposed VR-based activity workspace planning approach.
The technical and technological components of the operational
framework are shown in Fig. 8, including: the selected work environ-
ments; criteria and features of the selected tools; and a description of
the operative procedures. The components related to each step in the
process are described below. Furthermore, details concerning the VR
activity simulation system setup and the software tools used to collect
and analyse VR-based worker track data are described in additional
subsections (see Sections 5.6–5.7).
5.1. Step 1. Activity workspace modelling
The proposed planning approach involves the use of a number of soft-
ware and hardware tools. Therefore, it's crucial to ensure an effective data
transfer across the different steps of the process. For this reason, a BIM
authoring platform was found to be the most suitable modelling environ-
ment for the start and end points of the process. Among the available
commercial solutions, Autodesk Revit has been chosen for its parametric
object creation and customization capabilities (the so called “Revit
Families”[46]), which are particularly suitable for modelling the dimen-
sional and typological information related to the activity workspaces (see
Section 4.1). The process starts with the acquisition of the federated
Building Information Model (BIM), comprising the architectural, structural
and MEP models, in IFC data format or proprietary format. Then the most
relevant building components are identified according to the construction
manager's experience, and for each one of them a related construction ac-
tivity workspace configuration pattern is built as a “Nested Parametric Fa-
mily” [46] based on the construction planner's fieldwork experience. Those
“parametric families”, each of which represents a building object con-
struction activity, are then both returned to the Site Information Model and
imported into a specific blank model to be used in the following VR de-
velopment environment.
5.2. Step 2. VR activity simulation
A commercial game-engine environment, Unity, is used for the de-
velopment of the immersive VR activity simulation, due to its cap-
abilities for managing multimedia contents from different sources and
enabling the scripting of customized features. In fact, after the initial
workspace configuration model is imported from the BIM environment
into Unity, additional contents are implemented and the user's interface
and controls are scripted along with an automatic track acquisition
algorithm to be run in background during the experience (see Section
5.9). Finally, the VR construction activity simulation is delivered to the
selected mobile VR technology (see Sections 5.6–5.7).
5.3. Step 3. Data collection
Having prepared the VR set up, an experienced worker is invited to
enter a dedicated room where, after a brief tutorial about the immersive
VR simulation of the construction activity, he is asked to simulate the
activity using and evaluating the real-scale virtual reproduction of the
designed preliminary workspace configuration. As a result of this ex-
perience, during which the worker is constantly supported by staff
members, a dataset consisting both of worker's direct feedbacks and
indirect position tracking, is acquired for the following data analysis.
5.4. Step 4. Data analysis
After the VR activity simulation, the process returns to the BIM
modelling environment where the collected data are entered into the
preliminary workspace configuration model to be analysed and even-
tually drive their modification. The worker's direct feedback, resulting
from a post-activity interview, is translated into a set of recommenda-
tions about the dimensions and type of each experienced workspace.
Then, the worker's position tracking data are imported and processed to
be visualized in the same 3D modelling environment together with the
workspaces model (Autodesk Revit) via a custom algorithm. This al-
gorithm was developed in a dedicated visual programming environ-
ment, Autodesk Dynamo, as is later described in detail in Section 5.9. By
using this algorithm, a heat-map visualization style is automatically
assigned to the collected data to give a better understanding of the
worker's spatial usage by mean of a colour gradient to quantify the
amount of time spent by the worker in a certain location during the VR
activity simulation. With these results it is then possible to move to the
next step of the process concerning the eventual workspace

Table 1
Immersive VR activity simulation requirements.
Requirement Description

Immersivity • 3D models shall conveniently recreate the building element relevant to the construction activity simulation, along with the related workspaces, workers
and the required equipment.
• During the simulation, the worker shall feel involved as if the activity is actually being carried out. For this purpose, the virtual environment requires:
- Realistic physics: the worker shall walk and move around the building element at a natural speed; all the elements present in the VR environment shall be
opaque to the user movement except for the workspaces' bounding boxes that shall be visible and accessible
- View settings: the virtual camera shall be set with a convenient field of view to reproduce the natural human sight without distortions
- The VR environment and the dimensions of elements shall create a realistic spatial perception for the worker during the simulation.
•Virtual objects shall be limited to the workspaces' bounding boxes and their related placeholders and they shall be turned on and off to allow the worker to
have different perspective for the evaluation of the simulated construction activity
Control system The worker shall move and interact with the VR environment by means of a handheld controller with:

- a joystick for controlling the movement

- a button for turning on and off the virtual representation of the workspaces
Accessibility The worker shall have enough free space around him during the simulation so that he can naturally move and be easily helped by a support staff member in
case of the occurrence of motion sickness
Implementation Cost and portability issues shall be considered in the choice of the immersive VR technology so that the operational hardware configuration required to deliver
the activity simulation is easily replicable regardless of the location (e.g. site offices, dedicated rooms, etc.) and is affordable for construction planners.
Sharing The worker's VR activity simulation shall be shared via a live projection so that:

- the construction planner can see worker's use of space and talk to the worker during the simulation to have direct feedbacks;
- the staff members can talk to the worker to give him directions and support him.

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V. Getuli, et al. Automation in Construction 114 (2020) 103160

modification.

5.5. Step 5. Workspace modification

The construction planner, by comparing the preliminary workspaces

configuration pattern with the recommendations resulting from the pre-
vious data analysis within the “Revit Family Editor”, can effectively im-
plement the necessary modifications of the activity workspaces (modelled
as parametric objects), both in terms of their dimensions and typologies.
Then, the modified construction activity configuration is validated with a
further consistency check comparing it with the heat-map activity re-
presentation. Finally, the construction planner replaces the preliminary
workspace configurations in the Site Information Model with the validated
configurations. By doing so, it is now possible to evaluate the impact of the
new workspace configuration on the construction plan, in terms HS pro-
cedures and construction schedule. This configuration integrates the con-
struction planner's experience with the worker's activity-related know-how,
fulfilling this research's goal. The detailed discussion of these topics can be
found in the dedicated Section 6 where the case study is presented.

5.6. Immersive VR-based activity simulation requirements

The development of immersive VR simulations of construction activities

has dealt with two complementary aspects: software and hardware. The
first step in the development was the identification of the minimum re-
quirements that should be considered in a VR-based construction activity
simulation, so that it provides data that can be used as input drivers for the
definition of workspaces (Table 1). The optimal commercial technology of
immersive VR was then selected based on these requirements.
The selected technology, compliant with the aforementioned require-
ments, is a customized VR kit based on mobile Android devices, and
compatible with the Google Cardboard platform for immersive VR. It allows
screen mirroring for the wireless broadcast of the VR experience by means
of a PC and connected projector. To work with this system, the construction
activity simulation is built in the Unity game-engine environment as a
dedicated stand-alone Android app, compatible with Google Cardboard,
and installed on the target device. Despite it being well known that tethered
devices (e.g. HTC Vive, Oculus Rift, etc.) enable considerably better VR
experiences than mobile-VR in terms of many aspects such as virtual en-
vironment realism, controls, user interaction and space perception, the
choice of the proposed hardware solution fosters the implementation of the
approach by keeping the hardware's costs low and enhancing the set-up's
portability. This allows its replication in a wider range of contexts, ulti-
mately comprising the construction site itself. Furthermore, mobile-VR was
chosen while keeping its users (construction workers) in mind in order to
increase their confidence and to reduce possible technological barriers, as-
suming that they are more conformable in using a smartphone rather than a
more sophisticated hardware setup. For these reasons, and because of the
fulfilment of the requirements listed above, the smartphone-based VR so-
lution was adopted.
Fig. 9 graphically depicts the VR activity simulation system fol-
lowed by a presentation of features of the hardware tools (Section 5.7) Fig. 9. Operational overview of the Immersive VR activity simulation.
and of the simulation procedures (Section 5.8).
construction planner and an assistant for technical support.
5.7. Hardware setup
i. Introduction: the appointed worker is led into the room in which the
The technical specifications of the hardware tools used for the ac- VR activity simulation will take place and is introduced to the
tivity simulation are reported in the following Table 2. construction planner and his assistant.
ii. Presentation: the construction planner, supported by his assistant,
5.8. Simulation procedure explains to the worker the VR activity simulation purposes and the
operational procedures ensuring that the worker understands: the
An operational protocol is defined, consisting of a step-by-step proce- workspaces representation standard, the activity tasks he will carry
dure, to ensure the worker's involvement in the immersive VR activity si- out and the kind of information he will provide as a feedback. A
mulation, and hence the reliability of the collected data. The procedure is video presentation was used for this purpose by the authors.
designed for a room-scale simulation scenario with the involvement of three iii. Hands-on and tutorial: the assistant gives the VR mobile kit to the
actors as proposed in the top-level architecture: the experienced worker, the worker and ensures that all the required adjustments are properly

