ACI MATERIALS JOURNAL
Title no. 103-M12
Engineering Properties of Alkali-Activated
Fly Ash Concrete
by Ana M. Fernández-Jiménez, Angel Palomo, and Cecilio López-Hombrados
This paper reports the results of experimental research on certain
engineering properties of a new (portland cement-free) concrete
made with alkali-activated fly ash. Laboratory tests were
conducted to determine its (bending and compression) mechanical
strength, modulus of elasticity, bond strength, and shrinkage. The
results show that mortar and concrete made with portland cement-
free activated fly ash develop a high mechanical strength in short
periods of time, have a moderate modulus of elasticity and bond
better to reinforcing steel and shrink much less than ordinary
portland cement (OPC) concrete.
Keywords: alkali; fly ash; shrinkage; strength.
INTRODUCTION
Portland cement concrete is the most widely used building
material today. The success of this material throughout the
Twentieth Century can be attributed to its mechanical
properties, cost-effectiveness, and overall performance.
Certain intrinsic features of portland cement manufacturing,
however, give cause for serious concern in modern society
(energetically and environmentally speaking). The process
involves very high temperatures (1400 to 1500 °C), the
destruction of natural quarries to extract raw materials, and
the emission of greenhouse and pollutant gases such as CO2
and NOx. Environmentally friendly, low-cost alkaline
cements with similar or even better bonding properties are a
promising alternative to portland cement.1-5 Furthermore, the
studies conducted to date on the possibilities of manufacturing
and marketing (portland cement-free) alkali-activated fly ash
(AAFA) paste, mortar, and concrete are very encouraging.6-8
The alkali activation of fly ash (FA) is a singular procedure in
which this powdery grey material is mixed with an alkaline
solution (alkaline activators) and then cured at a moderate
temperature to produce solids. The glassy constituent of the FA
converts into a well-compacted cement. In previous
research,4,9,10 the main reaction product formed in AAFA
was found to be an amorphous alumino-silicate gel with
properties characteristic of a zeolite precursor. The short
range order of this zeolite precursor consists of a three-
dimensional structure in which the Si occurs in a variety of
environments. Small amounts of some hydroxisodalite,
herschelite, and other crystalline zeolites have also been
detected in such systems.10,11
There are some recently published papers on the development
of mechanical strength in AAFA paste and mortars,4,9,12-14
but published research on the manufacturing of portland
cement-free concrete using AAFA as a binder is very scarce,
except for a few studies.7,8,15-17 These studies showed that
the properties of AAFA concrete, like the characteristics of
conventional concrete, depend on a series of factors relating
to the dosage of the mixture and curing conditions. The new
concretes were further found to develop very high strength in
106
TECHNICAL PAPER
a short period of time (1 day), and continue to gain in
strength over time, although at a slower rate.
In any event, the results that are gradually coming forward
show the enormous potential of such materials for construction
applications, particularly in the precast concrete industry.
The study discussed herein is primarily to determine
certain engineering properties of this type of material
(mechanical strength, modulus of elasticity, bond strength,
and shrinkage) to evaluate their advantages and drawbacks
in comparison to portland cement.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
The scientific community has made considerable efforts in
recent years to find new binders suitable for use in construction
that would enhance the properties of the traditional binder
while costing much less than portland cement to manufacture, in
terms of environmental impact and energy consumed.
Alkaline cements obtained from AAFA are among the materials
with greatest potential to provide a feasible alternative. The
present survey aspires to pioneer the study of certain
engineering properties of new portland cement-free alkaline
concretes made with AAFA.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
A Spanish Type F FA and a commercial ordinary portland
cement (OPC) were used in the experiments. The chemical
compositions and specific surface areas of the two materials
are shown in Table 1, from which it can be readily seen that
FA consists primarily of silica and alumina while the two
major components of portland cement are lime and silica.
The following tests were conducted on the previous materials.
Mechanical strength—Compression strength tests on 15 x
15 x 15 cm concrete cubes and bending strength tests on 15
x 10 x 70 cm concrete prisms (EHE). This standard is
equivalent to BS EN 12390-3:2002 “Testing Hardened
Concrete: Compressive Strength of Test Specimen.”
Static modulus of elasticity—Compression tests run on
15 x 20 cm standard concrete cylinders (Spanish standard
UNE 83316). This standard is equivalent to ASTM C 469-02
and BS 1881-121:1983 “Testing Concrete Method for
Determination of Static Modulus of Elasticity in
Compression.
Pull-out test—Conducted on 20 x 20 x 20 cm concrete
cubes (RILEM/CEB/FIP).18
Drying shrinkage—Test conducted on 2.5 x 2.5 x 23 cm
mortar specimens (ASTM C 806-87).
ACI Materials Journal, V. 103, No. 2, March-April 2006.
MS No. 04-281 received February 10, 2005, and reviewed under Institute publication
policies. Copyright © 2006, American Concrete Institute. All rights reserved, including
the making of copies unless permission is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
Pertinent discussion including authors’ closure, if any, will be published in the January-
February 2007 ACI Materials Journal if the discussion is received by October 1, 2006.
ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2006

