Structural Analysis

INDEX
S. No Topic Page No.

Week 1
1 Introduction to structural analysis : Part 1 1
2 Introduction to structural analysis : Part 2 10
3 System of linear equations : Part 1 19
4 System of linear equations : Part 2 26
5 Matrices : Part 1 35
6 Matrices : Part 2 43
7 Beam Element 1 : Part 1 50
11 Stiffness matrix of beam element : Part 1 83
12 Stiffness matrix of beam element : Part 2 90
Week 2
13 Stiffness method of analysis of planar orthogonal structures : Part 1 97
14 Stiffness method of analysis of planar orthogonal structures : Part 2 104
15 Example on continuous beam : Part 1 112
16 Example on continuous beam : Part 2 120
17 Example - II : Part 1 130
18 Example - II : Part 2 140
19 Example - II continued 148
20 Example - III : Part 1 161
21 Example - III : Part 2 169
Week 3
22 Planar non-orthogonal frame : Part 1 180
23 Planar non-orthogonal frame : Part 2 188
24 Non-orthogonal structures - II 195
25 Planar non-orthogonal frame 202
26 Non-orthogonal structures - III : Part 1 210
27 Non-orthogonal structures - III : Part 2 221
28 Example problem: planar non-orthogonal structure : Part 1 233
29 Example problem: planar non-orthogonal structure : Part 2 241
30 Planar non-orthogonal frame using computer code : Part 1 254
31 Planar non-orthogonal frame using computer code : Part 2 259
32 Planar non-orthogonal frame - Example 3 : Part 1 267
33 Planar non-orthogonal frame - Example 3 : Part 2 274
Week 4
34 Planar truss system 280
35 Planar truss system examples : Part 1 294
36 Planar truss system examples : Part 2 309
37 3D structures - analysis by stiffness method : Part 1 319
38 3D structures - analysis by stiffness method : Part 2 326
39 3D structures - transformation matrix : Part 1 335
40 3D structures - transformation matrix : Part 2 344
Week 5
41 Y-Z-X transformation for 3d analysis : 350
42 Z-Y-X transformation for 3d analysis : Part 1 364
43 Z-Y-X transformation for 3d analysis : Part 2 373
44 Analysis of space frames - Example 1 : Part 1 377
Week 6
47 Analysis of space frame structures 400
48 3d analysis of space frames - Example 1 : Part 1 411
49 3d analysis of space frames - Example 1 : Part 2 418
50 3d analysis - Example 2 : Part 1 431
51 3d analysis - Example 2 : Part 2 438
52 3d truss analysis 452
53 Special elements 463
54 Non-prismatic members : Part 1 472
55 Non-prismatic members : Part 2 477
Week 7
56 Offshore structures - 1 : Part 1 487
62 Offshore compliant structures - 1 : Part 1 526
66 New generation platforms : Part 1 555
67 New generation platforms : Part 2 562
Week 8
68 Environmental loads - 1 : Part 1 569
69 Environmental loads - 1 : Part 2 575
70 Wave spectra : Part 1 582
71 Wave spectra : Part 2 589
72 Wind loads : Part 1 598
73 Wind loads : Part 2 605
74 Wind loads - 2 : Part 1 613
75 Wind loads - 2 : Part 2 621
76 Ice load and Earthquake load : Part 1 629
77 Ice load and Earthquake load : Part 2 634
Week 9
78 Dynamic analysis - 1 : Part 1 645
84 Computer methods of dynamic analysis : Part 1 690
85 Computer methods of dynamic analysis : Part 2 701
86 Damping estimate : Part 1 712
87 Damping estimate : Part 2 720
88 Damping estimate - 2 : Part 1 732
89 Damping estimate - 2 : Part 2 740
Week 10
90 Newmark's method : Part 1 747
91 Newmark's method : Part 2 753
92 Articulated towers : Part 1 768
93 Articulated towers : Part 2 775
94 Tension leg platforms : Part 1 783
95 Tension leg platforms : Part 2 789
96 Tension leg platforms - 2 : Part 1 796
97 Tension leg platforms - 2 : Part 2 804
98 New generation offshore structures : Part 1 812
99 New generation offshore structures : Part 2 818
100 Triceratops-2 : Part 1 827
101 Triceratops-2 : Part 2 835
Week 11
102 Random process - 1 : Part 1 844
106 Response spectrum : Part 1 876
107 Response spectrum : Part 2 883
108 Return period and Stochastic process : Part 1 891
109 Return period and Stochastic process : Part 2 898
Week 12
110 Stochastic modelling : Part 1 904
111 Stochastic modelling : Part 2 913
112 Fatigue damage - 1 : Part 1 923
116 Fatigue estimate of offshore platform : Part 1 950
117 Fatigue estimate of offshore platform : Part 2 960
Computer Methods of Analysis of Offshore Structures
Prof. Srinivasan Chandrasekaran
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
Module - 01
Lecture - 01
Introduction to Structural Analysis (Part - 1)
(Refer Slide Time: 00:16)
Welcome to the NPTEL course titled- Computer Methods of Structural Analysis Applied
to Offshore Structures. This course will be taught in three modules: module 1, module 2
and module 3.
In module one we will talk about computation methods of structural analysis, where we
will try to approach generic problems related to structural analysis. And we will solve
problems not specifically related to offshore structures, but general structural systems.
We will do lot of examples, we will also give you parallely the computer codes which are
useful to solve this problems using MATLAB. We will help you to solve problems in a
very simple manner using systematic procedure which can be easily programmed using
digital computers.
In the second module we will pick up applications of these problems to offshore

structures. We will do both static and dynamic analysis. In module three we will talk
about advance structural analysis applicable to fatigue and reliability studies.
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Through and through in this course we will help you through computer codes which can
be used for solving the problems readily on hand. We will also solve the problems by
hand using calculators and compare the answers with what we get from the computer
codes. We will also give you some screenshots of solving the classical structural
problems of offshore structures using standard software.
So welcome to this course, thank you for registering for the course. I think you will
enjoy the content of the course. I will be the course coordinator who will be available
with you through online and as well as the email contacts. The course will have lot of
tutorial supports. You can always exchange your views through announced platforms and
discussion forums. We will try to make this course very interactive and very easy and
helpful. This course as I said in the beginning is open to all branches of engineering
which is having multi-disciplinary in nature. Therefore, the problems will be solved with
respect to their features of application. We will go slightly slow and try to understand the
applications in a very interesting and useful manner.
So, with this preamble let us start with the lecture of module 1, the first lecture. We will
introduce the classical structural analysis in computer methods of purview.
In any structural analysis problem the first step what we generally foresee is formulation
of the problem. To formulate the problem we need a mathematical model. The moment I
say we require a mathematical model essentially there are two models which are useful
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to solve problems in classical structural analysis. Namely; statically determinate
structural model, the second one is statically indeterminate structural model.
Friends, I am sure you must have studied lot of examples in your first level of
engineering courses on statically determinate structural models. You would have found
them relatively simple and easy to solve though there are cumbersome equations
available to solve them. In comparison to indeterminate models the first type of classical
model seems to be slightly and relatively easy and simple.
So, our focus should be mainly on explaining how I can use computer methods and
computer programs to solve the problems related to statically indeterminate structural
models.
Therefore, I can make a statement now to solve statically indeterminate structural

models. It is very important to formulate the model. The moment we say we need to
formulate the model we have to follow a standard procedure which should be highly
generic in nature, which should not be problem specific, which should be repetitive, so
that I can use computer programs to solve the model.
So, it is very important to formulate the model. And the model should be restrained to be
solved only by using a standard equations statistics alone; that should be important.
When we formulate the model I should make the model in such a manner with the help
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of standard equations of statics alone I should be able to solve the model. So, it is all
depending upon how do you formulate the model.
Now, this can be done, by grouping the formation. There are again two methods
available in the literature to group the models.
Namely: flexibility method, stiffness method. Friends please realize that these two
methods are actually done only for simplifying the model so that they should be solvable
using standard equations of statics alone. So, it is our convenience to group them. You
can either group them in terms of flexibility method to apply the problem or you can
solve the problem using stiffness method. But, one commonness is in both the cases I
should use only the model to be restrained and solved using standard equations of statics
alone. I cannot apply any extra equations of a special form to solve the problem.
With that prerequisite, we say that the literature groups the methods of solution and
formulation of the problem itself into two major divisions: one is namely the flexibility
method other is the stiffness method. Let us first try to tell you very important statement
that both methods are equally powerful; I should say numerically they are equally useful
and there is no supremacy of one method over the other.
But, as we proceed further in discussion we will try to converge to one of these two
methods because of specific reasons, because of those method can be easily
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programmable using digital computers. So, our main objective here is not to solve the
problem, my main objective is to make the problem solvable using computer methods;
that is the focus.
Having said this, let us try to now understand the difference between these two methods,
because I should know the difference. So, in the flexibility method because any method
of solution has unknowns let see what are the unknowns in this case. The unknowns are
actions. Say for example: shear force, bending moment or axial force, bending moment.
So, these are my unknowns in the problem.
So, these unknowns will remain in the formulation of the problem, whereas when you go
to stiffness method on the contrary here the unknowns are displacements. For example:
translational displacement and rotational displacement. Translational as delta and
rotational as theta all will be unknowns in this method. So, please understand in both the
methods there is a significant difference in identifying the unknowns for formulating the
problem. One method focuses unknowns as the actions, whereas the other method focus
unknowns as displacements.
Now we divert whichever is convenient to us we should use that method and you cannot
cross these methods while problem is being formulated. As I said in the beginning again
I repeat: both methods are equally powerful and equally useful and I should say
relatively simple and easy; you can apply any one of these methods. But amongst these
two formulation methods we have one method which has got distinct advantage than the
other method which we will try to come out and bring out during this lecture.
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Now, both the methods have certain basic assumptions, because every problem
formulation has some idealization. So, what are the basic assumptions which are
applicable to both the methods? One, linear relationship exist between applied load and
the resulting displacement; displacements can be translational can be rotational, resulting
displacement of the structure. This makes a very important secondary statement making
that this makes principle of superposition valid through the formulation.
The second assumption what we have for both the methods common is; material of the
structure must obey Hooke’s law. This has again a secondary statement which says that
material must not be stressed beyond its elastic limit. The third assumption which again
common to both the methods is that: equations of equilibrium shall be developed. In fact,
we can make it very clear, equations of static equilibrium which shall be developed using
the geometry of the undeflected model. Now this again has secondary statement saying
that change in geometry caused by the imposed loads is negligible when compared to
original geometry.
So, these are friends the basic assumptions which are valid and applicable to formulation
of the problem by both the methods namely flexibility method and stiffness method.
Having said this, let us introduce one more term which is important for problem
formulation in both methods.
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Let us say indeterminacy. Friends, I should tell you that both the methods circumscribe
the problem around this term.
So, we should clearly understand; what is indeterminacy in terms of problem formulation

by either flexibility method or by stiffness method. The moment we say indeterminacy
again there are two types of indeterminacy, namely: static indeterminacy and two,
kinematic indeterminacy.
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Let us now explain; what is static indeterminacy. This is actually the number of actions;
please note the keyword: “actions”. We already remember and recollect that actions are
resembling flexibility; if you recollect you can see here the unknowns in flexibility
method or actions. So, the moment you see word actions I can tag this to flexibility
method. So, number of actions which are for example, now you are in a better question
to answer this for example, shear force, axial force, bending moment etcetera.
So, these are my unknowns in the flexibility method, but we are now defining; what is
static indeterminacy. While defining so we say it is number of actions like shear force,
axial force, bending moment which can be either external or internal that must be
released; that is another keyword that must be released in order to- why do you release
this in order to transform the structural system into a stable statically determinate system.
So, friends what is an objective? The objective is a structural system is known to you
convert transform that system into a statically determinate and stable system; that is a
objective. While doing that you have to identify the number of actions like shear force,
axial force, bending moment, etcetera, which should be released to convert or transform
the problem into a simple stable statically determinate systems.
Then comes the question of what is degree of indeterminacy. Now I should say the
degree of static indeterminacy. So, I am using a new word here degree of static
indeterminacy is defined as- the number of released actions, again the keyboard related
to flexibility method which specifies the number of special independent equations.
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That must be developed in terms of; now what will be the unknowns in this equation- in
terms of the released actions to analyze the system.
So, the approach used in the formulation and solution is flexibility approach. As you can
recollect easily now, in this actions are released; actions are related to flexibility. So,
static indeterminacy is a term related to flexibility; having said this.
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Module - 01
Lecture - 01
Introduction to Structural Analysis (Part - 2)
Then let us see; what is kinematic indeterminacy, because there are two indeterminacies.
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One is static other is kinematic. Let see; what is kinematic indeterminacy. This refers to
the number of independent components of joint displacements. It can be both
translational and rotational. Now we can get a keyword very easily I am talking about
displacements; displacement is related to stiffness in the formulation I can recollect that.
So, it is a number of independent components of joint displacements; the moment I say