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V. Getuli, et al. Automation in Construction 114 (2020) 103160

Table 2 Meanwhile, the assistant looks after the technical aspects of the VR
Technical specifications for hardware used in the immersive VR activity si- experience, ensuring the correct operation of the system.
mulation. v. Conclusion: when the construction activity simulation is completed
Tool Technical specification the assistant supports the worker in taking off the VR kit. Before the
worker is brought back to his activities, the construction planner
Smartphone - Model: ASUS Zenfone 3 (ZE552KL) – 153 × 77 × 7.7 mm asks for eventual further feedbacks regarding the activity simulation
- Display: 1920 × 1080 Super IPS+
and the experienced workspace configuration. Then, after the as-
- CPU/GPU: Qualcomm Snapdragon 625 Octa-core 2.0 GHz;
Adreno 506 sistant has ensured the correct VR track data acquisition, the VR
- Memory: 64 GB eMCP; 4GB LPDDR3 simulation system can be turned off and the room cleared.
- OS: Android 7.0 Nougat
- Wireless technology: WiFi 802.11a/b/g/n/ac; Bluetooth 2.2
The proposed procedure is original and represents the result of
- VR platform: Google Cardboard
- VR App built for: Android 5.0 Lollipop (API level 21) or superior
previous authors' experiences in VR safety training administration for
Controller - Model: Virtoba V1 construction workers; it is herein formalized after minor adaptions to
- Input: 360° Joystick + (2 + 4) input buttons suit this work and the related case study.
- Wireless technology: Bluetooth 3.0
- Power supply: 2× AAA batteries 1.5 V
VR glasses - Model: Trust EXOS
- Field of view: 80°
5.9. Algorithms for acquisition and analysis of worker's position track
- Lens: aspheric; acrylic resin; diameter 33 mm; focus distance
55–65 mm; pupil distance 56–73 mm The indirect acquisition of the worker's position tracking data during the
Laptop PC - Model: ASUS VivoBook Pro 15.6″ (N580VD-FY161T) VR construction activity simulation, and its use for the proposed workspace
- Display: 15.6″ (16:9) backlit FHD (1920 × 1080) 60 Hz
planning process, relies on two scripts developed by the authors:
- CPU: Intel® Core™ i7-7700HQ @ 2.80 GHz (4 Core) (@3.80 GHz
Intel® Turbo Boost)
- Graphics card: NVIDIA GeForce GTX 1050 with 4GB GDDR5 Algorithm 1) Dedicated to the data collection, embedded in the VR app
VRAM (HDMI 1.4 Output) and running in the background during the simulation procedure;
- Memory: HDD (512 GB SATA3 SSD + 1 TB 5400 RPM SATA
Algorithm 2) Dedicated to the track's data transfer and analysis in
HDD); RAM (16 GB DDR4)
- Wireless technology: Wi-Fi Integrated 802.11 AC (2 × 2);
the BIM modelling environment.
Bluetooth V4.2
- OS: Microsoft Windows 10 Home (64 bit) The worker's tracking data during the VR activity simulation is
Projector - Resolution: Full HD 1920 × 1080 collected from Algorithm 1 in the form of a list of coordinates that are
- Connectivity technology: HDMI 1.4
automatically recorded in a text file format stored in the smartphone
memory; then, the coordinates' file is manually transferred to the
carried out. Then, the assistant launches the VR simulation app workstation used for the workspace BIM modelling and loaded as an
input for Algorithm 2 that transfers and processes the data in the BIM
previously loaded on the smartphone and supports the worker to get
used to the VR environment and controls until he is ready to re- environment where the related results can be visualized, along with the
activity workspace model. The key features of the two algorithms are
create the construction activity.
iv. VR activity simulation: during the actual simulation the construction reported in Tables 3–4 and discussed in the next paragraphs.
planner, monitoring the worker's moves via their live video-projection,
directly speaks to the worker and receives his feedback regarding the
5.9.1. Algorithm 1 – Worker's position tracking data acquisition
workspace configuration in terms of position, dimensions and type.