Ana M. Fernández-Jiménez has a fellowship with the Eduardo Torroja Institute,
National Scientific Research Council (CSIC), Madrid, Spain. She received her PhD in
chemistry. Her research interests include alkaline cements, alkali-activated fly ash,
and alkali-activated slag.
Angel Palomo is a senior research scientist with the Eduardo Torroja Institute. He
received his PhD in chemistry. His research interests include portland cement with an
emphasis on clinkering, hydration, and durability, and alkali activation processes.
Cecilio López-Hombrados is a civil engineer and Head of the Eduardo Torroja
Institute test laboratory. His research interests include the design and execution
of standard and nonstandard tests for concrete specimens.
Two sets of curing conditions were used in the OPC
mortars: 20 hours at 22 °C, laboratory standard curing
conditions; and 20 hours at 40 °C, hot weather curing
conditions, precast elements curing conditions, etc. The fly
ash mortars (both those prepared with Solution N and those
mixed with Solution W), in turn, were cured for 20 hours at
85 °C and 98% relative humidity, usual curing conditions for
this type of material.8 After curing, the 2.5 x 2.5 x 23 cm
specimens were stored in the laboratory at 21 °C and
approximately 50% relative humidity. Shrinkage measurements
were taken at 1, 3, 7, 14, and 28 days, and after.

The procedures followed to make the concretes and RESULTS

mortars used for the different tests are described in the The results of the mechanical tests conducted on the new
following. (portland cement-free) alkaline mortars and concretes and
Alkali-activated fly ash concrete (AAFAC)—Two different the portland cement mortars and concretes (the controls) are
types of alkaline solutions were used to make FA concrete: discussed below in the following.
Solution N (8M solution of NaOH) and Solution W (mixture Mechanical strength—Figure 1 gives the results of
containing 85% of a 12.5M solution of NaOH and 15% of a compression testing the new alkaline concrete cubes (15 x 15
sodium silicate solution [SiO2 = 27.8%, Na2O = 8.2%, and x 15 cm) in a testing machine. Initially, these concretes
H2O = 64%]). The concrete was dosed to the following (prepared with Solutions N and W) were thermally cured for
criteria: coarse siliceous aggregate (6 to 12 mm)/fine aggre- 20 hours at 85 °C and later stored at room humidity and
gate (0 to 5 mm river sand) ratio = 1.26; aggregate + sand/ash temperature. Figure 1 shows that this type of concrete
ratio = 4/1; ash dosage = 465 kg/m3; solution N/ash ratio = 0.4; develops high compression strength in the first few hours
and finally solution W/ash ratio = 0.55. after alkali activation, with values on the order of 45 MPa
Portland cement concrete—The same coarse siliceous after 24 hours (generally higher than conventional concrete).
aggregate (6 to 12 mm)/fine aggregate (0 to 5 mm river sand) Another finding, likewise visible in Fig. 1, is that concrete
ratio = 1.26 was used for the OPC as for the FA concrete, but strength continues to rise with time, although more slowly
the aggregate + sand/cement = 5/1 and water/cement = 0.5 than in the first 24 hours.
ratios differed. A lignosulphonate base admixture (0.84% by Finally, it should also be noted that the presence of soluble
binder weight) was also added to this concrete. Finally, Type silica in the alkaline solution (Solution W) leads to a substantial
HA3 portland cement concrete (as defined in the Spanish improvement in mechanical strength, despite the fact that a
higher “liquid/solid” ratio (0.55) had to be used with this
concrete code) was used in this study, that is, the binder
solution. The presence of soluble silica in the solution also
content was 350 Kg/m3 (260 Kg CE I 52.5R + 140 Kg FA).
increases paste density, lowering workability.15,16
Mortars—The sand/binder ratio used in the mortars was 2/1
and the alkaline solution/ash ratio was 0.4, while the portland
cement mortars had a sand/binder ratio of 3/1 and a water-
cement ratio (w/c) of 0.5. Standard siliceous sand with a pure
quartz content of 99.9% was used in both cases.
After the FA and aggregate or portland cement and aggre-
gate were mixed in a pan mixer for 3 minutes, the liquid
component (alkaline solution or water) was added and the
paste mixed for a further 5 minutes. The mixture was then
poured into different types of moulds (depending on the test
for which they were intended) in three consecutive courses.
Each course was vibrated for 15 to 20 seconds with a
vibrator. Three specimens were prepared for each test.
Samples were placed in an oven immediately after casting
and cured at the specified temperature and time: 20 hours at
85 °C for AAFA concrete, and 20 hours at 22 °C and/or
20 hours at 40 °C and 98% relative humidity for OPC
concrete. The specimens were demolded after curing and
stored at laboratory temperature until tested. Fig. 1—Concrete compressive strength.

