MECHANICS OF

MATERIALS
MECH 305
UAE University
College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering
Chapter 2: Axially Loaded
Members
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Changes in Lengths of Axially Loaded Members
2.3 Changes in Lengths Under Non-uniform
Conditions
2.4 Statically Indeterminate Structures
2.5 Thermal Effects, Misfits and Prestrains
2.10 Stress Concentrations
2.1 Introduction
▪ Axially loaded members are structural components
subjected only to tension or compression.
▪ Common types are solid bars with straight longitudinal
axes, cables and coil springs.
▪ Examples:
o connecting rods in engines
o spokes in bicycle wheels
o columns in buildings
o struts in aircraft engine mounts.
o Etc.
2.2 Changes in Lengths of Axially Loaded Members
Springs
▪ In order to capture the concept, we take a look at a
spring.
▪ When a load is applied along the axis of a spring, the
spring gets longer or shorter depending upon the
▪ direction
. of the load.
▪ The overall stretching or shortening of a spring is
analogous to the behavior of a bar in tension or
compression, and so the same terminology is used
▪ Under the action of the force P, the spring lengthens by
an amount  and its final length becomes L + .
▪ If the material of the spring is linearly elastic, the load
and elongation will be proportional:

k: spring constant or stiffness

f: flexibility or compliance
2.2 Changes in Lengths of Axially Loaded Members
Prismatic Bars
▪ Axially loaded bars elongate under tensile loads and shorten under
compressive loads, just as springs do.
 2.2 Changes in Lengths of Axially Loaded Members
Example: Solution:
An aluminum wire having a diameter
d = 2 mm and length L = 3.8 m is
subjected to a tensile load P (see
figure). The aluminum has modulus
of elasticity E = 75 GPa. If the
maximum permissible elongation of
the wire is 3 mm and the allowable
stress in tension is 60 MPa, what is
the allowable load Pmax ?
2.2 Changes in Lengths of Axially Loaded Members
Example 2.2
The device shown in Fig. 2-8a consists of a
horizontal beam ABC supported by two
vertical bars BD and CE. Bar CE is pinned at
both ends but bar BD is fixed to the
foundation at its lower end. The distance from
A to B is 450 mm and from B to C is 225 mm.
Bars BD and CE have lengths of 480 mm and
600 mm, respectively, and their cross-
sectional areas are 1020 mm2 and 520 mm2,
respectively. The bars are made of steel
having a modulus of elasticity E = 205 GPa.
Assuming that beam ABC is rigid determine
the following.
(a) Find the maximum allowable load Pmax if
the displacement of point A is limited to 1.0
mm.
(b) If P = 25 kN, what is the required cross-
sectional area of bar CE so that the
displacement at point A is equal to 1.0 mm?
2.2 Changes in Lengths of Axially Loaded Members
Example 2.2: continued…
Solution
(a) Determine the maximum allowable load Pmax
The displacements in BD and CE will
be given by the equation:

Forces FBD and FCE can be From equilibrium: FCE = 2P and FBD = 3P (a)
determined by considering the Therefore:
equilibrium of the beam ABC.

(b)

(c)
2.2 Changes in Lengths of Axially Loaded Members
Example 2.2: continued…
Displacement diagram. A displacement
diagram showing the relative positions of
points A, B, and C is sketched in Fig. 2-8c.
Line ABC represents the original alignment
of the three points. After the load P is
applied, member BD shortens by the
amount BD and point B moves to B'. Also,
member CE elongates by the amount CE
and point C moves to C'. Because the beam
ABC is assumed to be rigid, points A', B',
and C' lie on a straight line.
Using similar triangles, we can now find the relationships between the
displacements at points A, B, and C. From triangles A'A"C' and B' B'C' we get

(d)

Substituting for DB and CE gives:

2.2 Changes in Lengths of Axially Loaded Members
Example 2.2: continued…
2.2 Changes in Lengths of Axially Loaded Members
Example 2.2: continued…
2.2 Changes in Lengths of Axially Loaded Members
Example 2.2: continued…
2.3 Changes in Lengths Under Non-uniform Conditions
Bars with Intermediate Axial Loads
By summing forces in the vertical direction, we
obtain the following expressions for the axial
forces:

Changes in the lengths of the segments

can be obtained by:

Therefore,
2.3 Changes in Lengths Under Non-uniform Conditions
Bars Consisting of Prismatic Segments
This same general approach, as shown in slides above,
can be used when the bar consists of several prismatic
segments, each having different axial forces, different
dimensions, and different materials (Fig. 2-10).
The change in length may be obtained from the
equation:
2.3 Changes in Lengths Under Non-uniform Conditions
Bars with Continuously Varying Loads or Dimensions
Internal force, N(x), varies

Cross sectional area, A(x),varies

The elongation d of the differential element (Fig. 2-11c)

may be obtained from the equation  = PL/EA by
substituting N(x) for P, dx for L, and A(x) for A, as follows:

The elongation of the entire bar is obtained by integrating over the length:
2.3 Changes in Lengths Under Non-uniform Conditions
Example
A brass rod (E 110 GPa) with cross-sectional area of 250 mm2 is loaded by forces
P1 = 15 kN, P2 = 10 kN, and P3 = 8 kN. Segment lengths of the bar are a = 2.0 m,
b = 0.75 m, and c = 1.2 m. Find the change in length of the bar.

Solution:
Segment CD:
𝑁𝐶𝐷 (𝑐)
NCD NCD = -P3 = - 8 kN 𝛿𝐶𝐷 =
𝐸𝐴
Segment BC:
𝑁𝐵𝐶 (𝑏)
NBC NBC = P2 - P3 = 2 kN 𝛿𝐵𝐶 =
𝐸𝐴

Segment AB:
𝑁𝐴𝐵 (𝑎)
NAB
NAB = P1 + P2 - P3 = 17 kN 𝛿𝐴𝐵 =
𝐸𝐴

1
𝛿𝐷 = 𝛿𝐶𝐷 + 𝛿𝐵𝐶 + 𝛿𝐴𝐵 = 𝑁𝐶𝐷 𝑐 + 𝑁𝐵𝐶 𝑏 + 𝑁𝐴𝐵 (𝑎)
𝐸𝐴
2.3 Changes in Lengths Under Non-uniform Conditions
Example
A steel bar 2.4 m long has a circular cross section of diameter d1 = 20 mm over one-
half of its length and diameter d2 = 12 mm over the other half (see figure part a). The
modulus of elasticity E = 205 GPa
(a) How much will the bar elongate under a tensile load P = 22 kN?
(b) If the same volume of material is made into a bar of constant diameter d and
length 2.4 m, what will be the elongation under the same load P?

Solution:
𝑁1 𝐿1 𝑁2 𝐿2
(a)  = 𝛿1 + 𝛿2 = +
𝐸𝐴1 𝐸𝐴2

(b)
2.3 Changes in Lengths Under Non-uniform Conditions
Example 2.3
A vertical steel bar ABC is pin supported at its
upper end and loaded by a force P1 at its lower
end (Fig. 2-1 2a). A horizontal beam BDE is
pinned to the vertical bar at joint B and supported
at point D. The beam carries a load P2 at end E.
The upper part of the vertical bar (segment AB)
has length Ll = 500 mm and cross-sectional area
A1 = 160 mm2; the lower part (segment BC) has
length L2 = 750 mm and area A2 = 100 mm2. The
modulus of elasticity E of the steel is 200 GPa.
The left- and right-hand parts of beam BDE have
lengths a = 700 mm and b = 625 mm, respectively.
a) Calculate the vertical displacement c at point C if the
load P1 = 10 kN and the load P2 = 25 kN. (Disregard
the weights of the bar and the beam.)
b) Where on segment DE should load P2 be applied if
vertical displacement c must equal 0.25 mm?
c) If load P2 is once again applied at E, what new value
of cross sectional area A2 is required so that vertical
displacement  is equal to 0.17 mm?
2.3 Changes in Lengths Under Non-uniform Conditions
Example 2.3: continues
Solution:
(a) Determine the vertical
displacement at point C
Use FBD and equilibrium of each bar:
2.3 Changes in Lengths Under Non-uniform Conditions
Example 2.3: continues