Table 3
Algorithm 1 - Track acquisition: key features.
Section Description

Aims - Acquisition of the worker's position tracking data during the VR activity simulation as a list of consecutive coordinates of the point representing
the worker's center of gravity in the VR environment during the simulation.
Development environment - Script coded in C# in Microsoft Visual Studio 2017 with direct integration with the Unity game-engine development environment (Version
2018.1.6f1). The script is finally built as part of the VR App code.
Execution environment - The script is embedded in the VR experience App built for Android mobile devices compatible with the Google Cardboard VR platform and runs
automatically at its start.
Input data - Date and time of the VR experience app execution start (automatic)
Operations - Read the date and time from the device's system
- Generate the output data file in *.txt format (see below)
- Invoke the repeating function that marks the worker's position:
- Time rate = 1 Hz (one point per sec)
- Coordinates = x,y,z in the VR environment reference system
- Point record string format: x + “,” + y + “,” + z
- Add a point record to the output *.txt file generated at the start
- Note that the script has no end, it automatically finishes when the VR App is quit or crashes, so that in any case there is no data loss from each VR
activity simulation
Output data - A *.txt file with the VR track points list is saved in the VR App installation directory on the Android device.
- File name format: “Track_” + “YYYY-MM-DD_” + “hhmmss” + “.txt”
Comments - The reference system (XYZ) of the VR environment is consistent with the one of the workspaces in the BIM model on which the activity
simulation is based. Furthermore, the worker's movement capabilities are set with a speed that provides a coherent spatial perception, as he is
actually walking in the virtual environment. For these reasons, no transformations (scale factors) in terms of dimensions and duration have to be
applied to the data collected during the simulation for their transfer and analysis in the BIM modelling environment.
- The format used for the recording of the track points' coordinates list in the output *.txt file is designed according to the track analysis script to be
read as input data (see Table 4).

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V. Getuli, et al.
5.9.2. Algorithm 2 – Worker's position tracking data analysis
A crucial issue of the proposed workspace planning approach is the
combination of the worker's VR activity tracking data with the initial
workspace configuration model. An “Analysis Display Style” feature is
added to the adopted BIM authoring platform, Autodesk Revit, for in-
tegrating and visualizing the external data in the modelling environ-
ment. The authors developed a script for this purpose in the Dynamo
visual programming environment, which transforms the tracking data
Fig. 10. VR track analysis script graph (Dynamo for Revit 2018).
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Automation in Construction 114 (2020) 103160
previously collected and stored in a text file, into a compatible dataset
for its visualization. For this reason, as shown in Fig. 10 and discussed
in detail in Table 4, the algorithm uses the raw data input with the
tracking points list to generate the additional data required to fill in the
input fields for the data visualization in the Revit modelling environ-
ment. In this context, it is important to stress that Revit provides the
above-mentioned external data visualization feature in relation to a
building element. Therefore, the algorithm generates an auxiliary floor
V. Getuli, et al. Automation in Construction 114 (2020) 103160