Table 1—Chemical composition of cement and fly ash

Specific
LOI* IR† SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 K2O Na2O surface
CEM‡ 1.64 0.76 19.33 5.66 2.66 63.07 0.36 3.38 1.88 0.14 459 m2/kg
FA 3.59 0.32 53.09 24.80 8.01 2.44 1.94 0.23 3.78 0.73 360 m2/kg
*
LOI = Loss on ignition.
†
IR = Insoluble residue.
‡CEM = Type I cement according to Spanish standard UNE 80 300:2000 IN.

ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2006 107

 Figure 2 shows the bending strength developed by alkaline
concretes, determined with 15 x 10 x 70-cm prisms. As in the
case of compression strength, portland cement-free activated
ash concrete develops very high flexural strength at early
ages, with a gradual increase in these initial values over time.
Determination of the static modulus of elasticity
(compression)—The static modulus of elasticity is a property
of concrete that expresses the ratio, within the elastic limit,
between a certain range of unit stress and the corresponding
strain or unit elongation. As a general rule, the higher its
modulus of elasticity, the better the quality of the concrete.
According to Spanish standard UNE 83316, the modulus of
elasticity for compression, Ec (in N/mm2), can be computed
from the following expression
Fig. 2—Concrete specimen bending strength.
Fig. 3—(a) Compression testing equipment used; and (b)
alkali-activated fly ash concrete cylinder after testing.
Fig. 4—Stress-strain curves for: (a) OPC concrete; and (b)
alkali-activated fly ash concrete.
108
Ec = ∆σ/∆ε (1)
where ∆σ and ∆ε are the increases in stress and strain,
respectively, from a stress of 0.5 N/mm2 to the value
corresponding to 1/3 of the ultimate strength of the concrete.
The equipment used for the test is Spanish standard UNE
83304-compliant, meaning that it is able to apply and sustain
loads at the specified rate within the respective intervals. A
photograph of the equipment is shown in Fig. 3(a). A pressure
transducer was used to measure the load and three
displacement transducers to measure elongation. Measurements
were taken at three equidistant generating lines on the
test specimen.
As mentioned in the section describing the experimental
procedures, three concrete cylinders measuring 150 mm in
diameter by 300 mm high were used per test. Figure 3(b)
shows the cracks appearing in the AAFA specimen made
with Solution N after testing at 48 hours.
Table 2 gives the results for each specimen tested. Figure 4 (a)
shows the stress-strain curves for portland cement HA3
concrete cured 20 hours at 20 and 40 °C and testing at 28 days,
while Fig. 4(b) depicts the findings for AAFA concrete made
with Solutions N and W. Each graph also shows the tangent
modulus of elasticity computed for the mean value.
Portland cement-free activated fly ash concrete is
observed to have a much lower modulus of elasticity than
portland cement concrete.
Pull-out test—Several pull-out tests were conducted to
study the strength of the bond between the new alkaline
concrete matrix and the reinforcing steel, as specified in
RILEM/CEB/FIP.18
In these pull-out tests, the bond length of the reinforcement
bar is embedded in the center of a 20 x 20 x 20 cm specimen.
The bond length of the bar depends on its diameter, where
the condition to be met is l > 5Φ. As the bars used in the
present tests had diameters of 8 and 16 mm, the bond areas
had to be 8 and 16 cm, respectively. The two ends of the bars
were covered with plastic sheathes to prevent bonding
outside the bond length (see Fig. 5(b)). Steel bars, 70 cm
long, were used for the test (refer to Fig. 5(a)). The aim was
to measure the displacement of the bar at the end opposite the
end where the load was applied (the free end), with respect
to the edge of the specimen.
The load was applied to the longest end (refer to Fig. 5(b))
with a 156 kN hydraulic jack, at a rate of 72 N/s until the ultimate
load was reached. The slippage of the bar relative to the
concrete on the side opposite the load side was recorded
during the test by three displacement transducers (refer to
Fig. 5). The specimens rested on a rubber mat 5 mm thick, in
turn supported by a 10 mm steel plate.
The results obtained for the different concretes are given
in Table 3. The local bond stress in MPa is calculated as the
test load applied divided by the bond area of the bar.
Table 2—Static modulus of elasticity
OPC concrete Alkali-activated fly ash concrete
25 °C 40 °C Solution N Solution W
σ, σ, σ, σ,
Samples N/mm2 E, GPa N/mm2 E, GPa N/mm2 E, GPa N/mm2 E, GPa
1 36.2 32.8 36.6 30.3 32 11.7 43.5 18.4
2 41.5 34.5 32.5 32.5 29 10.7 — —
3 35.2 28.3 42.1 32.3 34 13.4 39.5 15.8
ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2006
 τ = Q/A = Q/πΦIb (2) It will be noted from Fig. 9 that substantial shrinkage was
recorded in the portland cement mortars, in particular the
where Q is the load applied, N; Φ is the nominal bar diameter mortars cured at room temperature, reaching values of
mm; and lb is the bond length, mm. approximately 0.09% in 70 days, whereas the activated FA
The mean values of the local bond stress τ (N/mm2) are mortars shrank only slightly, clearly much less than the OPC
plotted against the slippage recorded at the upper end of the mortars. The low shrinkage values found for the two FA
bar δ (mm) for each of the materials tested in Fig. 6 and 7. mortars (prepared with Solution N or W) after 90 days—
These figures show the relative displacement between the under 0.025% in both cases—are indicative of the dimen-
embedded bar and the surrounding concrete as the force sional stability of these new materials.
applied to one of the ends gradually increases. The final
point on the curve is the bond rupture point, after which DISCUSSION
slippage occurs. Generally speaking, the alkali activation of FA yields a
As the graphs show, the matrix-steel bond in the AAFA material with very promising cementitious features. The
concrete specimens embedding 8-mm diameter bars was so main reaction product formed in the alkali activation of FA
strong that during the test the steel broke before slipping and
before the concrete cracked (Fig. 8(a)), whereas the bar
embedded in OPC concrete slipped. With regard to the 16 mm
bars, failure occurred in the AAFA concretes due to matrix
breakage, while the bars in the OPC concrete cubes were
again observed to slip.
Nonetheless, certain differences were noted in the new
AAFA concretes depending on the activator used. In the
concretes made with Solution W, the matrix broke at an
ultimate stress of ≅ 12 MPa (Fig. 8(b)), while the concrete
specimens made with Solution N reached values of up to
17 MPa. In the latter case, it should be noted that in one of
the three specimens tested, the bar broke before the concrete Fig. 7—Local bond/slippage curves for AAFA concrete
matrix cracked (Fig. 8(c)). In any event, both types of made with solutions N and W: (a) mean value for 8 mm-
concrete, that is, made with Solution N or W, reached values diameter bars; and (b) mean value for 16 mm-diameter bars.
substantially higher than the 9.70 N/mm specified in the
Spanish concrete code (EHE) as the minimum required to
pass the beam test.
Shrinkage—Finally, the dry shrinkage of the materials
studied was determined with mortar specimens tested to
ASTM C 806-87 specifications. The mortars were made as
described above in the section on experimental procedures.

Fig. 8—(a) AAFA concrete Solution W 8 mm bar: bar breaks;

(b) AAFA concrete Solution W 16 mm bar: matrix breaks; and
(c) AAFA concrete Solution N 16 mm bar: bar breaks.

