EJ LAVENDIA

ABM 12 -4
MS. THERESE ANGELIE
 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
 Expressions like numerical forms, objective
thinking, statistical methods, and measurement
signal the existence of quantitative research.
It uses numbers or figures to denote a
particular thing.
 Data is gathered using STRUCTURED INSTRUMENTS.

The results are based on large sample sizes

that are representative of the population and
can be replicated.
 Expressing meaning through numerals or a set
of symbols indicates specificity,
particularity, or exactness of something. It
makes you focus your mind on specific things
by means of STATISTICS that involve collection
and study of numerical data.
 According to Aliga and Gunderson (2000), they

describe QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH as “explaining

phenomena by collecting numerical data that
are analyzed using mathematically-based
methods (in particularSTATISTICS).”
 The first part of definition is PHENOMENA.
PHENOMENON – in scientific usage, it is any
event that is observable, however common it
might be, even if it requires the use of
instrumentation to observe, record or compile
data concerning it.

QUANTITATIVE PARADIGM
Nature of reality- Reality is objective,
singular, and separate from the researcher.
The relationship of the researcher to the
subject of research- Researcher is independent
from the subject of research.
Role of values- Research is value-free and
unbiased.
Language of research- Formal, based on set
definitions, impersonal voice and uses
accepted quantitative words.
Process of research
 Cause and effect
 Deductive Process
 STATIC DESIGN – categories isolated
before study.
 Generalizations leading to
prediction,explanation and
understanding.
 Accurate and reliable through validity
and reliability.

FEATURES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

1.MEASUREMENT AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
The quantitative research approach is best for
addressing research problems or questions that
require quantification of measurement. It is
most suitable for investigating human, social,
behavioral, or organizational aspects or
characteristics that can be measured.
2.EMPIRICISM AND POSITIVISM: The Philosophies of
Quantitative Research
 POSITIVISM – authoritative (confident)
knowledge is believed to come from
empirical (experiential) observation and
the use of logic. The job of quantitative
researcher is to discover the patterns,
frameworks and laws that govern social
phenomena through objective, careful and
systematic observation, and verification.
 EMPIRICISM – what cannot be observed using

the five senses cannot reasonably studied.

Thus, such researchers promote objective
investigation as it provides a common
reference for evaluating data or evidence.
3.SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
 Quantitative researchers believe that
social science phenomena can be studied
similarly to natural science phenomena.
STANDARD OF REPLICABILITY This means that
other researchers should be able to conduct
a similar study on the same subject
following the same steps and expect to get
similar results.
CLASSIFICATION OF QUANTITATIVE REASEARCH
1. EXPERIMENTAL a. SURVEY RESEARCH
a. TRUE EXPERIMENTAL b. CORRELATIONAL
b. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
i. MATCHED c. DESCRIPTIVE
COMPARATIVE RESEARCH
ii. TIME SERIES d. COMPARATIVE
iii. COUNTER RESEARCH
BALANCED e. CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE
iv. SINGLE-SUBJECT RESEARCH
c. PRE-EXPERIMENTAL
2. NON-EXPERIMENTAL

STEPS IN DOING QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

1. OBSERVING AND EXPLAINING OCCURRENCES
2. THE COLLECTION OF INFORMATION IN QUANTITATIVE

RESEARCH
3. USING MATHEMATICS TO ANALYZE THE DATA
COLLECTED
• QUALITATIVE STUDY – it is defined as an
inquiry process of understanding a social or
human problem based on building a complex,
holistic picture, formed with words, reporting
detailed views of informants and conducted in
a natural setting.
• QUANTITATIVE STUDY – it is an inquiry into a

social or human problem, based on testing a

theory composed of variables, measured with
numbers, and analyzed with statistical
procedures, in order to determine whether the
predictive generalizations of the theory hold
true

IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

ACROSS FIELDS
VALUE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
1. MORE RELIABLE AND OBJECTIVE
2. CAN USE STATISTICS TO GENERALIZE A FINDING
3. OFTEN REDUCES AND RESTRUCTURES A COMPLEX PROBLEM
TO A LIMITED NUMBER OF VARIABLES
4. LOOKS AT RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIABLES AND CAN
ESTABLISH CAUSE-AND-EFFECT IN HIGHLY CONTROLLED
CIRCUMSTANCES
 5. TESTS THEORIES OR HYPOTHESES
6. ASSUMES SAMPLE IS REPRESENTATIVE OF THE
POPULATION
7. SUBJECTIVITY OF RESEARCHER IN METHODOLOGY IS
RECOGNIZED LESS
8. LESS DETAILED THAN QUALITATIVE DATA AND MAY MISS
A DESIRED RESPONSE FROM THE PARTICIPANT

IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ACROSS FIELDS

1. POLITICS, GOVERNANCE AND PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION
Quantitative methods are an indispensable
tool for many political scientists and
practitioners of politics.
2. BUSINESS, MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS
 Quantitative methods are widely used in
business. It is often used to collect and
analyze information on customer preference
and product performance as well as overall
business performance.
 Economics deals with the production,
distribution and consumption of goods and
services so much of the information
covered in economics is numerical. The use
of quantitative methods to analyze is
especially dominant
 ECONOMETRICS- a subfield of economics that
specifically uses statistics.
3. ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
 Quantitative methods are widely used in
the field of development studies in
development goals. Quantitative methods
are also used in environmental studies. It
is useful for measuring and studying
environmental issues such as the depletion
(reduction) rate of forest covers, the
impacts of increasing greenhouse gases,
the effects of dynamite fishing on the
environment and communities, and even the
status of different animal species, among
others.
4. EDUCATION, SOCIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY
 Quantitative methods are used in education
research. One of the most common
applications is in educational assessment
which measures the learning and
performance of individual and groups. It
is also used to assess and compare the
 effectiveness of different teaching or
pedagogical approaches. It can also be
used to compare academic performance.
 PSYCHOMETRICS-a branch of psychology
concerned with the measurement of traits
like intelligence, skills, knowledge,
attitudes, personality traits and
educationalachievement. IQ and personality
tests are some of the instruments used in
this field.

VARIABLES IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

NATURE OF VARIABLES
 The main purpose of research is to solve problems
and improve the life of the people.
 To research is to search or investigate
exhaustively.

VARIABLES
 These are properties or characteristics of some
event, object or person that can be assigned with
different values or amounts.
 In experimental research, these are oftentimes
manipulated or controlled.
 These are CHANGING QUALITIESorCHARACTERISTICS of
persons or things like age, gender, intelligence,
ideas, achievements, confidence and so on that
are involved in your research study.
 It is made up of the root or base word “VARY”
which means to undergo changes or to differ from,
it has different or VARYING values in relation to
time and situation.

TYPES OF VARIABLES
I. BASED ON CAUSE AND EFFECT– it is either a result
of some force or is itself the force that causes
a change in other variable.
A. INDEPENDENT VARIABLE (IV) – the cause or the
factor that is being tested or manipulated (can
be controlled). These cause changes in the
subject.
B. DEPENDENT VARIABLE (DV) – it is the effect or
observed reactions upon the application of the
independent variable.
 C. EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE – this refers to all
other variables other than the independent
variable and the dependent variable that are kept
constant in an experiment.

VARIABLE RELATIONSHIPS
 PARTICIPANT VARIABLES if they refer to the moods,
emotions, or intelligence of the subject
 SITUATIONAL VARIABLES, if they pertain to the
nature of the place: smelly, chilly, cold, hot,
spacious and the like.
 EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES are to be controlled by you,
the experimenter.
 CONFOUNDING VARIABLESthey do not give in to your
control that can strongly influence your study.