Table 4
Algorithm 2 – Track analysis: key features.
Section Description

Aims - Analysis and interpretation of the recorded VR tracking data by means of its visualization, with a planar heat-map style, in combination with the
initial workspace configuration model.
Development environment - Script built in the visual programming environment Autodesk Dynamo 2.0.1 for Autodesk Revit 2018. Standard nodes and custom nodes have
been used. The custom nodes have been coded in Python.
Execution environment - The script is run manually from the Dynamo development environment with direct integration with Revit's modelling environment. The results
of the tracking data analysis processed by the script serve as input data for the integrated visualization and analysis tool that provides the
customized heat-map style representation in the initial workspace configuration model.
Input data - The output *.txt file from the tracking data acquisition script that contains the VR tracking data as a list of consecutive coordinates of the point
representing the worker's center of gravity in the VR environment, recorded at a time rate of 1 Hz during the simulation.
Operations 0 – Start
- The VR tracking data *.txt file path is entered.
1 – Loading of the VR tracking data
- The formatted points' coordinates list of the input file is read and stored in a single string.
- The points' string is transformed into list of three-items lists. Each child list of the parent list contains the x-y-z coordinates of a unique point of
the recorded VR track. The order of the points' coordinates sub-lists respects the time order of its acquisition sequence.
- Three lists of x, y and z coordinates of the track's points are generated to be used separately.
- The VR tracking points are generated in the BIM modelling environment from their coordinates' lists.
2 – Generation of the surface for the tracking data analysis
- An auxiliary rectangular (square) floor element is generated for the data visualization. Dimensions (m), level and floor type need to be manually
entered.
- Floor element's upper face is selected and wired to the Output Node.
3 – Planar coordinates transformation
- The planar coordinates (xy) of the VR tracking points in the model reference system are transformed into UV coordinates normalized with respect
to the side dimension of the auxiliary floor element.
4.1 – Generation of the grid for the analysis
- A list of (UV) coordinates for the points of the orthogonal grid to be drawn on the analysis surface (floor element upper face) is generated on the
basis of a pre-entered grid pace (m).
- The (UV) values lists of both the VR tracking points coordinates and the analysis grid points are rounded with accuracy to the third decimal.
4.2 – Tracking points allocation
- The (UV) coordinates of every grid point (n) are compared with the ones of each track point (m).
- In relation to the grid points, “n” lists containing “m” boolean values are generated marking: “1” (true) for tracking points that are inside the
square domain (side equal to the grid pace) centered on the grid point; “0” (false) otherwise.
- The generation of the “allocation” list described above results from the subtraction of grid and tracking points' UV coordinates.
4.3 – Grid points value count
- For every grid point “allocation” list the boolean values are turned into integers and counted.
- A list of “n” values is generated: each item represents the number of track points accounting for a specific grid point. This value list serves as an
input for the Output Node.
5 – Heat-map data generation
- The last part of the algorithm is devoted to fill in the remaining input fields of the Output Node.
- Input fields that are already filled in are: analysis surface (upper face of the auxiliary floor); sample location (grid point UV coordinates); samples
(values counted from the track points' allocation list).
- Input fields that need to be filled in: view (selected view for the heat-map style tracking data visualization); name, description and unit type.
- The Output Node finally sends the data analysis results to the specified view in Revit's modelling environment.
Output data - The analysis script, running in the visual programming environment Dynamo, returns into the Revit modelling environment the tracking data
analysis results as a list of values representing the points' count related to the geometric domain of each grid point according to which the
auxiliary surface is divided.
- The tracking data are shown in the Autodesk Revit modelling environment with a colour gradient related to the amount of time spent by the
worker in a certain location during the simulation. The colour gradient is unique and is normalized to the higher value stored for the singular grid
point.
Comments - The heat-map visualization of the tracking data is temporary and can't be stored in the workspace BIM model. The output shall be printed in
form of 2D or 3D pictures for later interpretations or, otherwise, be regenerated when necessary.

element beneath the workspace configuration model and then transfers
to its upper face the data analysis results to be displayed with a cus-
tomized heat-map style.
6. Implementation in the case study and validation
6.1. Case study
The methodology was implemented in a case study of the con-
struction of a new complex of three one-storey buildings atop a larger
and existing office facility located in the city of Pisa, in central Italy. In
the design phase, the owner of the existing facility - the National
Research Center (CNR) - which is also the contractor, gave priority to the
determination of the technological solution that ensured the full op-
eration and the minimum effect on the ongoing activities during the
construction phase. For this reason and to limit the overall weight
addition on the existing building, a CLT panels' system was chosen for
the structure of the new buildings, including wall panels, beams and
roof panels. Regardless of its type, the installation of each CLT struc-
tural element follows a basic procedure consisting of the lifting of the
element from a dedicated site storage area at ground level by mean of a
crane, then moving and lowering it in place where workers wait for it
and finally align and fix it to the structure beneath. Once an element is
fixed, the workers free it from the lifting ropes and move on to the next
element. The adoption of this technology granted a series of benefits in
terms of construction and site management due to a high level of offsite
prefabrication and to fast installation procedures for the structural
elements. In view of this and considering the involvement of specialized
workers for the installation of the CLT panels, this activity was selected
for the validation of the proposed VR-based workspace planning
method. The use of prefabricated elements also implies a tighter con-
struction schedule and hence allows a more accurate evaluation of any
deviations that may occur, because they have a magnified impact.