displacement it should have a coordinate system with respect to a specified coordinate
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system or coordinate axis, which is required to describe response of the system under any
arbitrary loads.
So friends, we can see kinematic indeterminacy which is associated with stiffness

method of formulation problem is more or less trying to converge to a generic solution.
These problem formulations need to identify the number of independent displacement
components which will be invoked under the external forces which are acting on the
system, which can be of any nature. So, stiffness method is slightly and promisingly
converging towards a generic type of problem formulation. There is one important
statement which we want to make in kinematic indeterminacy. It is important to note that
structure must be restrained in order to convert or let say transform the system into
kinematically determinate structure.
In fact friends, they did this in the earlier method also. You see in static indeterminacy
which is associated with flexibility approach you are transforming the system into
statically determinate system. Similarly, in this case you are transforming the system into
kinematically determinate structure. So, kinematic indeterminacy is associated with
stiffness approach, whereas static indeterminacy is associated with flexibility approach.
Flexibility and stiffness are two different methods of problem formulation which are
used in computer methods.
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Having said this, let us add one more statement saying that structure with all joint
displacements restrained is the formulation.
Having said this, let us now define; what is degree of kinematic indeterminacy. It is
actually the number of unrestrained components of the joint displacements. It can be
both rotational and translational. Therefore, friends it is important to know that degree of
kinematic indeterminacy specifies the number of independent equations that must be
written in terms of; what are the unknowns in this case- unrestrained displacements
unrestrained displacements, if the system is to be analyzed using stiffness approach.
13
So, friends let us try to quickly summarize flexibility approach, stiffness approach. Both
are two methods of problem formulation and solution. This deals with static
indeterminacy, these deals with kinematic indeterminacy. To be very specific here
unknowns are actions; example shear force, axial force, bending moment etcetera. Here
unknowns are joint displacements; example rotational, translational, displacements. Here
the formulation converts the structural system into statically determinate structure. Here
the problem formulation converts the system into kinematically determinate structure.
So, one is focused on static determinacy, other is focused on kinematic indeterminacy.

Stiffness and flexibility approaches are two different methods of formulating the problem
which of course helps you to solve the problem as well.
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Now, let us make quickly a summary. Both static and kinematic indeterminacies of any
structural system are indicators. They indicate what? Indicators of the amount or extent
of computational effort required to analyze the structural system either using flexibility
approach or stiffness approach.
So friends, it is clear that structural analysis can be carried by two methods: flexibility
approach or stiffness method or stiffness approach. Both the methods are equally useful
and powerful numerically. One of the methods have superiority over the other only in
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terms of problem formulation which we will discuss subsequently in other lectures. So,
the unknowns are released to convert the structural system into statically or
kinematically determinate system; so that the standard equations can be used to solve the
system under applied loads.
So friends in this lecture we started to just introduce the computer analysis, applied to
structural analysis of offshore structures, we discussed about the formulation of the
mathematical model.
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We explained what should actually been done to the model to solve the problem, what
are different methods namely flexibility and stiffness method, what are the unknowns in
both the methods, what are the basic assumptions which are actually idealized in solving
the problem by both the methods.
Each assumption has some statement which is very important to apply for the analysis.
Then we discussed about indeterminacy. We spoke about two types of indeterminacy

static and kinematic. Static aligns itself to flexibility approach, kinematic aligns itself to
stiffness approach in which the unknowns are independent displacement components,
whereas in earlier case they were the force or the action components. Both methods can
be compared by the table showed in the screen. And we can now aim or objective to
convert the given system either to statically determinate structure or kinematically
determinate structure.
Both methods actually have unknowns which are indicators to know or to realize the
extent of computational effort what you want to make to solve the problem. So, we must
converge to a specific method which is easy to program in the digital computer and also
we can minimize the computational effort and maximize the solution efficiency in the
problem formulation stage itself which will discuss in the subsequent lectures.
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I hope in introduction lecture, it is interesting for you in the first module and you will
find it more cumbersome and convenient, in the same time to follow my algorithm in
this. I wish to state very interesting reference which you need to follow, which is very
helpful for this specific course to be further interesting.
So friends, if you have an access to this book please use this reference material as well
along with the list of reference given in the NPTEL website. Fred W. Beaufait, William
H. Rowan Junior, Peter G. Hoodlay, and Robert M. Hackett: 1970 Computer Methods of
Structural Analysis which is Prentice Hall Publication New Jersey.
This is one of the interesting references which I could suggest you to go through, along
with a list of references and text books given in the NPTEL website of this specific
course.
Thank you very much.
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Module - 01
Lecture – 02
System of Linear Equations (Part - 1)
Friends, let us continue with the lecture 2 and module 1. In this lecture we will discuss
some basics about System of Linear Equations and introduce you to the matrix methods.
19
Let us slightly rewind and discuss what we had summarize in the last lecture. We set
static and kinematic indeterminacies of a structural system are indicators of the
computational effort that is required to analyze the system.
Let us quickly see how this can cause variation in terms of unknowns for solving a
problem. Because we all agree that whenever I want to solve a system of equations I
should be concerned about the number of unknowns involved in the solution procedure.
If the problem formulation is made simple which reduces the number of unknowns, I
think that is one of the best formulation a mathematician or an engineer can attempt to
do. And here we re-insist the fact that the number of unknowns which are going to be
there in the system of equations purely depend on the choice of the method what to
demand. If it is a flexibility method the actions are to be unknowns; if it is stiffness
method the displacements or to be unknown.
Let us see how can we control this in terms of the type of problem. On the other hand
when we recommend a computer method for structural analysis we should also keep it in
mind the method recommended should be more or less generic and it should not be
problem specific. So given this word as a caution, let us quickly take some examples and
see; what are the static and kinematic indeterminacies of the problem. And therefore,
how many unknowns do you really have by formulating equations either by using
flexibility approach or stiffness approach.
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Let us take a continuous beam of 3 span, this indicates a hinged joint and this indicates
roller joint. Now, I want mark the reactions. Reactions could be: R 1, R 2, R 3, R 4, and
R 5. I also want to mark the displacement unknowns’ theta 1, theta 2, theta 3, and theta 4.
Having said this, let us try to find: what is the degree of static indeterminacy and what is
the degree of kinematic indeterminacy.
We all agree that there are three systems of standard equations are available to solve the
problem. So, there are 5 unknowns which are marketed in red in color these are the
reactions or actions. So 5 minus 3, I will have two static degree of indeterminacy which
will be unknown from a flexibility method, whereas the one which are marked in green
color are the displacements in this case there all rotations. So, there are four
displacements neglecting axial deformation.
So, friends if I use stiffness approach I will have 4 unknowns, if I use flexibility
approach I will have 2 unknowns for solving this problem. Let us take another example
which will be fixed beam. Let us mark the reactions as R 1, R 2, and R 3 which are the
moments and horizontal vertical reactions that support a and similarly R 4, R 5, and R 6.
Let us also mark the rotational displacements which are free to move, you know for a
fixed beam there will be no rotation displacement available or translation available at
both the supports. Therefore, kinematic degree of indeterminacy for this problem would
be nil, whereas static degree of indeterminacy will be 6 minus 3 which will be 3.
Let us take an example of a simply supported beam. Let us mark the reaction
components which will be R 1, R 2, and R 3; let us also mark the degrees of
displacement which is theta 1 and theta 2. Therefore the static degree of indeterminacy
for this problem will be nil, which is actually three minus 3, whereas kinematic
indeterminacy will be 2, because they are two independent rotational displacements
available at joint A and at joint B respectively.
Let us take up another example of a frame, single story single bay with one end fixed and
other end on rollers. Let us mark the unknowns as R 1, R 2, and R 3, R 4, R 5. So, this
enables me to fill up this value as 5 minus 3: 02 that is my degree of static indeterminacy.
Let us try to mark the degree of independent displacements at joints θ1, θ2, θ3, θ4. By
neglecting axial deformation kinematic degree of indeterminacy for this problem will be
4.
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So, friends look at these examples depending upon the choice of the method, because
this method will be closely associated to flexibility approach and this method will be
closely associated to stiffness approach. Looking at this you know depending upon the
choice of a method I can always have different set of unknowns. So, the equation size
can vary depending upon the method of choice what I am trying to do.
Having said this, let us quickly write the summary and saying what could be a best
choice for the method of analysis; because this will govern the system of equations. You
know for statically indeterminate structure essentially there are two methods to solve
namely: flexibility method and stiffness method. So, the choice of the method depends
on computational convenience. Let us quickly argue by both the methods.
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Let us say for flexibility method, we already know that there are several alternatives for
redundants; that is unknowns. Therefore, I should say choice of redundant have has
significant effect on the computational effort.
On the other hand, if you look at stiffness method you have no choice of unknown
quantities, because joints will either have rotation or translational displacements.
Because, there is actually only one possible restrain structure, and therefore this has a set
of standard procedure.
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So, if you discuss this argument based on computer methods of structural analysis, in this
context we can say that choice of the method should not be geometry specific; it should
be more generic, further it should be repetitive in nature. So finally, people have
recommended that stiffness method is a better choice.
Fulfilling all the three requirements stiffness method is a better choice. Therefore, in this
course in this module we will elaborate application procedures based on purely stiffness
method only. Having said this let us say after identifying the variables in a given system
which is now going to be displacements either translational or rotational for every joint.
It will result information of set of linear equations. Let us look into some basics of this.
We know that a system of ‘m’ linear equations with ‘n’ unknowns is expressed as below.
……..
If you look at these coefficients in this equation I will call this is equation number 1. If
you look at these coefficients for example, a 11 a 22 what are may be. So, a ij we all
24
agree, and we know that i stands for row and j stands for the column. That is the first
subscript is the row the second subscript is the column.
Having said this let us express the above set of equations in the matrix form. So, a 11 a
12 a 1n, a 21 a 22 a 2n, similarly by this logic a m 1 a m 2 a mn multiplied by the
variables x 1 x 2 x m can be expressed as this is x n expressed as b 1 b 2 b n- call
equation number 2 . Now, this can be written in a matrix form a nutshell as A x is equal
to B.
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Module - 01
Lecture – 02
System of Linear Equations (Part - 2)
26
So, A x is equal to B this my typical equation, I have pre multiply this equation with A
inverse on both sides. So, A inverse A of x is A inverse B, A inverse A will give me
identity matrix which is x, which is A inverse of B equation number 4. So, the above
equation is able to actually give me the unknown value x, if I can compute the inverse
matrix of A and multiply this with the B vector. So, that is what my idea is.
Now, I would be interested in estimating the inverse of a given matrix. So, now, the
problem is to estimate or to compute inverse of a matrix because if I know how to
estimate the inverse of a matrix, I can always find the variable vector x from this
equation to estimate the inverse of a matrix.
Let us talk about adjoint matrix; what is an adjoint matrix? In a given square matrix
replace each element that is A ij of the matrix A by its cofactor alpha ij transpose, the
cofactor matrix to obtain adjoint matrix.
Let us quickly find out the procedure for finding A inverse for given problem, let us say
we will take a simple example, let us say I have a matrix which is 1, 5, 2, 0, 4, 1, 0, 2, 1;
I call this as a matrix; what I wanted to know is find A inverse by adjoint method A
inverse can be given by adjoint of A by determinant of A.
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Let us first find determinant of A which will given by 1 into 4 into 1 minus 2 into 1
which will be actually equal to 2.
So, my matrix is 1, 5, 2, 0, 4, 1, 0, 2, 1; this is my A matrix; let us find; try to find the

cofactors; let us say I want to find alpha 1 1 which will be equal to minus 1 1 plus 1; that
is if this is 1 and 1 this becomes 1 and 1. So, minus 1 to the root of power of this and
then find determinant of eliminate that row and that column and find determinant of 4 1
2 1 which is minus 1 square 4 minus 2 which is 2 .
So, I want to find alpha 1 2 which is minus 1 1 plus 2 determinant of 0 1 0 1 which gives
me 0. Similarly alpha 1 3 minus 1 1 plus 3 determinant of 0 4 0 2 which is 0 alpha 2 1
minus 1 1 plus 3 5 2 2 1 which will be minus 1 alpha 2 2 minus 1 to the power 2 plus 2
determinant of 1 2 0 1 which will be 1.
Alpha 2 3 minus 1 2 plus 3 determinant of 1 5 and 0 2 which will be minus 2 alpha 3 3 3