OTHER CATEGORIES OF VARIABLES

 CONTROL VARIABLES – in an experiment, the
variable that is held constant.
 INTERVENING VARIABLES – also known as MEDIATING
or MODERATOR variables. These are variables that
link or bridge a gap between independent and
dependent variables.
I. BASED ON THE VALUE TAKEN BY THE VARIABLE
A. CONTINUOUS VARIABLE – can take on any value
in a certain range. These are measurements
with fractional values. TIME, DISTANCE, MASS,
AGE, TEMPERATURE and pH are some examples.
B. DISCRETE or DISCONTINUOUS VARIABLE – these
variables assume exact values. No fractional
unit. It can be counted. Examples are NUMBER
OF SIBLINGS, POPULATION OF STUDENTS, NUMBER
OF CHICKEN, FINGERS and NUMBER OF LIGHT
POST.It assumes a distinct point on a scale.
II. BASED ON THE SCALES OF MEASUREMENTS
A. NOMINAL
 It distinguishes a variable from all others by
assigning a name of description.
 The name serves to identify the class or group
and give qualitative distinctions among groups
B. ORDINAL
 It refers to the order or rank of measurement. It
also called as RANKING that refers to order
sequences. It allows comparisons of the degree to
which two subjects possess the dependent
variable.
 [ ] 1 – Not satisfied at all
[ ] 2 – Somewhat dissatisfied
[ ] 3 – Somewhat satisfied
][ 4 – Satisfied
][ 5 – Very satisfied
C. INTERVAL
 These are numerical scales in which intervals
have the same interpretation throughout. These
are numerical scales in which the exact
difference between two scales is known.
 Though the difference between measurements, it
employs an arbitrary (subjective) zero point
which does not represents complete absence of the
attribute (characteristic).
D. RATIO
 It has the properties of nominal, ordinal and
interval scales. It also possesses a true zero
scale.
 A true zero is the point where none of the
qualities being measured exists. It is the most
informative scale.
III. BASED ON THE LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
A. CATEGORICAL VARIABLE or QUALITATIVE VARIABLES
– a variable that is made up of different
types or categories of a phenomenon.
EXAMPLE: Variable gender is made up of two
categories, MALE and FEMALE
B. NUMERICAL VARIABLE or QUANTITATIVE VARIABLE –
a variable that varies in degree or amount of
phenomenon.
EXAMPLE: Variable annual income varies from 0 to a
very high level of income
IV. BASED ON THE LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
A. CATEGORICAL VARIABLE or QUALITATIVE VARIABLES
– a variable that is made up of different
types or categories of a phenomenon.
EXAMPLE: Variable gender is made up of two
categories, MALE and FEMALE
B. NUMERICAL VARIABLE or QUANTITATIVE VARIABLE –
a variable that varies in degree or amount of
phenomenon.
EXAMPLE: Variable annual income varies from
0 to a very high level of income
C. RATIO SCALE- allow for the identification of
absolute differences between each scale
point, and absolute comparisons between raw
responses
 EXAMPLE: Please circle the number of
children under 18 years of age currently
living in your household.

USES OF VARIABLES IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

A. CLASSIFYING
DEMOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION – gender, age,
educational level and economic
B. MEASURING
C. EXPLAINING
D. ASSESSING RELATIONSHIPS

OTHER TYPES OF VARIABLES

 CONSTANT – do not undergo any changes during an
experiment.
 ATTRIBUTE – characteristics of people:
INTELLIGENCE, CREATIVITY, ANXIETY, LEARNING
STYLES etc.
 COVARIATE – included in the research study to
create interactions with the independent and
dependent variables.
 CONTINUOUS – quantitative in nature and is used
in INTERVAL or RATIO SCALE of measurement.
 DICHOTOMOUS – has only two possible results: ONE
or ZERO.
 LATENT – cannot be directly observed like
PERSONALITY TRAITS.
 MANIFEST – can be directly observed to give
proofs to latent variables.
 EXOGENOUS – found outside an identified model.
 ENDOGENOUS – found inside, as a part of
identified model.

RESEARCH USED IN DAILY LIFE

STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS

1. DEFINE THE PROBLEM
 The first step in the research process is to
identify a research topic and transform it
into a researchable problem or question that
can be investigated.
 Research Problems – it refers to causes
unfavorable circumstances in a community or
an organization, further investigation as
 recommended by previous research studies or
gaps in any field of study.
 Research Gap – it refers to parts of a study
that had not been investigated, or those
which research results yielded inconsistent
findings.
2. DO THE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
 Reviewing the literature – it provides a good
background information about the problem and
enables the researcher to know what has
already been studied about the problem and
enables the researcher to know what has
already been studied about the research
problem and what procedures have already been
taken to deliver the results.
3. FORMULATE THE HYPOTHESIS
 A HYPOTHESIS is an educated guess that serves
as the tentative answer to the posed research
questions at the beginning of the inquiry
process.
4. PREPARE THE RESEARCH DESIGN
 The RESEARCH DESIGN is the “BLUEPRINT” of the
research.
5. COLLECT DATA
 Data collection is the process of gathering
information by means of a defined method in
order to support the hypothesis.
6. ANALYZE AND INTERPRET THE DATA
 Data Analysis is the process of examining
data against the preconceived hypothesis.
7. WRITE THE RESEARCH REPORT
 After the collection and analysis of data, a
researcher should report the findings of the
study into a comprehensive research paper.
8. REPORT FINDINGS OF THE RESEARCH
 The usefulness of any research rests on its
dissemination for public consumption.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH TOPIC

1) You must select a topic that is interesting
to you.
2) The topic you will decide on must be valuable
and worthwhile.
3) The topic you intend to pursue as your
research must be feasible (possible) and doable
(achievable).
PROBLEM STATEMENT – it provides the scope, purpose
and direction of the study. It presents the problem
you will investigate, gives the argumentative
assertion (claim) about your topic and states what
you intend to prove at the end of the study.