Table 3—Pull-out test results

Bar Maximum Adherence
diameter, load tension τ,
Sample mm (Q = kN) N/mm2 Gap area
Fig. 5—(a) Steel bars used; and (b) pull-out test equipment. *
OPC concrete 8 24.25 12.04 Slides
OPC concrete 8 22.03 11.00 Slides
† 16 95.49 11.88 Slides
OPC concrete
OPC concrete 16 122.6 15.24 Slides
* 8 31.76 15.8 Breaks the bar
AAFA N1-8
AAFA N2-8 8 31.06 15.5 Breaks the bar
AAFA N3-8 8 31.84 15.8 Breaks the bar
* 8 31.03 15.4 Breaks the bar
AAFA W1-8
AAFA W2-8 8 31.31 15.7 Breaks the bar
AAFA W3-8 8 31.58 15.7 Breaks the bar
† 16 136.6 17.0 Breaks the sample
AAFA N1-16
AAFA N2-16 16 142.15 17.7 Breaks the sample
AAFA N3-16 16 124.59 17.5 Breaks the bar
† 16 102.94 12.8 Breaks the sample
AAFA W1-16
AAFA W2-16 16 101.09 11.6 Breaks the sample
Fig. 6—Local bond/slippage curves for OPC concretes: (a) AAFA W3-16 16 99.95 12.4 Breaks the sample
mean value for 8 mm-diameter bars; and (b) mean value for *
τ minimum as per EHE for 8 mm-diameter bars: 11.22 N/mm2.
†
16 mm-diameter bars. τ minimum as per EHE for 16 mm-diameter bars: 9.70 N/mm2.

ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2006 109

was identified in previous studies4,10 to be a gel-type mate-
rial whose microstructural properties are characteristic of a
pre-zeolite. The mechanisms leading to the formation of this
(relatively Si-rich) pre-zeolite include the intermediate synthesis
of a relatively Al-rich product.10,19 In other words, the short
range order of the structure of this gel evolves with time.
The present paper describes the manufacture of portland
cement-free AAFA concrete and the development of some
of the more relevant of its engineering characteristics. When
compared to the properties of traditional portland cement
concrete, such characteristics show promising improvements,
by and large. These improvements must logically be related
to the enormous microstructural differences observed in the
two types of binders used (AAFA and OPC).
The present study, for instance, proved that alkaline
concretes made with activated FA develop very high
mechanical strength in relatively short periods of time
(compression strength of >35 MPa after 12 hours and 50 MPa
after 20 hours of thermal curing) (refer to Fig. 1). The
authors believe that the speedy development of strength can
be explained primarily by the high compactness of the reaction
product precipitating as a result of the alkaline attack on the
FA (a zeolite precursor), in as much as the colloidal size of
the particles involved favors the appearance of intense Van
der Waals forces. Additionally, the mean size of the pores in
alkaline systems is likewise smaller than the mean size of the
pores in portland systems.
Another microstructural characteristic of the new cement
that may also contribute to the attainment of mechanical
strength is its three-dimensional skeleton, which affords
Fig. 9—Dry shrinkage in portland and alkali-activated fly
ash cement concrete.
Fig. 10—Maximum rate of mechanical strength gaining
versus curing time and curing temperature.
110
exceptional physical solidity. The essential difference with
respect to portland cement is that the laminar structure
developed in the latter, which is responsible for its good
mechanical behavior, is at the same time prone to cracking
between the silicate chains.
It is also interesting to note that, like OPC concrete, FA
concretes develop mechanical strength more rapidly if the
curing temperature is raised; indeed, at room temperature the
new materials gain strength too slowly (the maximum rate of
attainment of mechanical strength is plotted against curing
time and temperature in Fig. 10).10
Another kinetic difference between the portland and alkaline
systems is the existence of a relatively low threshold
temperature in the former, above which thermal curing has
an adverse effect on mechanical development20 and even on
material durability.21-23 In activated ash, on the contrary, a
suitable choice of reaction time and curing temperature can
yield different reaction products without detracting from
material durability,10 because increases in the curing
temperature go hand-in-hand with decreases in the
amount of Al incorporated into the final product and a
concomitant improvement in mechanical properties. Such
improvements parallel the formation of a homogeneous
alumino-silicate matrix.
Another of the characteristics of the concretes that has a
fundamental impact on the development of their engineering
properties is their ability to bond to the aggregate and the
reinforcing steel. Bond strength, in short, describes the
transfer of the stress between the concrete matrix and the
aggregate or reinforcement. Thus for instance, in the specific
cases described in the present paper (pull-out tests), when the
bar embedded in the concrete matrix is subject to tensile
force, the transfer of stress from the steel to the matrix takes
place in the form of an oblique compression force originating in
the ribs of the bar, along their α angle. The radial component
of this force is offset by a ring of tensile forces that appears
in the concrete matrix surrounding the steel bar. All of this
generates a series of internal longitudinal cracks. Without
the reinforcement, these cracks would run through the
concrete cover and cause brittle failure on the surface
(known as splitting failure). If, however, the steel bar is well
bonded to the matrix, failure occurs due to rupture of the
latter (pull-out failure).
The very different bonding behavior of the activated ash
concrete matrixes compared to the portland cement matrixes
should be sought, therefore, in the substantial microstructural
differences generated by the two binders at the interface with
the reinforcing bar. There is any number of papers describing
the portland cement/reinforcement interfacial region as
the area of the material most vulnerable to damage or
alteration.24,25 This is because portland cement interfaces
are areas particularly rich in crystalline phases (portlandite,
ettringite) where porosity is much higher than the average