1 will be minus 1 3 plus 1 5 2 4 1 which will be minus 3 alpha 3 2 minus 1 3 plus 2 1 2 0
1 which will be minus 1 and alpha 3 3 will be minus 1 3 plus 3 1 5 and 0 4 which will be
4.
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So, now I have the cofactor matrix which I am writing here which are alpha ij. So, that is
going to be alpha 1 1 is 2 1 2 0 1 3 is 0. So, the first row is 2 0 0. So, I am writing here 2
0 0, similarly minus 1 1 minus 2 minus 3 minus 1 4; you can see here minus 1 1 minus 2
minus 3 minus 1 4 I written that.
So, now I want to write the adjoint of matrix A. So, transpose this matrix that is A ij
should now become A ji. So, adjoint of A is actually given by you have to change the
rows and columns. So, this becomes 2 0 0 minus 1 1 minus 2 and minus 3 minus 1 4; we
already know determinant of A is actually 2.
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And hence A inverse is adjoint of A by determinant of a which can be 1 by 2 of 2 0 0

minus 1 1 minus 2 minus 3 minus 1 4 multiplying it I will get this value as 1 0 0 minus
half; half minus 1 minus 3 by 2 minus half 2.
Now, I want to check this. So, we know that A inverse A should be I. So, let say A
inverse is 1 0 0 minus half half minus 1 minus 3 by 2 minus half 2 that is the matrix, we
have multiply this with the original a matrix which is 1, 5, 2, 0, 4, 1, 0, 2, 1 that is the
matrix the original matrix is 1, 5, 2, 0, 4, 1, 0, 2, 1; 1, 5, 2, 0, 4, 1, 0, 2, 1 when you
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multiply you will see the you will be getting an identity matrix which will be actually 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1, then check this particular value as one into one you will get identity and so
on and so forth.
So, now let us express this equation a this my matrix A as system of equations; let say I
can express this as x 1 plus 5 x 2 plus 2 x 3 as some number 2; let say 4 x 2 plus x 3 is 5
2 x 2 plus x 3 is 4; let say I have this equations in the system of equations which I have
to solve to find out the variables x 1, x 2, x 3.
Therefore I can write this in matrix form 1, 5, 2, 0, 4, 1, 0, 2, 1 of x 1, x 2, x 3 as 2 5 and

4.
So, we know from this equation this equation number will be we know this equation x 1
x 2 x 3 can be simply given as A inverse of this matrix or this vector. So, A inverse we
already have with us which will be 1 0 0 minus half half minus 1 minus 3 by 2 minus
half 2, I multiply this with this vector 2 5 4 to get my variable vector x 1 x 2 x 3; you can
see the compatibility this 3 row and 1 column this is 3 by 3 matrix. This 3 row and 1
column; you know the columns and the rows of the multipliers should be identical; I will
get ultimately 3 row and 1 column which I am getting here. So, by solving this I will be
able to get these value as minus 6.5 0.5 and 3 the solution for the system of equation
shown in 1. So, that is my equation 6.
31
So, friends if I have generated, if we can generate system of equations with unknowns as
variables, then these set of equations can be solved using matrix inversion that is x vector
can be simply inverse of a matrix multiplied by A vector; of course, this is true only
when A inverse exists the above equation is an easy method to solve for the variables, it
is also important to note that the variable x purely depends on B and A inverse does not
change to get the value of x.
Now, this is the very classical problem; let us compare that A is similar to a stiffness
matrix of A given system and B vector is similar to a load vector and x vector is the
displacement vector; by this comparison. You can see here without changing the k
inverse 1 can easily find the value of displacement vector for a change load vector that is
very important and very interesting observation we have.
32
In case if the B vector is 0 and when A inverse exists then solution possible of saying it is
a trivial solution that is x will be 0; in case A inverse does not exist that is determinant A
is 0, then the above set of equations will lead to non trivial solution.
So, friends let us look at the summary what we learnt in this lecture, we learnt the
comparison between flexibility and stiffness approach we understood how selection or
choice of the method affects the size of variables and therefore, the size of set of
33
equations we also understood that stiffness method is more or less generic it is problem
independent I should say rather geometry independent.
We also studied an example of set of equations and solved this using matrix inverse
method; we now extend this knowledge to other set of problems to solve classical
problems in structural analysis. In the next lecture, we will discuss more about basics on
partitioning of matrices and we will see how they can be beneficial in doing such
analysis of large size problems.
34
Module - 01
Lecture - 03
Matrices (Part - 1)
Friends, let us continue with the discussion on module 1. In this lecture we will discuss
about some special properties of matrices which are useful for computer methods of
structural analysis.
35
Let A be given matrix then as sub matrix is defined as a matrix form by deleting
specified rows and columns of the matrix A. Instead of doing the deletion there is an
alternative for this: you can also partition the matrix. We will see the advantages of
partitioning quite a while from now. This is an useful technique when the matrix size is
too large.
Let us explain this by a set of algebraic equations.
then the above set of eqautions can be also grouped.
36
Let us see how I can say this as y 1 is equal to a 11 x 1 plus a 12 x 2 plus a 1q x q plus a
1 q plus 1 x q plus 1 plus a 1n x n. Similarly, y 2 is also grouped as: a 21 x 1 plus a 22 x
2 plus a 2q x q and then plus a 2 q plus 1 x q plus 1 plus a 2n x n. By this logic y n can be
expressed as: a n1 x 1 plus a n2 x 2 plus a n q x q plus a n q plus 1 x q plus 1 plus a nn x
n, I call this as set of eqautions 2 .
Now, let me express both the set of equations in a matrix form: y 1 y 2 y n can be
expressed as a 11 a 12 a 1q, a 21 a 22 a 2q, a n1 a n2 a nq of x 1 x 2 x q plus a 1 q plus 1
37
a 1n, a 2 q plus 2 a 2n, a n q plus 1 a nn multiplied by x q plus 1 x q plus 2 x. I call this as
equation 3. Equation 3 is a matrix representation of equation 1 and 2. In fact, 1 is a
general equation, whereas 2 is a grouped equation. So, this is one group this is another
group; till q is one group then q plus 1 is another group. I express equation 2 in two
groups: first group and second group. till q the first group and q plus 1 onwards the
second group second group this.
Let us see what is the advantage of doing this.
Now, I can write the vector y as A 1 and vector x 1 plus A 2 and the vector x 2, where A 1
is actually a 11 a 12 a 1q, a 21 a 22 a 2q, a n1 a n2 a n q. And A 2 is actually A 1 comma
q plus 1 which goes till a 1n, a 2 comma q plus 1 which goes till 2 n, a n comma q plus 1
which goes a nn. And x 1 is x 2 x 2 of x q and x 2 is x of q plus 1 q plus 2 till x n.
I call this equation as equation 4, ok. Now let us see the size.
38
Let us write down y, we can see the size y is n into 1 A 1 is n by q, A 2 is n by n minus q,

x 1 is q into 1, and x 2 is n minus q into 1.
So, there should be a perfect compatibility between the respective multiplying mtrices;
that is y will have n plus n into 1 which will have A 1 of n q and vector x 1 of q 1: n q n q
1 plus A 2 which will be n of n minus q A 2 which will have a vector x 2 which is n
minus q of 1. So, you can see the compatibility the number of columns and number of
rows of the adjacent multipliers should be same; number of columns and number of rows
39
should be same. So, ultimately this will result in a matrix of n isto 1, this will also n cross
1 I get n plus 1 .
So, there should be a perfect compatibility to ensure this grouping. Now, I can say that A
1 is a sub matrix of A of size n by q. And A 2 is a sub matrix of a of size n cross n minus
q.
Having said this, let y be A x. That is, y 1 y 2 y n should be a 11 a 12 a 1q then a 1q plus

1 till a 1n. Similarly a 21 a 22 a 2q a 2 q plus 1 a 2n. Going till a n1 a n2 a nq a n comma
q plus 1 going till a nn, multiplied by x 1 x 2 going till xq then x q plus 1 going till x n.
that is the whole equation. I call this as equation 5, which is same as the original equation
but please understand I am going to now group them. So, what I am going to do is, I am
gong to now put partition lines; these are the two partition lines.
So, now I am writing y as two matrices A 1 partitioned A 2 which are sub matrices
multiply by the vector x 1 partition x 2, ok. So, now I can say y is A 1 x 1 plus A 2 x 2.
40
Now the equation 6 is called partitioned matrix. To be very precise matrix A is vertically
partitioned, you can see here matrix A is vertically partitioned and vector x is
horizontally partitioned. Now very important, to make valid partition of A and the vector
x it is important to establish compatibility that is number of columns of A let us say A 1
must correspond to number of rows of x 1 to make A 1 x 1 valid. That is very important,
ok.
41
Let us call something about cross partitioning. So far we have seen vertical and
horizontal partitioning of the matrix, let us consider the same equation again y is actually
A of x. Let A be partitioned both horizontally and vertically into sub matrices. Let us say
how to do that. A now will be expressed as A 11 which will be of size p by q, A 12 which
will be of size p into n minus q, A 21 which will be of size m minus p into q, and A 22
will be of size m minus p into n minus q. And the whole matrix is of size m by n . Now, I
draw a partition vertical and horizontal.
Similarly, let us talk about x vector. Let x also be portioned horizontally. So, x vector
which is n by 2 will be actually equal to x 1 of q into 1 and x 2 of n minus q into 1. Now
I have a partition which will be horizontal, which will give me a size as n by 1. And
therefore, the resulting matrix y which will be m into 1 will also be a partition value
which is y 1 of p into 1 and y 2 of m minus p into 1 and I will have a partition of this
matrix which is going to be horizontal, therefore.
42
Module - 01
Lecture - 03
Matrices (Part - 2)
Y 1 y 2 with the horizontal partition will be equal to A 11 A 12 which are all sub matrices
A 21 and A 22 which are all partitioned, which can be now multiplied with the vector x 1
and x 2 which are also partitioned horizontally. So, it means that the matrix A which has
43
both horizontal and vertical partitioning is called cross partitioned matrix. This will be
very helpful in structural analysis in future problems.
Let us see the advantages of this. Let us demonstrate the advantage of this. So, once we
partitioned then from this expression y 1 is also equal to A 11 x 1 plus A 12 x 2. Similarly
y 2 will be equal to A 21 x 1 plus A 22 x 2. So, these are all now valid.
Now let us take how this partitioning can be helpful in estimating inverse.
So, now inverse is also valid for a partitioned matrix which is very advantageous. Let us
say for example, A matrix is 1 4, 2 2; 0 0, 0 0; 0 0, 0 0; 3 minus 1 minus, 5 2. Let us say I
have a matrix like this.
Let us say I have partitioned horizontal and vertical both. Now I can write A as A 11 A
12, A 21 A 22 which are all sub matrices of a you also further write this as A 11 0, 0 and
A 22.
44
Now, if you want to find A inverse which can also be said as B 11 B 12, B 21 B 22 which
are again sub matrices, because algorithm is also valid for this.
We also know that B 12 which is actually inverse of A 12 will be 0, similarly B 21 is