SOURCES OF INTERESTS/ SOURCES OF RESEARCH TOPICS

1. DAILY LIFE 3. PERSONAL HOBBIES
EXPERIENCES 4. ATTENTION-
2. ACADEMIC READINGS CATCHING SITUATIONS

IDENTIFYING A RESEARCH TOPIC

o PERSONAL FACTORS are related to personal
experiences, professional qualifications,
expertise, motivation, intellectual curiosity
and perceptiveness of the researcher. Time
element, benefits and hazards may also be
considered.
o EXTERNAL FACTORS include uniqueness or
novelty, importance or value of the research,
availability of the data and materials,
ethical consideration anddepartment or unit
where the research is to be undertaken.

TOPIC IDEAS
A. ARTS and MUSIC F. ENGLISH,
B. BUSINESS, COMMUNICATION and
ACCOUNTING and LANGUAGES
ECONOMICS G. MATH, COMPUTER
C. EARTH and and TECHNOLOGY
ENVIRONMENTAL H. HEALTH and
SCIENCES BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
D. EDUCATION I. PSYCHOLOGY,
E. HISTORY, SOCIOLOGY and SOCIAL
PHILOSOPHY and WORK
ANTHROPOLOGY

THE BACKGROUND OF THE RESEARCH

THE INTRODUCTION
 The primary purpose is to give the readers an
overview of what the entire study is all about.
 It aims to introduce the readers to the research
topic and the research problem that the study is
 trying to address.It should persuade the reader
that the study is important and interesting.
 A poorly written introduction chapter on the
other hand may cause the reader to lose interest
in the study and to stop reading.
 Introductions usually have three parts:
o PRESENTATION OF THE PROBLEM or THE RESEARCH
INQUIRY
o PURPOSE and FOCUS of the CURRENT PAPER
o SUMMARY or OVERVIEW of the WRITER’S POSITONS
or ARGUMENTS

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

 The primary purpose of the background is to
provide the reader with the context and explain
the circumstances that led to the study.
 It can discuss briefly the specific problem or
situation, conflict of ideas, gaps in knowledge,
literature or theories that caught your attention
as a researcher and compelled you to select your
particular research topic. It often begins with a
description or overview of a situation or idea of
interest to the researcher. This can be a real
world problem or situation that you want to solve
or investigate. It can also be an initial idea
that you would like to develop.
 First, spend time getting background knowledge
about the problem that triggered off your
research topic to discover its relation to what
the world, particularly the experts,
professionals, and learned people know about your
topic. Also, reading for rich background ideas
about the problem is also another way to discover
some theories or principles to support your
study.

FEATURES OF BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY – it gives the readers
important information about the research being
conducted. It provides a brief explanation on how
the study was conceived, how it will be
conducted, and the possible contribution it may
give to the society.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

  It should be concise, clearly written and
persuasive.
 CONCISE means that the background should not be
written too long.
 CLEARLY WRITTEN means that the background should
be written using simple, easy to understand words
with a minimum of complicated technical
terminologies or JARGON.
 PERSUASIVE means that the background should be
written in a way that will convince readers that
the study is interesting, important and worth
reading.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PROBLEM

 PROBLEM – this refers to the situation where you
find difficulty in knowing or finding answers or
solutions to questions causing you worries or
perplexities.
 RESEARCH PROBLEM – it is something that nurtures
in your mind a difficulty or uncertainty, enough
to push you to do an empirical (realistic)
investigation whereby you search for answers to a
problem by collecting and analyzing data or
information through which you can find the right
answer or solution.It is the HEART of the
RESEARCH.