Therefore,
2.3 Changes in Lengths Under Non-uniform Conditions
Example 2.3: continues
2.3 Changes in Lengths Under Non-uniform Conditions
Example 2.3: continues
2.3 Changes in Lengths Under Non-uniform Conditions
Example 2.3: continues

As expected, cross-sectional area A2 must increase, so that

the vertical displacement at C is reduced from that computed
in Eq. (c).
2.3 Changes in Lengths Under Non-uniform Conditions
Example
A prismatic bar AB of length L, cross-sectional area A,
modulus of elasticity E, and weight W hangs vertically
under its own weight (see figure).
(a) Derive a formula for the downward displacement C of
point C, located at distance h from the lower end of the bar.
(b) What is the elongation B of the entire bar?

Solution
Consider an element at distance y from the lower end.
2.3 Changes in Lengths Under Non-uniform Conditions
Example 2.4
2.3 Changes in Lengths Under Non-uniform Conditions
Example 2.4: continues
Solution:
The first step in the solution is to obtain an expression for the
cross-sectional area A(x) at any cross section of the bar. Using
similar triangles on Fig. 2.23b, we have:

;
The axial force is constant: N(x) = P
Therefore;

This formula gives the

elongation of a tapered
bar of solid circular cross
section.
 2.4 Statically Indeterminate Structures
What is meant by statically indeterminate structure?

One equilibrium equation; One equilibrium equation;

Fvertical = 0 Fvertical = 0
RB = P1 + P2 RA + RB = P
One reaction, RB, is unknown Two reactions, RB, RA are
unknown

Statically Determinate Structures Statically Indeterminate Structures

Reactions and internal forces can be
etermined solely from free-body diagrams
and equations of equilibrium without
knowing the properties of the materials.
Compatibility equation
δAB = 0
In addition to the equilibrium equations,
the relations between forces and
displacements are usually needed to
determine the reactions and the internal
forces. The additional equation is based
upon the observation that a bar with
both ends fixed does not change in length.
2.4 Statically Indeterminate Structures
Analysis of a Statically Indeterminate Bar

RA

Then the changes in lengths of the(i)

upper and lower
segments of the bar are, respectively

NAC
Combining the force-displacement relations with the
equation of compatibility:
NBC
(ii)

Now we can solve simultaneously the equations (i)

and (ii). The results are:
RB

With the reactions known, the downward

displacement δC of point C can be found
2.4 Statically Indeterminate Structures
General Comments
▪ The analysis of statically indeterminate structure involves setting up and solving equations
of equilibrium and equations of compatibility.
▪ The equilibrium equations:
o Relates the loads acting on the structure to the unknown forces (which may be
reactions or internal forces)
▪ The compatibility equations
o Express conditions on the displacements of the structure.
o The compatibility equations are expressed in terms of the unknown forces by
substituting the force-displacement relations.
▪ Finally, the equations of equilibrium and the compatibility are solved simultaneously for the
unknown forces
▪ In the engineering literature:
▪ The equilibrium equations are also known as static or kinetic equations.
▪ The compatibility equations are sometimes called geometric equations, kinematic
equations, or equations of consistent deformations
▪ The force-displacement relations are often referred to as constitutive relations because
they deal with the constitution, or physical properties, of the material.
▪ The flexibility (force) method and the stiffness (displacement) method are used. They are
2.4 Statically Indeterminate Structures
Example 2.6
A solid circular steel cylinder S is encased
in a hollow circular copper tube C (Figs. 2-
18a and b). The cylinder and tube are
compressed between the rigid plates of a
testing machine by compressive forces P.
The steel cylinder has cross-sectional
area As and modulus of elasticity Es , the
copper tube has
area Ac and modulus Ec, and both parts
have length L.
Determine the following quantities: (a)
the compressive forces Ps in the steel
cylinder and Pc in the copper tube; (b) the
corresponding compressive stresses s
and c; and (c) the shortening  of the
assembly.
2.4 Statically Indeterminate Structures
Example 2.6: continued
Solution (a) Compressive forces in the steel cylinder and copper tube
Equation of equilibrium. A free-body diagram of the upper plate is shown in
Fig. 2-18d. This plate is subjected to the force P and to the unknown
compressive forces P and P; thus, the equation of equilibrium is:
(i)