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V. Getuli, et al.
6.2. Workspaces dimensional and typological validation
In order to determine the robustness of the proposed workspace
planning approach, the construction activities related to the CLT wall
panels' installation were monitored. In particular, considering the blank
VR environment in which the worker simulated the activity and hence
experienced the workspaces configuration, it was important to assess
and quantify the consistency between worker's spatial perception and
space usage in the VR simulation and in actual site conditions. For this
reason, six CLT wall panel installation activities of the case study have
been monitored; two types of panel locations, internal partitions and
external walls, in three locations. The activities have been filmed with a
camera from a safe distance of 4,00 m from the final panel's position to
avoid any interference, throughout their duration from the lowering of
the panel to its fixing to the push-pull props and the later removal of the
lifting ropes. After the installation were completed, the dimensions of
the spaces used by the workers were measured and then reported on
representative frames taken from the recorded activities' footage
(Fig. 11).
The monitoring confirmed the consistency between the workspaces
determined via the VR construction activity simulation and the actual
spaces used by the workers during the installation of the CLT wall pa-
nels. With reference to Fig. 11, for what concern the dimensional and
typological validation of the workspaces is to notice:
a) Safety spaces: During the installation activity, both the workers
involved face the ends of the panel with their backs to their sur-
roundings. For this reason, the need for a safety space 0,60 m wide,
in addition to the side worker's space, is clear.
b) Worker's spaces: During the entire installation activity, from the
lowering of the panels to fixing them in place, the need for both the
front and side worker's spaces has been confirmed. The workers
have to alternatively change their position to control and move the
panel, using all the spaces identified in the VR simulation. In the
monitored cases the dimensions of the spaces were slightly reduced
Fig. 11. Comparison between a CLT external wall panel installation activity from the case study site - left - and the final workspace configuration resulting from the
VR activity simulation - right (dimensions in [cm]).
16
Automation in Construction 114 (2020) 103160
from the planned dimensions, leaving an additional safety margin.
In average, both the spaces were slightly narrower: −10% (0,90 vs
1,00 m) for the side spaces; −16% (1,00 vs 1,20 m) for the front
spaces.
c) Hazard spaces: In the VR activity simulation the default fixing
conditions for the push-pull props that serve bracing of the wall
panels have been considered. In the case study it was impossible to
fix them with bolts directly to the floor because, since it is also the
roof of the existing building underneath, it was crucial to avoid
piercing the sealing layer. For this reason, the props were secured to
concrete dead weights that created a need for a deeper hazard space
in the operative conditions, +20% (1,80 vs 1,50 m).
6.3. Impact on the H&S plan
The initial workspace configuration for the CLT wall panel in-
stallation activity that was designed in a BIM modelling environment,
was revised following the application of the proposed VR-based plan-
ning methodology. Fig. 12 compares the initial and final workspace
configuration, and highlights the spatial clash occurring between the
worker's path at the rooftop level and the side Worker's space. This
spatial clash recurs for every installation of this panel. Depending on
the workspace configuration adopted in the planning phase, different
safety procedures shall consequently be considered in the H&S plan:
a) Initial workspace configuration – width reduction of the path: A
spatial overlapping of the worker's path and the designed safety
space at the end of the internal side of the panel was identified in the
initial plan. The safety space represents a tolerance and is not di-
rectly used by the workers during the activity. For this reason, the
workers' path, reduced from 1,60 to 1,00 m, was considered to be
partly unobstructed and available for workers and materials to pass
through with caution during the panel installation activity.
b) Final workspaces configuration – path temporarily blocked: After
the revision of the plan following the VR construction activity
V. Getuli, et al.
Fig. 12. Comparison between workspaces configuration of CLT panel installation in the construction plan: Initial (top) vs Final (bottom).
simulation, a spatial overlapping was identified both for the side
worker's space and the adjacent safety space. Consequently, the
worker will directly occupy part of the path during the panel's in-
stallation, causing it to be completely unavailable for others to pass
through until the activity is completed. For this reason, a safety
procedure, consisting of the temporary blocking of the path during a
panel's installation, is introduced in the construction plan and
passed on to all the workers involved in this construction phase.
7. Conclusions
The results of the application of the proposed VR-based planning
methodology in a case study confirm the hypothesis of this study, that
advanced information technologies can be used to improve the con-
figuration of workspaces in a construction project site plan, as well as
the safety procedures defined in the project's H&S plan. The application
17
Automation in Construction 114 (2020) 103160
of the methodology revealed a clash between work spaces and paths of
which the construction planner had not been aware, and which would