CRITERIA FOR EVALUATION OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM

1. NOVEL – a good research problem should be
new. It may be a new process, product, or
principle.
2. INTERESTING – a good research problem should
draw attention and interest from other people.
3. PRACTICAL – the aim of research is to improve
people’s quality of living. A good research
problem then should be useful and beneficial to
its target population.
4. INNOVATIVE – a good research problem should
improve the current state of existing
technology.
5. COST-EFFECTIVE – a good research problem should provide a
good value for money, time, resources and manpower while
conducting the study. It should be economical in
addressing the problems of the community.
 Another thing to consider and remember is
that a research problem should be SMART.
1. Specific – the research problem must be
specifically stated.
2. Measurable – the research problem should
be quantifiable or observable. This may
include INTERVIEWS, SURVEYS or RECORDED
OBSERVATIONS such as VIDEOS and AUDIO
RECORDINGS. Thereshould be instruments that
will help the researchers gather data from
their respondents.
3. Attainable – a research problem should be
easily achieved, solved or answered by the
researcher after all valid procedures had
been carried out.
4. Realistic – it should be possible for the
researchers to perform the experimentations
or observations needed to solve their
problems.
5. Time-Bound – researchers should also
consider the time allotment for their
research. They should think of a research
problem that could be carried out in the
given time period.

TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS (Statement

of the Problem)
1. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS – ask
questions on the kind, qualifications, and
categories of the subjects or participants.
2. RELATION QUESTIONS – are questions about the
nature and manner of connection between or among
the variables.
3. CAUSAL QUESTIONS – reasons behind the effects
of the independent variable on the dependent
variable is the focus of these types of research
questions.

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS ACCORDING TO PURPOSE

1. FACTOR-ISOLATING QUESTIONS – the purpose of
these questions is to categorize or name factors
and situations.
2. FACTOR-RELATING QUESTIONS – these questions
aim to establish relationship between the factors
that have been identified.
3. SITUATION-RELATING QUESTIONS – these
questions aim to see the changes that might
happen to one variable when the other variable
 changes. These questions usually need
experimentation in order to get results.
4. SITUATION-PRODUCING QUESTIONS – these
questions lead to promote explicit course of
action or conditions under which a goal could be
accomplished. These are commonly used in action
research.

FEATURES OF A GOOD PROBLEM

1. CLARITY 4. MEASURABILITY
2. SPECIFICITY 5. MANAGEABLE
3. WELL-DEFINED
SCOPE

APPROACHES TO QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. DEDUCTIVE APPROACH
 Your questions begin from HUNCHES or
PREDICTIONS or expectations about the outcome
of your research. Explaining the meaning of a
variable based on its involvement or role in
the research process, particularly, in the
measurement, manipulation, or control of the
concept application is giving such term its
operational definition
2. INDUCTIVE APPROACH
 It starts from smaller and simpler ideas to
bigger or more complex ones. Inductively
formulated research questions focus on
description of things to prove an idea or a
system. Central to this approach are specific
details to prove the validity of a certain
theory or concept.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVESIt explains the reason behind

the study and its specific goals and aims.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

 It explains how the study will be beneficial to
the different stakeholders of the society.
 It identifies the target beneficiaries or target
users of the current study.
 It should be clear to the beneficiaries the
advantages and significance of the research
results.
 SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY/ SCOPE AND

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
 It presents the variables or subjects of the
study, the extent to which the research will
cover, the possible factors or nuances that will
be given focus on the course of the study, the
possible challenges that the researcher might
encounter, and other things that might be related
to the topic but are beyond the control of the
researcher.
 SCOPE – identifies the coverage and boundaries of
the studying terms of objective, subjects,
facilities, area, time and the issue to which the
research is focused. (topic, respondents,
location , period). It covers the explanation as
to up to what extent the researcher would want to
explore or interpret in his/her research.
 LIMITATIONS – are conditions beyond the control
of the researcher that may cause restrictions
(limits) and make the conclusions to be
generalizable only to the conditions set by the
researcher. Due to these factors, the research
conclusions might not hold true for other
situations or context.
 DELIMITATION – defines the constraints (controls)
and weaknesses which are not within the control
of the researcher, therefore, they are not
expected to be part of the study.These are
conditions that the researcher purposely
controlled. These are the limits beyond the
concern of the study.