Equation of compatibility. End plates are rigid. The steel cylinder and copper
tube must shorten the same amount.

Force displacement relations.

(ii)

Solving (i) and (ii) simultaneously, we get:

2.4 Statically Indeterminate Structures
Example 2.6: continued
(b) Compressive stresses in the steel cylinder and copper tube
Knowing the axial forces, we can now obtain the compressive stresses in the
two materials:

(c) Shortening of the assembly:

This result shows that the shortening of the assembly is equal to the total
load divided by the sum of the stiffnesses of the two parts [recall: that the
stiffness of an axially loaded bar is k = EA/L]
2.4 Statically Indeterminate Structures
Example 2.5
A horizontal rigid bar AB is pinned at end A and supported by two wires (CD and
EF) at points D and F. A vertical load P acts at end B of the bar. The bar has length
3b and wires CD and EF have lengths L1 and L2, respectively. Also, wire CD has
diameter d1 and modulus of elasticity E1; wire EF has diameter d2 and modulus E2
(a) Obtain formulas for the allowable load P if the allowable stresses in wires
CD and EF, respectively, are 1 and 2 (Disregard the weight of the bar itself.)
(b) Calculate the allowable load P for the following conditions: Wire CD is
made of aluminum with modulus E1 = 72 GPa, diameter d1 = 4.0 mm, and length
L1 = 0.40 m. Wire EF is made of magnesium with modulus E2 = 45 GPa, diameter
d2 = 3.0 mm, and length L2 = 0.30 m. The allowable stresses in the aluminum and
magnesium wires are 1 = 200 MPa and 2 = 175 MPa, respectively.
2.4 Statically Indeterminate Structures
Example 2.5: continued
Solution:
(a) Determine the formulas for allowable load P Free-body diagram,
Equation of equilibrium

(i)
Displacement diagram
Equation of compatibility 2 = 21
Force-displacement relations.

f2T2 = 2f1T1 (ii)

Solve (i) and (ii) simultaneously to get:

2.4 Statically Indeterminate Structures
Example 2.5: continued
Now that the statically indeterminate analysis is completed and the forces in the wires
are known, we can determine the permissible value of the load P. The stress 1 in wire
CD and the stress 2 in wire EF are readily obtained from the forces.

From the first of these equations we solve for the permissible force P1 based upon
the allowable stress 1 in wire CD:

Similarly, from the second equation we get the permissible force P2 based upon the allowable
stress 2 in wire EF:

The smaller of these two loads is the maximum allowable load Pallow.
2.4 Statically Indeterminate Structures
Example 2.5: continued
(b) Numerical calculations for the allowable load P.