have detrimentally affected the workers' safety.
These results also indicate that the complexity and fragmented
supply chain of construction projects leads to a need for solutions that
will support the mutual sharing of information among project stake-
holders. Such stakeholders include workers, planners and managers,
and the mutual sharing of information they hold requires the elicita-
tion, formalization and integration of this information.
The goal of this study was consequently to demonstrate how BIM
and VR can be used to improve construction activity workspace plan-
ning by facilitating the sharing of safety-related information between
partners. This in turn required the fulfilment of a set of specific ob-
jectives, including the creation of a BIM-based multi-dimensional
modelling and planning environment, the definition of an appropriate
VR activity simulation environment, of a process for collecting and
V. Getuli, et al.
analysing the information provided in the VR simulations, and the de-
finition of a procedure for the modification and validation of the
workspaces in a construction plan.
8. Future developments
The fulfilment of the objectives of this research, and the successful
application of the proposed methodology, indicate the potential of the
approach herein presented. Nonetheless, at this stage further efforts
have to be directed to (1) validate the approach with a larger-scale
implementation, considering its adoption for construction projects with
different characteristics (e.g. dimensions, technology, complexity, etc.)
and involving other aspects of the site planning activity; (2) to address
methodological and technological drawbacks and limitations, and fi-
nally (3) to investigate the possible advantages related to its integration
with other emerging technologies in the field. In this regard, the fol-
lowing paragraphs discuss the encountered limitations and the aus-
picable development directions to take fully advantage of the current
and future technologies and innovations for the elicitation, modelling
and integration of tacit knowledge in construction projects and its
sharing among the stakeholders.
Larger-scale validation for a comprehensive spatial-temporal plan-
ning system
• Layout-scale workspace planning: In addition to the single-ac-
tivity simulation, where the building component and the related
workspace configuration is set in a blank environment, the mutual
interaction with site-specific boundary conditions should be in-
vestigated, by carrying out a layout-scale simulation that com-
prises different ongoing activities and workspaces that have been
previously planned and modelled in a BIM environment. This leap
in the simulation scale could ideally represent an additional step
following the single-activity simulation, or imply a major work-
flow modification within the implementation of the site layout. In
this regard, a comparative study focused on this aspect could be
beneficial. Furthermore, the simulation of the construction ac-
tivities and workspace configurations at a layout-scale raises the
need for the inclusion in the framework of all the other relevant
elements that characterize the operation of a construction site
from a spatial-temporal perspective. Therefore, the approach
could be extended beyond just building component construction
activities and, with dedicated layout-scale site simulations, elicit
workers' and operators' knowledge to validate equipment and
plant layout plans, as well as onsite material supply logistics.
• Activity and site-specific VR-based workers' training: Using the
proposed method for the modelling and simulation of the con-
struction activities and eventually raising it to a layout-scale, a
consistent relation between the BIM-based construction planning
activity and the related site simulation could be established. In
this perspective, the addition of safety contents to the available
VR-based site scenarios could support the administration of site-
specific safety training of construction workers. In this regard, the
authors are currently working on a parallel study on the definition
of a framework for VR-based workers' safety training.
• Site-planning support for prefabrication: Recently interest has
grown regarding the use of ICT technologies to improve in-
formation management for prefabrication processes and standar-
dize each phase of the construction process[47]. In this context,
[48] developed a buildability assessment system that integrates
BIM with production data such as weight of component, number
of workers involved, number of component's parts, to avoid in-
efficiencies in the use materials, equipment and manpower.
Nonetheless, a more thorough consideration of on-site construc-
tion procedures that considers workspace planning could be
beneficial for the buildability assessment and project perfor-
mance. In this perspective, the proposed approach is particularly
18
Automation in Construction 114 (2020) 103160
suitable for the simulation and optimization of highly standar-
dized construction activities (e.g. the installation of CLT structural
elements) and of highly standardized site layouts configurations
and operations. The reiteration of the approach in different pro-
jects could quickly lead to the definition of a set of “prefabricated”
workspace configurations and site layouts that could then facil-
itate the site planning process of the future projects.
Methodological and Technological improvements of the system
• Simulation Vs Real world: A prior aspect to consider for an ef-
fective elicitation of the tacit workers' knowledge, in order to
support the spatial-temporal site planning process, is the relia-
bility of the data that is collected with the proposed approach.