actually inverse of A 21 will also be 0; is going to be a null matrix. So, I want to find A
11 inverse I can easily say that as 1 by minus 6 of 2 minus 4, minus 2 1. Please verify
this yourself. This is small exercise given to you please verify.
Similarly, I can find A 22 inverse as 2 1 5 3.
45
Now, the advantage is I can find A inverse simply as 1 over 3 2 over 3, 2 over 3 minus 1
over 6; 0 0, 0 0; 0 0, 0 0; 2 1, 5 3 which is now partitioned like this. Now interestingly
finding inverse of 4 by 4 would I have been difficult, but finding inverse of 2 by 2 was
relatively simple. So, this exercise show that inverse of a matrix can be easily evaluated
if partitioned.
So, partitioning benefits inverting only a 2 by 2 matrix instead of 4 by 4, so this can have
or this can lead to substantial saving in time and computational effort. Therefore, we can
say partitioning helps reduce computational effort.
Having said this let us talk about some advantage of banded matrix.
46
.
Sometime in structural analysis banded matrix can also be of a great help. Now, matrices
in structural analysis show certain special properties, they can be utilized for solving
large system of equations; what are the special properties? Real, symmetric, positive
definite, and most importantly banded matrix. Let us quickly see; what is a banded
matrix.
Given matrix A said to be positive definite only if the following condition is satisfied: X
transpose A X should be greater than 0 for all non-zero column matrix of X. Let us
elaborate this slightly with an example
47
Let A matrix b represented as A 11 A 12 0 0 0 0. Similarly, A 21 A 22 A 23 then

remaining elements as 0; A 32 A33 A 34 0 0; A 43 A 44 A 45 0; A 54 A 55 A 56; A 65 A
66. So, the non-zero elements I indicated as a suffix ij, whereas 0 elements I indicated as
0 in a given a matrix. Now let us call equation number 7.
A is set to be a banded matrix with width equals 2m plus 1, if all elements of a ij for
which i minus j is greater than m or 0. For m equals 1 band of this matrix it is a band
width of this matrix A is 2m plus 1 which is 2 into 1 plus 1 which is 3. So, the bandwidth
of this matrix is actually 3; starts from here. So, one can check that this condition is true
for the band width of this matrix to be 3 where m seems to be 1 in this example.
48
So, friends in this lecture we discussed about the limitations and choice of a method
whether it is flexibility method or stiffness method. We understood that the unknowns
become variable in the set of equations formulated either by flexibility approach or
stiffness approach. We have understood how partitioning of a matrix is helpful. We have
seen horizontal partitioning, vertical partitioning, cross partitioning.
We have also enjoyed the convenience I mean understanding A inverse from ad-joint of
A by determinant of A. And, A inverse can be obtain easily and conveniently by
partitioning. We have also seen how a bandwidth of a matrix can be determined which
can be a useful handy solution for problems in structural analysis.
Thank you.
49
Module - 01
Lecture - 04
Beam Element - 1 (Part - 1)
Friends, let us continue with the lectures on module 1 of the course on Computer
Methods of Structural Analysis. In this lecture 4 we are going to derive the standard
stiffness matrix for a beam element which will be one of the basic element to be used in
structural analysis of planar orthogonal frames. There are some sign conventions which
we need to follow before we derive the stiffness matrix for the beam element.
50
Let us see the sign conventions: anticlockwise moment is positive. Anticlockwise joint
rotation and joint moments is positive. Upward force or displacement of the joint is
positive.
Force towards the right or axial displacement towards the right of the joint is positive.
End shear upward at the ends of the beam is positive. Right direction force at the ends of
the beam is positive.
51
So, we are now going to restrict the derivation to planar, orthogonal units or structures
which will have members either horizontal or vertical. Let us have this sign conventions
very clearly understood and we are going to limit our discussion now only to planar
orthogonal structures.
Let us take a beam element.
Fixed beam is considered as a basic model. So, let us mark or consider a fixed beam
undergoing deformation due to bending, we are neglecting the axial deformation. So, if
that is the case, the standard fixed beam looks like this. It has both end fixed, this is beam
element. The beam element has i as its index, it has got two joints j and k, this is my x
axis of the element x m and this is my y axis of the element y m, and the length of the
member is L i, and the beam has constant EI for the standard element.
Let us explain this in terms of some mathematical conditions.
52
The considered beam element is fixed at nodes j and k, you can see here they are fixed at
nodes j and k; has constant EI over its entire length. Left end of the beam is designated as
j-th node. Right end of the beam is designated as k-th node; let us say j-th node and k-th
node. Member is designated as i-th member xm ym are local axes of the member.
It is very important to note the axis system. Axis system is such that it has origin at j-th
end, x m is directed towards k-th end; that is very important please see this figure here.
Origin is at j-th end and x m is directed towards the k-th end. Y-m is counter clock wise
90 degrees to x-m axis.
Therefore, xm ym plane defines the plane of bending of the beam element. So, this is a
conventional way of explaining the standard beam element, these are the sign
conventions, member is designated as I, j and k ends, Li, EI constant, xm ym orientation,
and we have explained this all in words as well as graphics.
53
Now, we will neglect the axial deformation; we will neglect the axial deformation. Now
for stiffness method we already said one should identify possible displacements both
translational and rotational at each end of the beam. So, let us see what are the possible
translations and rotations at each end. So this is my member, these are the supports, this
is my j-th end, this is my k-th end, this is my x m and y m. The possible rotations at end
it can be theta, again on the right can be theta, the vertical displacement can be delta and
can the delta.
Now there is a confusion that thetas and deltas are available at both the ends. To make a
very clear distinct difference between these notations I have to use a subscript. Some
textbooks use subscript related to the joint j; let us say this can be called as theta j delta j
theta k delta k, but I do a different notation here. I am going to say this is the theta p theta
q delta r delta s; please note down the style of notation. I first marked the rotations theta
p and theta q, then I marked the translations delta r and delta s as p q r s. So, there is an
order; please understand this order, because this order is very important to make the
computer program more comfortable and more concession compact.
So, let us now write down what are the displacements at j-th end; j-th end we have theta
p delta r, and at the k-th end we have theta q delta s. And please note all these
displacements happen in x m y m plane. So, no out of plane bending in this case, its
happening in x one y m plane; this is very very important.
54
I hope you have no doubt in the sign convention and in the standard notation what we
have followed. I have explained why we are using this p q r s and I also explained you
what is the order of selecting this notation theta p theta q delta r delta s. So, as you re-
correct from the lecture stiffness method demands you to identify the displacements
rotational and translational which are available at each end of the beam.
Now, we are interested in deriving k ij. K actually represents the stiffness coefficient,
while capital K represents the stiffness matrix. Please do not get confused with this k and
this k. This k is actually the node of the element. This k what I am talking about is
actually the stiffness coefficient which I am going to derive. A stiffness matrix capital K
and small k is stiffness coefficient. So, there are subscripts here i and j.
So now, by definition k ij is the force in i-th degree of freedom by imposing unit