Using the given data and the preceding

equations, we obtain the following
numerical values:

Also, the allowable stresses are

Therefore, substituting into equations gives

The allowable load is the smaller of the two values: Pallow = 1.26 kN

At this load the stress in the magnesium is 175 MPa (the allowable stress) and the stress in the
aluminum is 105 MPa. As expected, this stress is less than the allowable stress of 200 MPa.
2.5 Thermal Effects, Misfits and Prestrains
2.5 Thermal Effects, Misfits and Prestrains
Example 2-7:
2.5 Thermal Effects, Misfits and Prestrains
Example 2-7:

Temperature displacement:

δT = α(ΔT)L (iii)

Equation of Equilibrium:

F = 0; RA + RB = 0 (i)

Equation of compatibility:

δT + δB = 0 (ii)
2.5 Thermal Effects, Misfits and Prestrains
Example 2-7:

(iv)

Substituting eqns (iii) and (iv) into compatibility eqn (ii) and solving for
RB gives:

; And from eqn (i):

Lastly,
2.5 Thermal Effects, Misfits and Prestrains
2.10 Stress Concentrations
▪ The basic formula  = P/A is based upon the assumption that the
stress distribution is uniform throughout the cross section.
▪ In reality, bars often have holes, grooves, notches, keyways,
shoulders, threads, or other abrupt changes in geometry that create a
disruption in the otherwise uniform stress pattern.
▪ These discontinuities in geometry cause high stresses in very small
regions of the bar, and these high stresses are known as stress
concentrations.
▪ The discontinuities themselves are known as stress raisers.
2.10 Stress Concentrations
Saint-Venant’s Principle

Stress concentrations appear at points of

loading as shown in Fig. 2-60.
The peak stresses occur directly under
the load. However, these stresses
decreases rapidly at a distance from the
applied load. Uniform stresses are
reached at a cross section at least a
distance “b” away from the concentrated
load (b) is the largest lateral dimension
of the bar.
2.10 Stress Concentrations
Some particular cases of stress concentration caused by discontinuities in the
shape of the bar
▪ A bar of rectangular cross section having a circular hole and
subjected to a tensile force P
2.10 Stress Concentrations
Some particular cases of stress concentration caused by discontinuities in the
shape of the bar
2.10 Stress Concentrations
Some particular cases of stress concentration caused by discontinuities in the
shape of the bar
2.10 Stress Concentrations
Example 2-18-a

A stepped brass bar with a hole (Fig. 2-67a) has widths of b = 9.0 cm and a
thickness of t = 1.0 cm. The fillets have radii equal to 1.5 cm (assuming a full
quarter circle fillet) and the hole has a diameter of d 1.8 cm. The ultimate strength
of the brass is 200 MPa.
If a factor of safety of 2.8 is required, what is the maximum allowable tensile load
Pmax?

Note that this Example 2-18 data is modified from the original data in the previous slide taken from the
book. The parameter c as the input is avoided since it gives different values for segment with the hole
and segment with the fillet. The fillet radii R = 0.5 cm is changed to R = 1.5 cm to assume a full-quarter
curve of the fillet
2.10 Stress Concentrations
Example 2-18 (cont.)
Solution
(a) Determine the maximum allowable
tensile load.
There are two areas needed to be
analyzed:
(1) segment with the hole area and
(2) segment with the fillet.

For the hole area:

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐾𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 ≤ 𝜎𝑎

𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥1 200 𝑀𝑃𝑎 d/b = 1.8/9 = 0.2

2.51 ≤ K = 2.51 (from Fig above)
72 𝑚𝑚 10 𝑚𝑚 2.8
c = b - d = 90 – 18 mm = 72 mm
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥1 = 20.5 kN
𝑃
𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 =
𝑐𝑡
2.10 Stress Concentrations
Example 2.18 (cont.)