COMPONENTS OF SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS

In writing the scope and delimitation of your
study, you are also asking the basic profile
questions of your research. The following are the
components of the scope and delimitation of the
study but not limited to:
Topic of the Study. What are the variables to be
included and excluded?
Objectives or Problems to be Addressed. Why are
you doing this study?
Time Frame. When are you going to conduct this
study?
 Locale of the Study. Where are you going to
gather your data?
Characteristics of the Respondents. Who will be
your respondents?
Method and Research Instruments. How are going to
collect the data?

RESEARCH FRAMEWORK

A research framework illustrates the structure or

blueprint of the research plan and helps the
researcher formulate relevant research questions.
The framework consists of the key concepts and
assumed relationships of the research project. It
is normally used as a guide for researchers so
that they are more focused on the scope of their
studies. It can be presented using visual
(diagrams, chart, etc.) and narrative (paragraph
stating the concepts and relationships of the
study) forms.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

The types of research frameworks are classified
as the theoretical and conceptual frameworks. A
theoretical frameworkis commonly used for studies
that anchor on time-tested theories that relate
the findings of the investigation to the
underpinning relevant theory of knowledge. At the
same time, a conceptual frameworkrefers to the
actual ideas, beliefs, and tentative theories
that specifically support the study. It is
primarily a conception or model of what is out
there that the researcher plans to study.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

 FRAMEWORK– it is described as the abstract,
logical structure of meaning that guides the
development of the study. These are based on the
identification of and relationships among key
concepts.
 It is considered as the blueprint of the study.
 It is a broad outline or plan to give shape to
your research.
 A paradigmis the diagrammatic presentation of the
conceptual framework. It depicts more vividly
what the conceptual framework wishes to convey.
 CONCEPT MAP – made up of varied figures: lines,
circles, boxes and other marks or symbols
representing your concepts on these varied
features of your research – research question,
review of related literature, research
methodology, and variables, among others.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

 It is adopted when a particular theory is enough
to provide theoretical basis for the conduct of
the study.
 It explains the theories, principles,
generalization and research findings which have
some connection to your research study.
Theindependent variable is the “presumed cause” of
the research problem. It is the reason for any
“change” or difference in a dependent variable.
Thedependent variable is the “presumed effect” of
the research problem. It is usually the problem
itself or the element that is being questioned.
This variable is altered as a result of
experimental manipulation of the independent
variable or variables.
Themoderating variable is an independent variable
which influences the direction and the strength
of the connection between independent and
dependent variables. The independent variable
interacts with the moderator variable, which
makes the relationship of the independent and
dependent variable stronger or weaker.
Mediating variable or Intervening variable is an
element that exists between the independent to
the dependent variable. A mediator (or mediating)
variable is an integral part of the cause-effect
relationship and helps us to understand the
effects of the independent variable on the
dependent variable.
Thecontrol variableis a special type of independent
variable that can influence the dependent
variable. It takes an active role in quantitative
 studies. Statistical procedures are used to
control this variable. It is useful to integrate
the control variables into your research study,
but it is not the main focus.

THE INPUT-PROCESS-OUTPUT MODEL

The Input-Process-Output Model (IPO) is

a conceptual paradigm which indicates the inputs,
required process, and the output. This approach
is seated on the premise of acquiring essential
information by converting inputs into outputs
through the required processing steps in
obtaining the result. The IPO Model is also
referred to as a functional model that is usually
used in action research where an intervention or
solution is necessary to solve the identified
problem.
The Input is usually the independent
variable of the study. Meanwhile, the Process is
the intervention or solution consist of the
instruments and analyses used to acquire the
result. Lastly, the Output is the findings or
outcome of the interventions being made to solve
the identified problem.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Usually, in writing a research paper, the

definition of terms is included. It helps in
simplifying some of the technical terms which are
vital in the understanding of the research
project. Although this part of the paper is
optional, it is advantageous for the reader to
include this to prevent the ambiguous meaning of
terms that might otherwise be interpreted in
different ways, causing confusion. It can also
enhance comprehension of important key terms.
Definition of Terms is also called as Operational
Definition of Variables (ODV). The word
operational refers to “how the word/term was used
 in the study. At the same time, the variables are
the elements essential to the study.
There are two ways in defining the terms, the
conceptual and operational definition. The
conceptual definition is the meaning of the term
that is based on how it is defined in the
dictionary or encyclopedia. Operational
definition on the other hand is the meaning of
the term based on how it was used in the study.