displacement. This displacement can be translational, rotational; does not matter but unit
value unit displacement in j-th degree of freedom by keeping all other degrees of
freedom restrained.
55
Now the moment I say degree of freedom there is a confusion here, which degree of
freedom you are talking about. There are two degrees of freedom: one is we called static
degree of freedom, other is kinematic degree of freedom. We know static degree is a
freedom are related to release of actions, like shear force, bending moment, axial force
etcetera. Kinematic degrees of freedom are related to displacements. And we already said
static degree of freedom will be associated to flexibility approach, and kinematic of
freedom will be associated to stiffness approach.
So, the moment I say here degrees of freedom I am only talking about the displacements
which can be translational or rotational does not matter, both are allowed right. So, that is
degree of freedom what we are talking about. So, k ij by classical definition is this. So,
what I am going to do is. There are now four degrees of freedom in this problem: two
rotations and two translations at each end j and k. So, total four degrees of freedom. So,
what I should do? I should give unit displacement in each one of them and find the forces
in all degrees of freedom by keeping the remaining degrees of freedom restrained that is
what I am going to do, ok.
So, let us also try to make another statement saying that.
56
K ij is also called or also defined as moment in i-th degree of freedom by imposing unit
rotation at j-th degree of freedom by keeping all other degrees of freedom restrained. So,
it is actually an extension of the same logic except that I said instead of unit
displacement I specifically said unit rotation. And when the moment I give unit rotation I
will get not the force but the moment, ok.
Therefore, by imposing unit displacement we can say either delta r is unity or delta s is
unity. By imposing unit rotation we mean that either theta p is unity or theta q is unity;
these are all unity.
Having said this one is now interested to find either the forces or the moments which are
caused in all degrees of freedom by imposing either unit displacement or unit rotation in
respected degrees of freedom. So, let us do this one-by-one.
57
Module - 01
Lecture - 04
58
This is my beam with fixed at both the ends xm and ym axis on an i-th member, the
length of the member is Li. I give unit rotation at p. At p alone keeping all other degrees
of freedom restrained. So, I give unit rotation I draw a tangent, I measured this as theta p
which is unit here. Now this will invoke members with end forces, I call this as k pp of
the i-th member, I call this as k qp of the i-th member, this value will be k rp of the i-th
member, and this value will be k sp of the i-th member.
Let us try to understand how did we get this notation. Take for example, this notation
kipp what does it mean. This is actually force in p-th degree of freedom. So, the first p
represents this. By giving unit displacement in p-th degree of freedom, the second one
represents this. And this notation represents this is meant for i-th member.
Similarly, anyone can read this force in q-th degree of freedom by giving unit
displacement in the p-th degree. And similarly this will be force in the r-th degree of
freedom by giving unit displacement in the p-th degree. And this will be force in the s-th
degree of freedom by giving unit displacement in the p-th degree.
How did we get this p q r s? Please look at this convention p q r s are what we have
already taken, the rotation is called as p and q and the displacements, translational are
called as r and s. So, I am using the same thing here this is p and p, q and p, r and p, s
and p. So, there is one more important thing I want to you to observe, you can see the
second subscript in all the notations in k pp, k qp, k rp, k sp. The second subscript in all
59
the notations is p is common; the second subscript is common which is p here, which
indicates that we have given unit displacement at p-th degree ok
On the other hand you will see that the stiffness coefficients will be generated column
wise. This is the first column now, because all the second notations of this are same. It is
similar to a 11 a 21 a 31 a 41 which indicates it is the first column and different rows. So,
stiffness matrix will be generated and the coefficients are prepared and derived column
wise. So, that is very important.
Now, let find out these values. I have given you unit rotation at the end j and I have got k
pp, k qp, k rp, and k sp ok.
Similarly, I can also draw for unit rotation at theta q. So, I will try to get the moment
directions as k qq i, k pq i, k rq i, and k sq i. You can note down the second subscript in
all coefficients or q which implies that we have given unit rotation at q-th degree of
freedom.
So, this will be imposing unit rotation at the end k of the member, so that is this figure.
Similarly, I can also cause unit displacement and to the j-th end and unit displacement at
the k-th end. So, let us say I want to create a unit displacement at this end, so this is
going to be unity. So, this will impose moment which will be k pr i which will be k qr i
and this will be k rr i and this will be k sr i.
60
Similarly, on the other hand let us try to have unit displacement here. Say this is my delta
s which is unity. So now I am going to mark the degrees of freedom and the moments
which is k qs i, which is k ps i, which is k rs i, and k ss i. Interestingly, I can also draw a
tangent between the initial and the final line of the beam and I can say that the beam has
undergone indicates a rotation which is actually 1 by L i where L i is the length of the
member which is also now equal to 1 by L i.
You will also have the same fashion here which is 1 by L i. Similarly we can also do this
by joining the initial and the final line of this member and saying that this rotation is 1 by
L i which will cause rotation here and here which will be again 1 by L i and 1 by L i, ok.
So, for completion sake let us draw this figure also back here. So, this is unit rotation or
unit displacement at j-th n, this is unit displacement at k-th end. And let us draw this
figure for completion sake in the same sketch and give unit rotation here. So, this is
going to be k pp i, this is going to be k qp i, this is going to be k rp i, and this is k sp i
which is same as this figure which I have just reproduced here and I am saying the title is
unit rotation at j-th end of the member.
So four figures this is actually figure one, this is figure two, this is figure three, and this
is figure four. I am sorry for the order but this what, already we have explained in the last
slide. Now, we have four figures our objective is to find out these stiffness coefficients
for unit displacement and each degrees of freedom, ok.
61
Let us write down the compatibility equation for i-th beam element, experiencing
arbitrary end displacements namely: theta p, theta q, delta r, and delta s. I have shown in
the figures. Corresponding end reactions, what could be the end reactions; it could be the
moment, it could be shear are required to be estimated that is how i jump. They need to
be estimated by maintaining equilibrium of the restrained member. So, we need a
governing a equation they are the as follows.
M p that is the end moment of the i-th member in the p-th degree of freedom will be k pp
theta p plus k pq theta q plus k pr delta r plus k ps delta. So, one can very easily see here.
If you talk about the end moment at p-th degree of freedom all will be related to p and
contributions from each degree like p q r s have been taken. The moment you say the
second subscript is p you get theta p, q theta q, r delta r s delta s. We also know p and q
are rotations and r and s are displacements. So, I am using theta for rotations and delta
for displacements.
In the same order now we can write m i q, I expect you to write this it is very simple. So,
since it is q all first subscript will remain as q; sp k q. So, it is a p theta p i-th number
plus k qq, therefore theta q plus k qr, and therefore delta r of the i-th member plus k qs
delta s very good. So, that is what we have to write. It is very simple to remember if we
understand the notation very carefully.
62
Similarly I want to find the force that the shear at the r-th end. So obviously, this is going
to be the first subscript is going to be r caused because of p, second subscript is p and
theta p. So, r q theta q plus rr delta r plus rs delta s. I do not think any confusion in this.
Similarly, the fourth one p s i; so k sp theta p k sq theta q plus k sr delta r plus k ss delta
s; I think that is what it is done.
So, I call this equation as a equation of set 1. So, what are these equations giving me?
These equations are giving me the end moments and end shear for arbitrary
displacements theta p theta q delta r and delta s which are unity at respective degrees of
freedom and we are trying to find out the forces.
The moment I say these displacements are unity in magnitude; these reactions will
actually become nothing but the stiffness coefficients which are evaluated. And they will
all be the forces or the end reactions, and each one of these value will be the stiffness
coefficient.
So, now I can generalize this equation by a statement saying m i will be k i into delta i.
The generalized equation where; m i vector is actually m p, m q, p r, and p s. And delta
vector is actually equal to theta p theta q delta r delta s. And k i will be the stiffness
matrix which will be k pp k pq k pr k ps, k qp k qq k qr k qs, k rp rq rr rs, sp sq sr ss.
63
To remember this let us use some shortcut method to really reproduce this in a simple
term. Please remember this it is very easy, I call this as p q r s columns, these are all
columns and I call these rows also as p q r s these are rows. It is a 4 by 4 matrix. So, if
you want to remember this it is very easy row first column next.
So, qr row q column r, so you can easily reproduce this matrix. So, I can rewrite this
matrix in a very simple form simply understanding saying p q r s p; q r s. If you want to
really write down this element, this element, this element will be actually k row first and
column next which is similar to exactly this. So now, this equation what we derived is a
fundamental expression for a beam element. Our job is to now found out what would be
these stiffness coefficients by giving unit displacement and the respective degrees of
freedom.
So, friends let us look at the summary of this lecture. In this lecture we introduce a
conventional beam element which is actually a fixed beam. We also recommended
certain sign conventions which are required to follow the derivation. We expressed in
simple terms how to derive k ij graphically. And then we landed up in the expression
saying m i is k i of delta i, where i represents about the whole event for i-th beam. So,
there can be n number of such elements in a given frame.
64
I hope you have understood this; I want you to browse through this very quickly, and
understand once again how we have followed this. And I hope we will continue to
discuss more in detail in the next lecture.
Thank you.
65
Module - 01
Lecture - 05
Friends, let us continue with the fifth lecture in module 1. Where we will discuss more
features about beam element as a second part of the lecture.
66
In the earlier lecture we said that m i is k i of delta i; m being a vector, k being a matrix
and delta being a vector is a valid equation. If you look at the typical stiffness matrix of
the i-th element which we derived in the last lecture we said let us have p q r s. Let us
also indicate p q r s and stiffness coefficients are k pp k pq k pr k ps; row first and
column next say k qp k qq k qr k qs; k rp k rq k rr k rs; and k sp k sq k sr k ss.
So, there are rather 16 coefficients as you see in this equation, out of which one good
thing is we need to only evaluate set of rotational coefficients, others can be expressed in
terms of these rotational coefficients.
So, what are these rotational coefficients?
67
The rotational coefficients which we are interested is k pp of the i-th element, k pq of the
i-th element, k qp of the i-th element, and k qq of the i-th element; these are the four
coefficients. These are the four coefficients which are important. The remaining can be
expressed in terms of this.
For example: we want to evaluate the end shear we can say k rp is actually k pp plus k qp
of the i-th member divided by length of the member and k sp of the i-th member is minus
of k pp plus k rp by L i. Carefully look at this figures: k pq k qq k pp and k qp, these are
the four coefficients k pp k pq qp and qq these are the four coefficients which we are
interested in fact we are interested in these four: if i am able to evaluate these four
remaining 12 can be expressed in terms of this, ok.
So, now the negative sign in this case is due to the fact that direction of k sp is opposite
to the end shear developed by the restraining moments. Let us try to understand how this
happens.
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Let us look at this figure, that is this figure; look at this figure and I try to enlarge this
figure again.
I have an element with both ends fixed; we have given unit rotation at the end p. So, now
to control this, this will induce a moment which will be equal to k pp. This will also
cause another moment which is k qp of the i-th element.
So, now this will have an anticlockwise moment which actually will be equal to k pp
plus k qp is or no, this is got to be counter acted by the shear which will be creating a
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clockwise couple which will be actually equal to k pp plus k qp by L i; where L i is the
length of the member. So, this will be also k pp plus k qp by L i. If you look at the
original degrees of freedom we already said upward end shear is positive. So, this will be
negative that is what we writing here k rp which is this value and this will be k sp.
Please recollect the second subscript indicates we have given unit displacement in the p-
th degree and the first subscript indicates the respective forces in the degrees of freedom.
So, this will be k rp it will be k sp which actually equal to negative. So, this is what we
got.
So, the end shear can be expressed, once I know the rotational coefficients these four. So,
by this manner the remaining coefficients can also be expressed in terms of these
rotational coefficients if you know that. So, out of 16 coefficients we have we need to
only evaluate these 4 coefficients; only these four are important remaining can be
derived if we know these four coefficients.
So, now the task is to evaluate these rotational coefficients. So, we can extend the similar
logic further like. Similarly, refer to the figure I should say the number, I should say
figure two this figure; referring to figure two which causes unit rotation at k-th end you
can see here unit rotation at k-th end. K rq and k sq can be expressed as sum of the
rotations which is k pq and k qq. So, k pq plus k qq of the i-th member by L i. And this
will be same k pq plus k qq of the i-th member by L i, but with a negative sign.
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Now, similarly refer to figure three where unit translation is given at j-th end. You can
see the figure three: figure three unit translations at the j-th end. The rotational
coefficients are k pr and k qr. So now, I can easily find this k pr as the rotation cost by
this change in slow. So, k pr can be expressed as k pp of the i-th member with this
rotation plus k pq of the i-th member with this rotation which will be k pp plus k pq
divided by L i.
Similarly, k qr will be also equal to k qp of 1 by L i plus k qq of 1 by L i of the i-th

member which will be written as k qp plus k qq of the i-th member by L i.
Now, I can say k rr is k pr plus k qr by L i, which is nothing but because k pr is given by

this expression which is k pp plus k pq by L i. So, which should be k pp plus k pq by L i
square is already L i here plus similarly k qr is k qp plus k qq. So, k qp plus k qq by L i
square which means k pp plus k pq plus k qp plus k qq by L i square.
Similarly, k sr will be negative of k pr plus k qr which will amount to minus of k pp plus

k pq plus k qp plus k qq of L i square.
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Now, referring to figure four where unit displacement is given at k-th end and see this
figure; unit displacement at k-th end and we have a slope which is negative this is this
way. The moment is this way clockwise where as the slope is on the other side. So, k ps
that is this coefficient and this rotational coefficients k ps is minus of k pp plus k pq by L
i k qs is again minus of k qp plus k qq of L i. Therefore, k rs will be k ps plus k qs by L i
which will tell me minus of k pp k pq k qp plus qq by L i the whole square. Whereas, k
ss will be positive of k pp plus pq qp and qq of L i square.
So, friends look at these equations which are end shear they are expressed in terms of the
rotational coefficients, the end shear is again expressed in terms of rotational
coefficients. So, the interest is the end shears can be expressed in terms of rotational
coefficients.
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So, we are now interested only to evaluate the 4 rotational coefficients to get the full
stiffness matrix of 4 by 4 containing 16 coefficients. So it is very simple, we do not have
derive all the 16 we derive only the 4 we can get the remaining 12 automatically from
these set of equations what we derive just now.
So, I can now make a matrix saying that the k matrix which will be p q r and s; p q r and
s. This is k pp, this is k pq, and this is k qp, this is k qq; row first and column next. I
evaluate only this four, remaining are derivable very simply this is k pp plus k pq by L
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that is sum of these two. And this is k qp plus k qq by L that is sum of these two by L.
This value will be k pp plus k qp by L which will be sum of these two.
And this value will be minus of k pp plus k qp by L which will be as same as this with
the negative sign. Similarly this value will be k pq plus k qq by L which is sum of these
two. And this will be minus of k pq plus k qq by L. Now let us come to this argument,
this will be k pp plus pq plus qp plus qq by L square which will be sum of these two by L
and this term will be negative of k pp plus k pq plus k qp plus k qq the same with the
negative sign.
The forth will be the same value with the negative sign that is minus of k pp plus k qp by
L minus of k qp plus k qq by L. Then, this value will be the sum of these two by L,
therefore minus k pp plus k qp plus k qp this is k pq, this is k pq k pq q p plus k qq by L
square this will be plus of this value which is pp pq qp qq by L square.
So friends, if I am able to evaluate these four values: 1 2 3 and 4 that is this value this
value and this and this all the four remaining all can be calculated with the help of this
particular table. So, the job is now to evaluate these four rotation coefficients k pp, k pq,
k qp, and k qq. So, we need to evaluate this that is all.
74
Module – 01
Lecture – 05
Beam Element – 2 (Part – 2)
So, I will make use of this particular equation saying that flexibility and stiffness are
cross to become identity matrix flexibility and stiffness matrix in the multiply, I get a
identity matrix because one is inverse of the other.
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if I say delta j j delta j k delta k j and delta k k are the flexibility coefficients for j the and
k th nodes; if I multiply this with p q and p q which are stiffness coefficients which is k p
p, k p q, k q p and k q q, I will get an identity matrix which is 1, 0, 0, 1.
Friends please understand my job is to evaluate this matrix. So, this matrix if I call this as
let us say a matrix I can evaluate A as B inverse of I. So, I am now going to evaluate the
flexibility matrix or the flexibility coefficients invert that matrix to get my A matrix.
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So, let us do that now. So, the job is to determine the flexibility coefficients to derive the
rotational stiffness coefficients correct that is our task; now let us do that. So, let us take
a beam which is simply supported; let us give unit rotation to this end.
Delta j j of the ith value. So, let us impose theta j is equal to 1 and I get delta j j and this
value will be delta k j of the ith member, let us call this is figure one; let us draw the next
figure; let me give unit rotation and the k th end now. So, the beam will deflect in this
manner; let us say these are my rotational coefficients delta k k and delta j k, let us call
this is figure 2 equivalently. Let us try to draw the beam with this end fixed, but this end
rotated with k p p in post which will cause k q p for theta p as unity; I will call this as
figure 3.
Similarly, let us say this end is fixed and this end is imposed by a rotation which is going
to cause k q q which will cause in n movement k p q and that is going to cause rotation of
theta q which is unity; I call this as figure 4 let us refer to these 4 figures and now
understand; what we have done in this figures; figure one, we have give in rotation and
the j th end figure 2 unit rotation the k th end figure 3 is rotational coefficients caused
because of that rotation at j th end and k th end respectively.
So, now we can straight away say figure 1 and 2 shows the flexibility coefficients.
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The flexibility coefficients delta j j and delta k j define rotations at the end j and k
respectively of the ith member caused due to unit moment we are talking about
flexibility. So, unit moment apply at j th end correct similarly flexibility coefficients
delta j k and delta k k define rotations at j th and k th ends of the ith member due to unit
moment apply at k th end you can see in this figure.
Unit moment applied at j th end and k th end will give you the flexibility coefficients
respectively as you see in figures one and 2 similarly the stiffness coefficients k p p and
k q p defined end moments that is required at j and k ends to maintain equilibrium when j
th end is subjected to unit rotation while k th end is restrained you can see here this unit
rotation, but k th end is no rotation restrained similarly stiffness coefficients k p q and k q
q that is k p q and k q q of ith member.
Define end moments required at j and k ends to maintain equilibrium when k th end is
subjected to unit rotation and j th end is restrained you can see in this figure j th end no
moment no rotation k th end is subjected to unit rotation.
Having said this; let us now establish the fact that j k and j k. So, I should say the
flexibility coefficients j j j k k j k k multiplied by the stiffness coefficients k p p, p q, q p.
So, q q will give me identity matrix.
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Let us expand this. So, kpp into j j plus k q p into j k is one and k p p delta k j plus k q p
delta k k is 0 that is this row multiplied by this column is 0 kpp delta k j k q p delta k k is
0 this is one set of equation, we are similarly k p q delta j j plus k q q delta j k is 0 that is
this by this is 0 than k p q delta k j plus k q q delta k k is one.
The second set of equation we have; now I call this matrix as flexibility matrix I call this
matrix as stiffness matrix, I call this matrix as identity the subscript r stands for rotational
degrees of freedom.
Now, my job is to estimate the matrix D r. So, now, to estimate the matrix D r for the
beam element; so, once we get that will be able to find the k r. So, let us do that quickly.
So, this is my beam, this is my deflected shape, I cause unit moment and this values
going to be delta j j and this values going to be delta k j of the ith member.
So, if this is m, we all know that this is an anticlockwise moment which will be balanced
by a clockwise couple which will be one by L and one by L where this is l. So, let us try
to draw the bending moment diagram for this. So, this value is going to be 0 here and
this going to be one which will have tension at the top and compression at the bottom.
So, let us now replace this loading diagram with the conjugate beam, the conjugate beam
will have a loading diagram as same drawing; now which will have an 1 by E I as the
loading diagram.
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So, this is going to be one by E I and this will remain as simply supported. So, I call this
moment as A let us say the point a take moment about A. So, I call this as B therefore,
the reaction is V B. So, I should say V B is straight away is half L i that is my distance
and 1 by E I that is my height and the moment is going to be 1 third of L i; I have to
divide this by L i again to get my V B where my V B will be in the reverse direction
which will be actually equal to L i by 6 E I in this direction.
So, I mark that value here which will be L i by 6 here, therefore, V A will be actually half
L i 1 by E I minus L i by 6 E I which will give me L i by 3 E I which is upward. So, this
values going to be L i by 3 E I, similarly one can do for the other case.
And see that this matrix is derived simply as L by 3 E I minus L by 6 E I minus L by 6 E