For the fillet area

b = 90 mm
R = 15 mm
c = b – 2R = 60 mm
(assume full quarter curve)

b/c = 90/60 = 1.5

R/c = 15/60 = 0.25
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐾𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 ≤ 𝜎𝑎
K = 1.75 (from the Figure)

𝑃 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥2 200 𝑀𝑃𝑎

1.75 ≤
𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 = 60 𝑚𝑚 10 𝑚𝑚 2.8
𝑐𝑡
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥2 = 24.5 kN
Therefore Pmax = 20.5 kN
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥1 = 20.5 kN
2.10 Stress Concentrations
• Example 2.18-B
A stepped brass bar with a hole (Fig. 2-67a) has widths of b = 90 mm and a
thickness of t = 10 mm. The fillet segment has radii equal to 6 mm (assume the
fillet is not a full quarter circle) and the reduced width of cf = 60 mm. The
ultimate strength of the brass is 200 MPa with a safety factor of 2.8.
a) If the hole segment has a diameter of 18 mm., what is the maximum allowable
tensile load Pmax?
b) Find the hole diameter dmax at which the two segments of the bar have tensile
load carrying capacity equal to that for the fillet region of the stepped bar.

Note that this Example 2-18 data is modified from the original data in the previous slide taken from the
book. The parameter c as the input is stated as cf. The fillet radii R = 0.5 cm is changed to R = 0.6 cm.
2.10 Stress Concentrations
Example 2-18 (cont.)
Solution
(a) Determine the maximum allowable
tensile load.
There are two areas needed to be
analyzed:
(1) segment with the hole area and
(2) segment with the fillet.

For the hole area:

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐾𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 ≤ 𝜎𝑎

𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥1 200 𝑀𝑃𝑎 d/b = 1.8/9 = 0.2

2.51 ≤ K = 2.51 (from Fig above)
72 𝑚𝑚 10 𝑚𝑚 2.8
c = b - d = 90 – 18 mm = 72 mm
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥1 = 20.5 kN
𝑃
𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 =
𝑐𝑡
2.10 Stress Concentrations
Example 2.18 (cont.)

For the fillet area

b = 90 mm
R = 6 mm
c = cf= 60 mm
(NOT full quarter curve)

b/c = 90/60 = 1.5

R/c = 6/60 = 0.1
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐾𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 ≤ 𝜎𝑎
K = 2.35 (from the Figure)

𝑃 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥2 200 𝑀𝑃𝑎

2.35 ≤
𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 = 60 𝑚𝑚 10 𝑚𝑚 2.8
𝑐𝑡
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥2 = 18.24 kN
Therefore Pmax = 18.24 kN
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥1 = 20.5 kN
2.10 Stress Concentrations
Example 2-18-b: continued

b. Find the maximum diameter of the hole such that P = Pmax

The result in (a) shows that Segment Hole has Pmax1 higher than Pmax2 of the Segment
Fillet. Therefore it is desired to increase the diameter of the hole such that the Pmax1 of
the Segment Hole equals to the Pmax2 of the filet.

Therefore, given b = 90 mm, t = 10 mm, 𝜎𝑌 = 200 MPa, SF = 2.8, determine the hole
diameter of the segment hole such that Pmax = Pmax of the segment fillet = 18.24 kN.

To make it easier to find K, we will use Kapprox as follows:

In order to demonstrate the calculation, we can do the formulation as follows:

2.10 Stress Concentrations
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐾𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 ≤ 𝜎𝑎
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜎𝑌 𝜎𝑌 𝑏−𝑑 𝑡 𝜎 1−𝑑/𝑏 𝑏 𝑡
K ≤ K≤ K ≤ 𝑆𝐹𝑌
𝑏−𝑑 𝑡 𝑆𝐹 𝑆𝐹 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥

≤
200 1−𝑑/𝑏 (90) (10)
2.8 18240

𝒅
= 𝟑. 𝟓𝟐𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝟏 −
𝒃

2.7143 𝑥 2 + 0.6193 𝑥 − 0.5193 = 0

The roots are x1 = -0.5707367496 and x2 = 0.3425747925

So d/b = 0.3426 → 𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑑 = 0.3426 × 90 = 30.83 𝑚𝑚

We can obtain the result without iteration

Exercise
Exercise 1.
Exercise 2
Exercise 3