EXAMPLES OF WRITING DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION

Face to face. It is when the people involved are

being close together and looking directly at each
other.
Module. It is any in a series of standardized
units used together, such as an educational unit
that covers a single subject or topic.
Online. It is controlled by or connected to
another computer or network.

2. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

Face to face.This refers to one of the modalities

used in learning delivery in which the teacher
and students should be in the same place or
setting, such as the classroom.
Module. Teaching modules are guides of the topics
and lessons of a specific subject given to
students under the modular method. It is also an
alternative distance learning delivery in which
students are required to read and answer the
activities specified in the module.
Online. It refers to another form of distance
learning wherein the teacher and students will
have their lessons using internet connectivity.

OTHER RELATED INFORMATIONS

DEFINITION OF TERMS

 It presents the key terms used in the study.

 Important terms in the study should be defined in
order to avoid confusion. Your definition should
be as brief, clear and unequivocal (plain) as
possible.

o CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION– if you will base your

definition from dictionary or any authority.
It explains the meaning of particular term
using the dictionary. These are based on
establishedconcepts and ideas that has been
already defined and is commonly used and
understood by readers.

o OPERATIONAL DEFINITION – if you define it as

you use it in your study. It describes a term
by how the researcher used it in his/her
study. Technical terms are defined using
operational definition to help the laymen
understand the terms easily.

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

A Hypothesis is a tentative statement about the

relationship between two or more variables. It is a
specific and testable prediction on what you expect
to happen with the variables in your study.
Usually, it proposes a possible relationship
between the independent variable (what the
researcher changes) and the dependent variable
(what the research measures). It is also described
as an “educated guess” of what possibly the result
would be of your research, which should be
supported on existing theories and knowledge.

TYPES OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

1. Simple Hypothesisis a prediction of the
relationship between two variables, the
independent variable and the dependent
variable.It shows a connection between one
independent variable and a single dependent
variable.
2. Complex hypothesisreflects the relationship
between the independent variable and the
dependent variable. It expresses a connection
between two or more independent variables and two
or more dependent variables.
3. Empirical Hypothesisis also called as the
“working hypothesis.” It is presumed to explain
certain facts and relationships of phenomena. It
comes to life when a theory is being put to the
test, using observation and experiment. From the
name itself “working,” it would mean that it can
be changed or replace anytime as soon as it is no
longer supported or accepted base on the
observation and experimentation being done. It is
going through some trial and error and perhaps
changing around those independent variables.
4. Logical hypothesisexpresses explanation with
limited evidence that can be verified logically.
It reflects a relationship of the variables which
anchored based on logical phenomena. Sometimes, a
logical hypothesis can be turned into an
empirical hypothesis in which you have to test
your theories and postulates.
5. Statistical hypothesisis an analysis of a
portion of a population. It can be verified
statistically. The variables in a statistical
hypothesis can be transformed into quantifiable
sub-variable to assess it statistically.
6. Null hypothesisis denoted with the symbol Ho
It exists when you consider that there is no
relationship between the independent and
dependent variables or that there is an
insufficient amount of information to claim a
scientific hypothesis.
7. Alternative hypothesisis denoted with the
symbol (Ha). It is an alternate statement
expressed to be tested in order to generate the
desired output when the empirical or working
hypothesis is not accepted. In an attempt to
disprove a null hypothesis, you tend to seek an
alternative hypothesis.

A Hypothesis can be classified as Directional and

Non-directional Hypothesis

Directional Hypothesis

 The directional hypothesis relates the

relationship between the variables and can
also predict its nature. It illustrates the
direct association of the impact of the
independent variable with the dependent
variable, whether it is positively or
negatively affected. The direction of the
statement should be clear and justified
according to the findings of the study. Since
the hypothesis is gearing to one specific
direction it is investigated through a one-
tailed test.

Non-directional Hypothesis

 A non-directional hypothesis is used

when there is no principle involved.
It is a premise that a relationship
exists between two variables. However,
the direction of the effect is not
specifically determined. It is a
statement that reflects the
association of the independent
variable to the dependent variable
without predicting the exact nature of
the direction of the relationship.
This relationship is not specified as
negative or positive. The hypothesis,
 in this case, is investigated through
a two-tailed test.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESES

1. THEORY-DRIVEN vs. DATA-DRIVEN

HYPOTHESIS

a. THEORY-DRIVEN– a hypothesis that is

based on existing theory to explain the
relationship of variables and the effects
of one variable on the other variables.
b. DATA-DRIVEN– if it is based on the
findings of previous studies.