I and L by 3 E I.
Therefore, k r will may actually D r inverse which will be actually equal to 1 by

determinate of L square by 9 E I square minus L square by 36 E I square of L by 3 E I
and L by 3 E I minus 1 cube of minus L by 6 E I minus 1 cube of minus L by 6 E I.
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Which will amount to 12 E I square by L square of L by 3 E I; L by 3 E I; L by 6 E I; L

by 6 E I which will be actually 4 E I by L. 2 E I by L. 2 E I by L and 4 E I by L.
So, now this is similar to p q; p q which is 4 E I by L 2, E I by L and 2 E I by L and 4 E I

by L. So, friends, once we know this p q, the remaining matrix can be taken as seen from
this equation. So, if we know this 4 remaining all can be computed.
Now, I am writing the full matrix which is very easy to remember.
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I am writing the full matrix of the ith member which is p, q, r, s which is p, q, r, s; the 4
values are 4 E I by L, 2 E I by L, 2 E I by L and 4 E I by L which we derive; just now I
wrote that.
So, this will be; this value will be the some of these 2 by L again. So, 6 E I by L square;
this is negative 6 E I by L square, this value will be some of these 2 by L again. So, 6 E I
by L square and this is negative of that value 6 E I by L square, this value will be some of
these 2 by L again. So, 6 E I L by square this will be some of these 2 which is 6 E I by L
square. Now this value will be some of these 2 by L again. So, 12 E I by L q minus 12 E
I by L q, once I get this the last column will be reverse of r column which is minus 6 E I
by L square minus 6 E I by L square minus 12 E I by L q and plus 12 E I by L q.
So, friends as a summary we can see here. So, I can write this has a simple summary, we
have for the beam element if I am able to compute these 4 coefficients, I can find the
remaining 12 which is compromising 4 by 4 of rotational matrix of the ith beam which is
got 16 coefficients which are derived based upon only the 4 coefficients of rotation.
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Module - 01
Lecture - 06
Stiffness matrix of Beam With Varying EI (Part – 1)
Friends in the last 2 lectures, we understood how to derive the stiffness matrix for a beam
element without considering the axial deformation and we also said very clearly out of
the 16 coefficients of the beam matrix; stiffness matrix, if we are able to derive only the
4 coefficients, remaining 12 can be easily derived based upon these 4 coefficients. We
have learnt from the first principles; how to derive these coefficients for a beam element.
We made an important assumption in that derivation saying that the beam element has
uniform flexural rigidity which is uniform E I.
Now, let us take an example, if I have a beam without uniform E I that is varying E I;
how do I derive a stiffness matrix. So, let us take an example of a beam which is shown
in the screen. Now which has got a depth which is varying from 600 at 1 n, 600 mm to
400 mm at the other end for a length of 5 meters and let the cross section be 300 mm
wide; this is 300 mm wide.
83
The beam is like this. So, now, the beam has got varying depth. So, the E I of the beam
will now vary even though E may be constant for same material, but moment of inertia
will vary continuously from this point to this point or from this section till this section;
how to handle this problem. So, the question is derive the stiffness matrix for the beam
element with varying E I, we also say neglect axial deformation, let us do this problem
now.
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So, let us say I divide this beam into 10 parts; say this is 600 here and this is 400 here.
So, what I do? I divide this into 10 parts. So, this is 600 and this is 410 parts.
So, now I mark these 10 parts with different moment of inertia we already know that the
section has width of 300 width of 300; therefore, the moment of inertia, I will be actually
equal to 300 into 400 cube by 12 which actually is equal to 1.6 10 power 9 mm to the
power 4. Now I want to calculate the moment of inertia at different steps as indicated let
us mark these steps as let us say I 1, I 2, I 3, I 4, I 5, I 6, I 7, I 8, I 9 and I 10 where I
stands for the moment of inertia and 1 to 10 stands for the number of strips. So, I can
keep on estimating these values; for example, I 1, I want to find I 1; I would like to know
the depth here. So, if this is 600; let us say this depth will be 580, I will write down the
value this is 580m this depth will be 560 because there is a gap of 10 and this total is
5000; it is 5 meters; you can see here it is 5 meters. So, each is 50. So, keep on dividing
this. So, I get 560, similarly, 540, 520, 500; this depth and this will be 480 and this will
be 460 and this will be 440 and this will be 420 and of course, this is 400.
We also know that the average thickness here is 60 and 580. So, this will be 590, this is
590, similarly I can find average thickness at the middle of every sector. So, I would say
that if this value is h this will be 1.5 h therefore, I can convert these values into ratio of
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this h; for example, this will be 1.475 h. So, let me draw another figure saying that for I
1; what would be the h, this is strip value and what would be the h. So, I 2, I 3, I 4, I 5, 6,
7, 8, 9 and 10; B is same in all the cases; only h is going to vary. So, I am now working
out the h for the average thickness. So, for I 10, it is going to be 1.475 h and I 9 1.425 h
and I 8; 1.375 h, 1.325 h, 1.275 h, 1.225 h, 1.175 h, 1.125 h, 1.075 h and 1.025 h
Please understand these values are related to let us say this value is related to 590 mm.
So, it is nothing, but the average value of the tenth strip. Similarly all these are average
values, once I have these and B is same I know very well that this I 1 can be expressed in
terms of I which will be 1.025 cube of I which is 1.077 I. Similarly this will be 1.075
cube of that of I which will be 1.242 I, similarly this will be 1.424 I, 1.622 I, 1.838 I,
2.073 I, 2.326 I, 2.60 I, 2.894 I and 3.209 I.
So, all moment of inertia is a different section expressed in terms of I as you see in this
table and these values are easily computed based on the average thickness of the each
strip once I do this then next step is to compute the loading diagram. So, let us say I have
a beam which is simply supported I will not apply a unit moment to the beam.
So, I am deriving the flexibility coefficient unit moment to the beam when I do that the
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beam will deflect like this lets say this is going to be my delta j j and this is going to be
my this is of the ith beam, this is going to be my delta k j of the ith beam, please recollect
this is my jth end, this is my kth end, I have given unit moment at the jth end I get delta j
j and delta k j for the ith beam. So, it is my ith beam now this unit moment can be also
distributed between the 10 strips I apply unit moment here this is unity and I give 0
moment here there are 10 strips .
So, let us try to find out what would be the value of these strips and the corresponding
moment caused by this let us do this. So, for example, at this centre is going to be 0.95 at
this centre is going to be 0.85, at this centre it is going to be 0.75, at this centre 0.65, at
this centre 0.55, at this centre 0.45, at this centre 0.35, at this centre 0.25 and at this
centre 0.15 and at this centre 0.05. These are the moments we have now; I have the I
diagram here, I have the I values here; I have the M values here. Now I want to create the
M by E I diagram for the conjugate beam. So, this is my beam which will have the
loading diagram according to the strips.
Let us mark the strips, there are 10 strips 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10; let us draw the M by
E I diagram M is known E I, E is known and I is known for example, this value will be
let us say for the tenth strip for the strip number, let us say M by E I ordinate; let us work
out; this let us try to work out for the tenth for the tenth strip ninth eighth seventh sixth
fifth fourth third second and first. So, now, this is unity this is 0.9. So, the average is
0.95. So, the ordinate here will be 0.296 by E I because M is 0.95 and I 10 is 3.209. So, if
we apply these 2 you get 0.296 by E I and this will be 0.294 by E I this will be 0.288 by
E I, this will be 0.279 by E I, 0.265 by E I, 0.245 by E I, 0.216 by E I, 0.176 by E I,
0.121 by E I and 0.046 by E I.
So, let us try to mark this here 0.296, 0.294, 0.288, 0.279, 0.265, 0.245, 0.216, 0.176,
0.121, 0.046. So, let us say this is my M by E I diagram which now become the loading
diagram for my conjugate beam. So, this is my M by E I diagram which is actually the
loading diagram. So, correspondingly for example, this value will be equal to 0.296 by E
I and this value will be equal to 0.046 by E I and so on. So, if you want to really do the
calculation 0.046 E I can be explained as 0.05 that is the moment divided by the I value
is actually equal to 1.077 is it not. So, 1.077 will actually give you 0.046 by E I; similarly
87
all of these things can be calculated
So, this becomes a loading diagram; therefore, let us apply the loads on this beam and try
to find the reactions. So, what I do I call this end as let us say A, this as B to get V B, I
should take moment about this point; now to get B B that is reaction and the Bth
element. So, taking moment about a we get let us see what do we get I will get V B
which will be actually equal to this span is 5 meters each one is 0.5 we got the total as 5
meters 10 strips. So, each one is 0.5; is it not?
So, I should say V B will be equal to 1 by 5 of 0.5by E I which is the strip width; let us
start taking from 1 by 1; the tenth strip is 0.296 and the one-tenth of this will be 0.25. So,
I should say 0.296 into 0.25 plus the other one is 0.294. So, 0.294 into the one-tenth of
that will be 0.5 plus 0.25 which is 0.75.
It means this will be differing by 0.5. So, plus the next one is 0.288 into 1.25 plus 0.279
into 1.75 because differ way 0.5 plus 0.265 into 2.25 plus 0.245 into 2.75 plus 0.216 into
3.25 plus 0.176 into 3.75 plus 0.121 into 4.25 plus 0.046 into 4.75 which will give me V
B; you work out V B will be 0.451 by E I, but with the downward sign because you see
here these will create an anticlockwise moment about A. So, V B will be reversed. So, V
B is upside down.
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Now, I can easily find V A. So, V A will be actually equal to 1 by E I of the total force
that is 0.296 plus 0.294 plus 0.288 plus 0.279 plus 0.265; I am taking only these values
plus 0.245 plus 0.216 plus 0.176 plus 0.121 plus 0, 4, 6, 10; value 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
10 values into 0.5 because 0.5 is the width of the strip width of the strip is 0.5 into 0.5
that is the total force I subtract 0.451 from this to get V A which will be 0.662 by E I
which is upward.
89
Module – 01
Lecture – 06
Stiffness matrix of Beam With Varying EI (Part - 2)
So, friends; now I have got the flexibility matrix of the ith element which is 1 by E I of
0.662 that is what V A is and V B is 0.451 down. So, minus 0.451 the first column. Now
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you want to get the second column that is a 2 1, a 1 2 and a 2; I should get this. So, to get
this, I should again do the same exercise by applying unit moment at the kth end.
So, let us do that. So, this is by mean; I want to apply unit moment anti clockwise here.
So, the beam will deflect like this say this is my value, which I am going to get is going
to be my delta kk of ith beam this is delta j k of ith of beam if you look carefully.
91
This was the second subscript is j because the unit moment was given at the jth end in
the same logic; the second subscript will be k because unit moment is given at the kth
end. So, this is my jth end this is my k th end this is my ith beam.
Now, I am interested in working out these values. So, what should I do again divide them
into 10 strips the moment here is 1 and here it is 0. So, it is going to very linearly, I will
divided into 10 pieces; 10 pieces, let us draw this lines, I can now find the average values
at these middle of the strips; as we did in the last case, we can do this, let us write down
these values; this is 0.95, this is 0.85, this is 0.75, 0.65, 0.55, 0.45, 0.35, 0.25, 0.15, 0.05
and this is 0.
So, now, we can now calculate; similarly what we have done here we have done the M
by E I ordinate for all the 10 strips; we can also do here the strip and M by E I ordinate;
let us say this is my first strip, this is my first strip and this is my tenth strip let us do this.
So, 10, 9, 8, 7th, 6th, 5th, 4th, third, second and first strip; the 10 strips; so, let us talk about
the first strip; this value will be the same manner as we have done here; we have done
the same given a; for example, we want to find this value I can always say the moment
divided by the corresponding I value.
Similarly, here this value will be 0.882 by E I, I will leave this an homework to you to
calculate, this is very simple to do it 0.684 by E I, 0.527 by E I, 0.401 by E I, 0.293 by E
I, 0.217 by E I, 0.15 by E I, 0.096 by E I, 0.052 by E I and 0.016 by E I.
This is my first strip, this is wrong, this is my first strip, this is my 10th strip; 10th strip
has got the maximum here, let us convert this it is M by a diagram by plotting this, let us
do that. So, this will have 0.882, then this will have 0.684, then 0.527, then 0.401, then 2
9 3 2 1 7 1 5 0 1 6 0 5 2 and 0 1 6 this is 0 9 6; let me very clear let me write it again.
This is 0 9 6 by E I. So, this; my M by E I diagram this is the loading diagram for this
beam. So, this becomes my beam and this becomes by loading diagram for the beam I
want to find now the reactions which is V B and which is V A.
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Now, to find V B, take moment about C A. So, V B will be equal to 1 by 5 that is the
stand of the beam 0.5 is the width of the strip E I is common.
So, let us start from this value 0.016 and that distance will be 0.25; the next one will have
a distance from here which will be added with 0.5 and So on. So, this will be 0.016 into
0.25 plus. So, we got this let us; then 0.052 into 0.75 plus 0.096 into 1.25 plus 0.15 into