for the material as a whole. In activated ash concretes,
however, no special microstructures are developed in the
interfacial areas that constitute a weak point in the material
prone to cracking or other types of failure. In other words, the
interfaces between the alkaline cement and the reinforcement
and aggregate are characterized by the same dense and
compact microstructure as found in the bulk of the material.
The results described in Table 3 indicate that (OPC-free)
alkaline FA concrete performs extremely well in terms of
bond strength, proving that such matrixes develop sufficient
stress to anchor steel bars.
ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2006
 Attention should also be drawn to the high dimensional
stability of the new activated FA binder (refer to Fig. 9). The
shrinkage problem arising in portland cement concrete is
usually related to the loss of water during the drying process.
Shrinkage may have very severe consequences in concrete,
since the cracking it causes not only reduces the material’s
load carrying capacity considerably, but has an adverse
effect on its long-term stability, rendering the concrete
highly vulnerable to attack by foreign agents.
Figure 9 shows that while portland cement mortars, and
particularly those cured at room temperature, shrink
substantially, the activated ash mortars barely shrink at all.
Again, the explanation for this behavior is to be found in the
microstructural characteristics of the new binder. As noted
earlier, the main reaction product of the alkali activation of
fly ash is a zeolite-type phase (a pre-zeolite or zeolite
precursor). And zeolite properties and microstructure are
widely known to be unaffected by the loss of the water
incorporated during their synthesis, among other reasons
because water loss is reversible in most zeolites, which are
able to absorb water from the humidity in the atmosphere.
Finally, with respect the modulus of elasticity results show
that AAFA concrete has an elastic modulus lower to that of
OPC. Even more, this parameter is in the new concrete much
lower than expected. It might be possible that AAFA
concrete (similar to what happens with high-performance
portland-cement concrete) the calculation of the compression
elasticity modulus by using the formula proposed by the
different codes could be unreal, because of the existence of
variables not taken in consideration in the formula, but
affecting the property.
With respect to the greater suitability of one type of solution
or another to make alkaline fly ash cement (Solution W or
N), be it said that the presence of silicate ions in the medium
(Solution W) substantially improves mechanical strength
and modulus of elasticity values, but has a slightly adverse
effect on the very strong matrix/steel bond discussed above,
and on shrinkage. Nonetheless, it is the authors’ opinion that
the use of either of these solutions (W or N) gives rise to
excellent cementitious systems. The only relevant drawback
to using Solution W instead of Solution N (which may
explain the results obtained) is the loss of workability
detected in fresh concrete prepared with the former.
To conclude, in addition to the good performance of these
materials that may be deduced from the research reported on
in the present paper, attention should be drawn to yet another
advantage to AAFA, namely the readiness with which this
type of cement can be adapted to existing precasting plant
facilities.8,17
FURTHER RESEARCH
After exploring some of the engineering properties of
concrete made with (portland cement-free) activated ash, we
feel that the next step is to conduct an in-depth study of the
durability of these materials: integrity in attacks by external
chemical agents (sulfates, sea water, acid media); corrosion of
reinforcement embedded in the new cementitious matrixes
(in this regard, certain preliminary studies seem to indicate
that the performance of these new systems will be similar to
what has been observed for OPC);26 possible problems
posed by expansion due to the alkali-aggregate reaction, and
so forth. We believe that the construction industry will
benefit directly from the results of such surveys in the
near future.
ACI Materials Journal/March-April 2006
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from the results
of this experimental research: generally speaking, activated
FA alkaline concrete performs well in terms of those particular-
engineering properties studied in this paper. The chief
characteristics of these concretes include rapid development of
initial mechanical strength, very low dry shrinkage, and
excellent reinforcing steel bond strength.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was funded by the Directorate General of Scientific Research
under project BIA2004-04835 and benefited from a post-doctoral grant
from the Region of Madrid. The authors wish to thank J. L. Garcia and
A. Gil for their cooperation in conducting the mechanical tests.
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