2. DIRECTIONAL (One-tailed) vs. NON-

DIRECTIONAL (two-tailed) HYPOTHESES

a. DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES – state the

relationship of two variables as well as
of the relationship of these variables.
b. NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES– state the
relationship of variables but not on the
direction of the relationship

3. DESCRIPTIVE vs. CAUSAL HYPOTHESES

a. DESCRIPTIVE HYPOTHESIS– a statement

specifying the relationship between the
two variables due to the influence of
something.
b. CAUSAL HYPOTHESES(CAUSE-and-EFFECT)
i. It is due to cause-effect
relationship.
ii. It states that if a certain condition
(cause) is true, then a supporting
observation (effect) occurs.

OTHER TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

1. SCIENTIFIC HYPOTHESIS– provides an

answer to a research question based on the review
of related literature. If conflicting results
 exist in the related literature, the researcher
may consider those results from research
conducted in similar context as that of the
present study. It is written in the research
line-up.
2. STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS – presents the
standard hypothesis for the statistical procedure
to be employed in the study. Its types are NULL
HYPOTHESIS and ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS.

ONE-TAILED (or one sided) HYPOTHESIS

 It specifies the direction of the association

(relationship) between the independent and
the dependent variables.

TWO-TAILED HYPOTHESIS

 It states only that an association

(relationship) exists; it does not specify
the direction.

TAIL– refers to the tail end of the statistical

distribution such as the familiar bell-shaped
normal curve that is used to test a hypothesis.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Review of related literature

 is a compilation of studies related to a

specific area of research. It evaluates,
classifies and summarizes all the relevant
previous studies conducted on a specified
topic. It is also design to justify your
research by exposing the gaps of the previous
studies. It is vital that your literature
review is centralized. Thus, you should
choose studies that are focused to your topic
rather than collecting a broader scope of
studies which are already not relevant to
your research.
Structure of Literature Review

This is how you are going to structure your review

of related literature. The main goal for doing
this is to make the reader understand easily the
different studies and how they are relevant to
your study.
1. Introduction - The introduction somehow
presents the fundamental idea of the particular
study of the literature review.
2. Main Body - is consisting of the organized
discussion of sources. This is where you
summarize and synthesize your literature review
and reflect how they related to your study.
Conclusions/Recommendations emphasized what you
have learned from reviewing the literature and
where would your study leads to.

Types of Literature Review

1. Context reviewprimarily focused on the

content or contextual aspect of research. Usually
it is a type of review in which the researcher
relates his or her study to a larger body
ofknowledge.
2. Historical reviewa specialized type of
literature review in which the researcher
organizes the related researches according to the
period of time it was conducted.
3. Integrative reviewis a common type of
literature review in which the researcher
introduces and summarizes the recent knowledge of
the study.
4. Methodological reviewis a specialized type of
literature review in which the researcher gathers
and compares and contrast other studies to the
current research.
5. Self-study reviewis a literature review in
which the researcher demonstrates his or her
understanding of a specific body of knowledge.
6. Theoretical reviewis a literature review in
which the researcher introduces several theories
or concepts that are focused on a specific topic.

Where can you find review of related literature?

2. Scholarly
1. Books Journals
3. Dissertations
 4. Government 5. Policy Reports
Documents and Presented Papers
6. Periodicals

In-text Citation and Referencing Styles

Citation is a reference to a literature being

used in your study. It is a way of giving
acknowledgement to the authors whom you have
referred their intellectual works and creativity
as a support or foundation of your research.
Typically, citations include author’s name, date,
publisherinformation, journal information and/or
DOI (Digital Objective Identifier) if present.
From the name itself, an in-text citation is
a reference made within the body of text in the
paper. It leads the reader to a source where a
particular information has been taken of. An in-
text citation should be reflected when you refer,
paraphrase, summarize, or quote from another
author. A corresponding reference list must be
provided at the end of the study as references or
bibliography.
A references typically includes only the
sources that you have mentioned or cited in-text
in your paper, while a bibliography, is generally
a list of all the sources you used to generate
your ideas about your research even if you have
not mentioned or cited them in your paper.
There are different citing and referencing styles
that are being used depending on the specific
requirements of different filed of disciplines.
Please refer to your Practical Research 1 (PR
 SCREENSHOT SYNCHRONOUS SESSION