1.75 plus 0.217 into 2.25 plus 0.293 into 2.75 plus 0.401 into 3.25 plus 0.527 into 3.75
plus 0.684 into 4.25 plus 0.882 into 4.75.
Which is very obvious this distance from here will be 0.25, therefore, this distance from
here will be 4.75 which is checked here; this will give me V as 1.210 by E I of the
vertical value. Now V A can be computed as 1 by E I of as usual take up only the
ordinates of this diagram 0.016, 0.052, 0.096, 0.15, 0.217 2 9 3 4 0 1 5 2 7 6 8 4 8 8 2.
The width of the strip is 0.5 and subtract this 1.21 from here to get V A. So, friends
which is now equal to point four 5 by E I downward.
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Therefore my flexibility matrix for the ith beam will be 1 by E I; we already have these
data with us; these 2 with us; we borrow that again 0.662 minus 0.45. Now we have the
new value a is 0.45 and this 1.21. So, minus 0.45 and 1.210.
Now, my stiffness matrix for this ith beam the flexibility matrix of this inverse which
will be E I by 0.599 that is I am doing matrix inversion by the conventional method. So,
1.210, 0.662, 0.450; 0.450 which will give me k as E I times of 2.02, 0.751; 0.751, 1.105.
94
Now, friends let us say I have a beam which is fixed at both the ends; fixed at both the
ends.
And it has got varying cross section. So, the length of the beam is 5 meters E is the
material property and I is already known to us you see here I is known to me one point is
10 power 9 1.6 into 10 power 9 mm to the power 4. Now let us mark the degrees, let us
say at this end, I have theta p theta q delta r and delta S, I neglect the axial deformation, I
can now write the stiffness matrix is readily by knowing the coefficients of these 2
because now, if you look at the stiffness matrix we can straight away say k will be
actually equal to E I times of this.
So, we already have this value with us let us borrow this and write it here I should say p
q r S; p q r S. So, 2.02, 0.751 rotational coefficients 0.751, 1.105; once I know this, I can
always find this value as some of these 2. So, let us say this is my; let us say this value
will be some of these 2 by l which will be 2.02 plus 0.5751 by 5 which will be 0.554 and
this value will be minus of that.
similarly this value the sum of these 2 by 5 which will be which will be 0.751 plus 1.105
by 5 which comes to be 0.371 and this value is minus 0.37. Once I get this, I can find this
value as some of these 2 by 5 that is 2.02 plus 0.751 by 5 which will be 0.554 and this
value will be 0.751 plus 1.105 by 5 which will be 0.371.
95
And this value will be some of these 2 that is 0.554 plus 0.371 by 5; again which will be
0.185 and this will be minus 0.185 of course, the last column is very simple; it is actually
negative of r column. So, minus 0.554 minus 0.371 minus 0.185 and 0.185 I get the
stiffness matrix.
So, friends in this lecture we learnt how to find the stiffness matrix for beam element
with varying E I, we actually marked the M by E I diagram as the loading diagram M by
E I was formed by giving unit moment at jth and kth ends.
So, I get flexibility coefficients. So, by inverting the flexibility matrix I get stiffness
matrix with rotational coefficients; once I get that the full matrix can be derived by a
simple algorithm shown in this screen. So, full stiffness matrix for varying E I with an
example problem is now presented; I hope you have understood this and now we are
very clear; how to derive stiffness matrix for a beam element with constant E I and
varying E I by neglecting axial deformation.
Now, let us apply this concept to planar orthogonal structures in the next lecture and
derive the unknown values of the structural system that is the moments, forces, shear
forces, rotations and displacements depending upon the boundary condition and support
condition of the problem.
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Module – 01
Lecture – 07
Stiffness Method of Analysis of Plane, Orthogonal Structures (Part – 1)
So, friends let us continue with the discussions on development of stiffness method of
analysis for planar orthogonal structures. We already said that comparing to flexibility
method, stiffness method in more generic; it is not problem specific, it can be easily
programmable and there are lot of repetitive steps involved in development of analysis
by this method; in the last lecture we already said by neglecting axial deformation.
97
The stiffness matrix of the ith member which is essentially a fixed beam which will have
16 coefficients can be easily developed only with the rotational coefficients remaining all
can be easily derived from these coefficients.
We also explained how one can generate the stiffness matrix for a fixed beam with
constant E I and with varying E I; let us now apply this method to a planar orthogonal
structure.
98
So, for example, let us consider the single story single bay frame as shown in the figure,
both ends of the frames are fixed, it is subjected to some arbitrary loading, let us say this
is w 1, maybe this is w 2 and may be w 3, the frame has certain geometric dimension
which are known to us, the Young’s modulus and moment of inertia of the sections are
also known to us.
So, now there are basic steps which are very important to formulate a stiffness method of
analysis for solving this problem. We know stiffness method has got unknowns which
are displacements which can be translational as well as rotational. So, stiffness method is
a generic method which can be applied to a frame under arbitrarily loading because the
unknowns in this case are not actions, since unknowns for the analysis are not actions,
but displacements it is more or less a well defined procedure.
So, we need to number the members let members are numbered I should say indexed
using square brackets like this member is 1, this member is 2 and this member is 3; there
are 3 members in this problem; let the joints b numbered in a sequence using circles; so,
joint 1, joint 2, joint 3, joint 4.
So, for every member; it is now important to identify joint numbering in accordance; to
the standard fixed beam what does it mean friends that is a very important statement I
wish to make here certain literature certain set of authors try to solve this problem using;
what they call as transformation matrix where orientation of the member with respect to
99
the origin axis becomes important, but we will handle this problem without any such
transformation matrix.
So, our elemental member will be a fixed beam whether the ends of the beams are
hinged, round rollers or free, but still our basic member for analysis will be fixed beam
which has got both ends fixed which has got degrees of freedom in terms of rotations
theta one theta 2 delta 3 and delta four by neglecting axial deformation . So, will follow
the same order if this member is an ith member if the joint is j and k; rotation at the j th
end is first rotations at the k th end is second displacement translation as the j th end is
third and displacement translational at the kth end is fourth.
We will follow the same order for all the problems. So, for a given problem step number
2 could be identify unrestrained and restrained displacements at each joint, but while
numbering them first label unrestrained displacements of all the joints then label
restrained displacements of all the joints. So, we call this as grouping because this
grouping will help me later on to do cross partitioning of the matrix which will make the
analysis more simple closed form and very easy will see this.
Let us say; I want to demonstrate this for couple of cases let us take one frame with both
ends fixed; we have given the member numbering 1, 2, 3.
100
What are may be the geometric dimensions of the member, we are not concerned about
the resisting moment. Now, we want to mark the unrestrained displacements we will do
that in green. So, rotation at this end and displacement at this end please note at both the
ends, let us say for our understanding let us name the joints 1, 2, 3 and 4.
You can note down here that the horizontal displacement both that the node 2 and 3 or
delta 3; it means axial deformation is neglected. So, now, unrestrained displacements are
theta 1, theta 2 and delta 3, let us mark the restrained displacement in red let us say delta
four this also becomes delta 4, say delta 5, this is also becomes delta 5, theta 6, theta 7,
delta 8, delta 9. So, now, restrained displacements are delta 4, delta 5, theta 6, theta 7,
delta 8 and delta 9.
Let us now try to understand why these displacements are called unrestrained;
unrestrained because at joint 2 and 3, they are free to rotate and they are free, displace
the frame, can sway these are called restrained displacement because at joints 1 and 4
being fixed no rotation and no displacement is allowed. So, they are called restrained.
So, looking into the consideration of unrestrained degrees of freedom, I can always say
the matrix size for the unrestrained will be 3 by 3 and there are total 9 degrees of
freedom. Therefore, the k matrix of the entire frame will be 9 by 9.
But this k matrix can be partition like this.
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Let us see; what is this partition the k matrix of the whole frame will be 9 by 9. Let us
say 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. Similarly, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 out of which I am
going to do a cross partitioning of this at 3 and 3; why I am doing 3 and 3 because the
problem has 3 degrees of freedom restrained unrestrained and remaining 6 digress
restrained.
Therefore I can called this as k u u because these are unrestrained degrees and these are
restrained degrees. Similarly these are unrestrained and these are restrained. So, let us
use the first word unrestrained restrained unrestrained restrained. So, row first column
next. So, u and u k u u. So, this will be k u r this will be k r u and this will be k r r each
one of them will be a sub matrix of a respective size. So, this will be 3 by 3, this will be 3
rows and 6 columns this will be 6 rows and 3 columns this will be 6 by 6.
So, you will; obviously, know the size of k u u depends upon; what is your unrestrained
displacements.
102
So, the second step is to mark the unrestrained and restrained displacements once we do
this step number 3 could be to find out the unrestrained displacement that is to determine
the unrestrained displacement; let us considered the k matrix as k u u; k u r k r u and k r r
multiply this with unrestrained displacements and restrained displacements. So, this will
be a matrix of 9 by 9, this will be a matrix of 9 by 1 which will land up in the joint load
vector which will be again partition. So, I called this as joint load u and joint load r
unrestrained restrained plus reaction vector I can called this is as partial reaction vector
which will be 0 in this case and some reaction in this case. In fact, we can call this as
partitioned reaction vector. So, this is partitioned stiffness matrix this is partitioned
displacement vector this is partitioned joint load vector and so on calls equation number
1.
So, let us expand this equation. Now I can now write k u u into delta u will be equal to J
L u. So, I can find delta u as simply inverse of this matrix multiplied by J L u that is what
we wanted to know. So, delta u can be computed to compute delta u, we need to also
know the joint load vector.
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Module - 01
Lecture - 07
Stiffness Method of Analysis of Plane, Orthogonal Structures (Part – 2)
104
So, step number 4 rather should be to estimate the joint load vector J L u and J L r. In
fact, we should say joint load vector J L which is actually derived based on the fixed end
moments; generated from the applied loads on each member. Now the question comes
how do I know the values of fixed end moments for different forms of loads. So, let us
quickly add the summary of fixed end moments for different load cases which is
available in all standard textbooks, but still for completion sake, let us write down that.
Let us take both ends fixed for all the cases that is our standard beam subjected to central
concentrated load p and length of the member be l. So, I say M F A B this is end A, this
is end B and I say M F B A. So, this nomenclature stands for M stands for the fixed
moment, F stands for the fixed moment B A is the nomenclature where the first notation
is the end where moment is computed and the other end is the end of the beam.
So, for this case it is p l by 8 these also p l by 8. Now for doing any numeric analysis, we
need to have sign convention, we already said anti clockwise moments end moments or
positive. So, I should say this is plus this is minus. Now I have fixed beam end A B span
l subjected to uniform distributed load w. So, this will give me M F A B and M F B A;
this will be plus w l square by 12 this will be minus w l square by 12.
Similarly, this is also M F A B, this is M F B A fixed beam under the concentrated load,
but x entry. So, p this a and this is b. So, this will be again M F A B this will be M F B A;
M F A B will be plus p a b square by l square this will be minus p b a square by l square;
if you have a fixed beam with varying load of intensity w 0. So, this will be again M F A
B; this will be M F B A and M F A B and M F B A or given as w 0 l square by 20 plus
minus w 0 l square by 30.
105
If you have a fixed beam with triangular loading of intensity w this will be M F A B; this
will be M F B A. So, this will be plus 5 by 96 w 0 l square; this will be minus F by 96 w
0 l square; if I have a beam which is subjected to some anti clockwise moment M at A
distance A and B where this span is l then this becomes M F A B and this becomes M F B
A; please note the sign both will be anti clockwise in all other cases reverse.
So, this going to be plus M by l square into B B minus 2 A this is also going to be plus M
A by l square 2 B minus A. So, these all some standard loading which have very
common.
106
Let us have one more fixed beam apply with the same concept I apply a clockwise
moment M at equal distance. So, M F A B will be of the same order clockwise and
clockwise. So, it should be this is this way. So, M by l square you can substitute here M
by l square B is l by 2.
Then B minus 2 A, there is l by 2 minus 2 of l by 2 which gives me minus M by 4. So,