There are two aspects to this issue: on one hand, differences be-
tween the actual workers' behaviours and activity patterns on the
real site, and those in the simulation environment due to factors
such as the influence of the audience, that fact that no time lim-
itations are given for the completion of the activity, that there is
no exposure to real risks, the lack of negative weather conditions
or tiredness, should be further investigated and quantified. On the
other hand, the relation between the immersivity of the VR ex-
perience, directly affecting the worker's involvement in the ac-
tivity simulation, and the accuracy of the replication of the related
work tasks, should be thoroughly examined. In respect to the
latter aspect, in order to compare the current system's outcomes -
based on mobile immersive VR - with the improvements related to
the adoption of high-end VR technologies, some technical issues
should be addressed. This could lead to solution that provide the
worker with a more realistic and life-like interaction with the
virtual environment. For example, a non-exhaustive list of fea-
tures could include: the possibility to grasp and use objects and
tools, to accomplish activity-related tasks and to move without the
need for a dedicated controller; the implementation of a multi-
user experience, involving all the members of a task and making
them collaborate and interact simultaneously in the virtual en-
vironment. All the cited aspects, if developed, could open up new
interesting perspectives for the proposed approach.
• Adoption of an enhanced Immersive VR technology: In light of the
features listed above and considering the performance offered by
the latest commercial VR devices, there is space for improvement
in the hardware setup. Leaving aside the discussed realism as-
pects, the adoption of other devices (e.g. HTC VIVE Pro, Oculus
Rift S) could enhance the quality of the data collected, due to: (1)
a multi-point position data acquisition during the simulation, by
mean of head/hands tracking and further wearable devices; (2) an
improved spatial perception related to higher device's perfor-
mances (e.g. field of view, pixels per eye resolution, etc.). Also for
these aspects, whether and how the supposed higher data accu-
racy implies an effective improvement on the system im-
plementation should be investigated with a comparative study
and possibly a cost/benefits analysis.
• Computational design methods and tools for data processing and
workspace modification: The algorithms developed and im-
plemented in this work are aimed to collect and process the
worker's position tracking data collected during the VR activity
simulations. The interpretation of the results and eventually the
validation and/or modification of the initial workspace config-
uration have been manually carried out. However, in presence of
considerable amount of data collected in relation to a larger-scale
implementation, it's reasonable to envision the development and
implementation of automated mechanisms to provide the
straightforward interpretation of the results of the data analysis
and the following validation/modification of the workspace con-
figuration.
Integration with other emerging technologies
• Mixed Reality (MR) and Augmented Reality (AR) for dynamic
assessment of workspace configuration on site: In addition to
V. Getuli, et al.
Immersive Virtual Reality, other visualization technologies allow
the superposition of a layer of virtual contents onto the user's sight
of the real context, by means of Head-Mounted Devices (MR) or
through the display of hand-held devices like tablets or smart-
phones (AR). In both cases it could be possible to allow the worker
to evaluate the virtual workspace configuration in correspondence
with the real site objects (e.g. existing components, equipment,
etc.) and to carry out the simulation directly on site. Particularly
for Mixed Reality, that could basically leave the worker free to
operate as in usual conditions. Such a system might be employed
during the workers activity in order to constantly collect data to
dynamically refine and correct the plan.
•
Construction robots and human-robot onsite interaction: Recently
there has been a growing interest in the adoption of robotics and
automated systems in construction to enhance on-site pro-
ductivity while reducing risks and injuries for the workers [49]
(e.g. single task construction robots – STRs - for bricklaying, steel
truss assembly, wall painting or swarms of robots for building
component assembly), and to augment workers' capacity of per-
forming specific tasks [50] (e.g. wearable devices and exoskele-
tons that support the lifting of heavy loads, reduce fatigue and
facilitate tasks in awkward positions). In this context, despite the
advantages that an enhanced site automation could bring to such
a labour-intensive industry, many factors limit their adoption that
is, in fact, still very low [51]. Among those factors, they have been
identified a common aversion of workers to perform task along-
side robots and high implementation costs of human-robot inter-
action testing and training, that motivated the interest for VR-
based test environments [52]. For this purpose, the proposed
approach could be developed and adapted for the simulation of
human-robot interaction on site both for general and project-
specific configurations, therefore reducing stakeholders' biases
and uncertainties and justifying robots' adoption.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the INAIL - National Institute for
Insurance against Accidents at Work - (Italy) for funding this research
and CNR -National Research Council- for providing the case studies.
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