this minus indicates it is become clockwise similarly M of B A will be M by l square A
that is l by 2 l minus l by 2 which will give me plus M by 4 which is anti clockwise. So,
that is what we can easily for. So, for different loading pattern one can estimate the fixed
end moments let us quickly explain; how the joint load can be calculated for a given
problem joint load will be simply reversal of the fixed end moments let us do this let us
remember this.
107
Joint load is reversal of fixed end moments one can also find end moments due to
displacements because the earlier where end moments due to loads . So, let us take a
beam this way give a rotation which will be theta a then this will be M F A B and this
will be of the same order M F B A. So, M F A B and M F B A will be plus 4 E I theta a
by l this is going to be plus 2 E I theta a by l this is the l.
Suppose we have a beam fixed at the left and roller I want to give displacement by
rotation at the end. So, this is going to be theta B then this will be M F B A this will be M
F A B and M F A B will be B A will be plus 4 E I theta B by l; this is plus to E I theta B
by l; if I have a simply supported beam where I want to give unit rotation and the A end
or some rotation theta A; then I should say this is going to be M F A B and this is going
to be M F B A and M F A B will be plus 3 E I theta A by l and this will be 0.
108
Suppose we have a fixed beam and this is settlement of support this is the original axes
of the beam and the beam settles by some amount which is delta, then this is M F B A
this is M F A B; M F A B and M F B A are given by plus 6 E I delta by l square and plus
6 E I delta by l square if I have a fixed beam on one end and roller on the other and the
beam settles by delta, then there will be a moment of this order this will be M F B A and
this will be M F A B.
M F A B will be plus 3 E I delta by l square and this will be 0. So, these are some of the
standard formats based on which one can calculate the end moments either caused by the
load on the beam or by displacements of the joints or rotations of the joint by reversing
this we will able to get the joint loads once I get the joint loads I can compute the
understand displacements of the problem that is the general solution what we have.
109
Let us quickly look at the summary; we have been discussing about planar orthogonal
structure where all members are connected to each other at ninety degrees; that means,
orthogonal.
May be subjected any arbitrary loading we can use stiffness method of analysis. So, we
need to name the member label the joint irrespective of the load irrespective of the load
consider a fixed beam as the basic element and derive the stiffness matrix for each
member identify unrestrained and restrained displacements; it can be both translational
rotational label them in specific sequence.
110
So, that you can group the matrix and do cross partitioning once it is there we said that s
u u sorry; k u u which a sub matrix multiplied by delta u will be actually equal to k u u
into delta u will be equal to the joint load which is also a partition matrix from this I can
find the delta u vector provided I know how to estimate the joint load vector to estimate
joint load vector find the fixed end moments at each node for the standard loading than
reverse them to find the joint load vector and then solve the problem. So, friends we
should apply this principle to couple of example problems and understand; how to use
them and how we conveniently solve the problem without using any transformation
matrix for an orthogonal structure.
111
Module - 01
Lecture – 08
Example Problem: Continuous Beam (Part – 1)
So, friends; let us continue with the example problem which is lecture 8 and module 1;
we will pick up a very simple example to demonstrate this we will take a 2 span
continuous beam as shown in the figure now.
112
Let us say this span is 3 meters and this span is 5 meters; I call this as A, B and C; you
can also name them as 1, 2, 1; 3.
So, this is my member one, member 2 subjected to some loading let us say the external
loading in A B is an uniform distributed load of intensity 20 kilo Newton per meter and B
C has got the concentrated load of 40 kilo Newton which is at the centre the beam has
got constant E I and we need to find the reactions and end moments of this beam. So,
analyze this beam that is the problem.
So, closely look at this problem, first support A is fixed support B and C or simply
supported; there may be some unrestrained displacements and restrained displacements.
So, we need to mark them first let us do that.
113
So, take the beam let us marked unrestrained displacements in green. So, fixed end
cannot have a rotation. So, this can have a rotation, I call this has theta 1, I call this has
theta 2, I need to continuously label the unrestrained displacements first, then the
restrained displacements.
So, theta 1 theta 2 are 2 rotations which are free at ends B and C; then the restrained
displacements rotation displacement and then displacements at B and C. So, this gives
me the following hints, the following hints are there are totally 6 degrees of freedom out
of which 2 are unrestrained which are theta 1 and theta 2 remaining 4 are restrained
which are theta 3, delta 4, delta 5 and delta 6.
So, this also gives me a very clear idea that my unrestrained sub matrix K u u will be of
size 2 by 2 because there are 2 unrestrained degrees of freedom and the total stiffness
matrix of the member A, B C; the complete beam will be of size 6 by 6 the element
stiffness matrix of A B will be of size 4 by 4 and what will be the labels of that to obtain
the label; let us first compare this with the standard fixed beam. So, this is standard fixed
beam which we said theta p theta q delta r and delta S.
So, the standard beam let us compare this beam with A B, I already said even though the
support B is simply supported for us the basic element A is a fixed beam. So, therefore,
the labels are for the K A B will be theta 3, theta 1, delta 4 and delta 5 that is the labels
114
are 3 1 4 and 5; similarly for K B C the labels will be 1 2 5 and 6 please see the order
rotations and translations rotations and translations.
Rotations and translations that is how we have done; so, now, having said this, we
already know for a standard fixed beam with theta p theta q anticlockwise delta r up and
delta S up the standard stiffness matrix will have labels p q r s; p q r s we know this is
actually 4 E I by l this is 2 E I by l these are the 2 rotation coefficients similarly this will
be 4 E I by l and this will be 2 E I by l we can partition this matrix this way.
Remaining all can be derived we already said that adding these 2 divided by l that is 6 E
I by l square and put a negative sign to this 6 E I by l square similarly adding these 2
divided by l 6 E I by l square put a negative sign 6 E I by l square then adding these 2
divide by l 6 E I by l square adding these 2 divide by l 6 E I by l square then adding these
2 divide by l 12 E I by l cube minus 12 E I by l cube and the last column is negative of
the third column.
So, minus 6 E I by l square minus 6 E I by l square minus 12 E I by l cube and plus 12 E

I by l cube that is a standard stiffness matrix of size 4 by 4 by neglecting axial
deformation will use this for our problem let us see; now a case I want to draw 2 separate
beams and mark the labels for me basic element is fixed beam; let us say A B will have
labels 3 1 4 5. So, I should say A and B say it should be 3 1 4 and 5.
115
Similarly, for B C 1 2 and 5 and 6 1 2 5 and 6; let us now derive the matrix for K A B
which is E I common the labels are going to be 3 1 4 and 5 3 1 4. So, this is going to be 4
E I by l this value is actually 4 E I by l which I should say is E I is constant. So, 4 by 3
because l is 3 in this case, you can see here span a b l is 3 meters.
So, 4 by 3 which is 1.333 and this will be half of that. So, 0.667; this will be some of
these 2 by 3 again which is 1.333 plus 0.667 by l that is 3 meters which will be again
0.667 this will be minus of that value 0.667 and this will be 1.333 this is 0.667. So, this
value will be add of these 2 addition of these 2 divide by l which is again going to be
0.667 and this is going to be minus 0.667.
As for as this value is concerned this will be addition of these 2 by l again which is the
again going to be 0.667; similarly, this value will be addition of these 2 by l again. So,
0.667 and this values going to be addition of these 2 by l again which is 0.445 that is this
will be actually equal to 0.667 plus 0.667 by 3 which will be 0.445 and this value will be
minus 0.445 and the forth column is just reverse of this. So, it is going to be minus 0.667
minus 0.667 minus 0.445 and plus 0.445.
Let us have this matrix clearly written here K A B will have labels 3 1 4 5; 3 1 4 5; 1.333
0.667, 0.667 minus 0.667, 0.667, 1.333, 0.667 minus 0.667; this will be 0.667 again
0.667, 0.45 minus 0.45, this will be minus 0.667 minus 0.667 minus 0.45 and 0.45.
116
So, I have K A B as this. We can also do this for K B C; the same logic E I constant; let
us look at label of K B C; look at K B C, B C will have labels 1 2 5 and 6 1 2 5 and 6
similarly 1 2 5 and 6. So, this is going to be 4 E I by l, 1 1 is going to be 4 E I by l, I
write this value let us say is going to be 4 E I by l, E I is constant I will remove this;
simply, it is going to be 4 by l; l is 5 meters which is 0.8 and this is going to be half of
that which is 0.40 and this value will be some of these 2 by l.
That is 1.2 by 5 which is 0.24 this is minus 0.24 and this value is going to be 0.8, 0.4,
again 0.24 minus 0.24 and this value will be sum of these 2 by l which is 1.20 by 5 which
is 0.24, again this is again sum of these 2 which is again 0.24 and this value will be sum
of these 2 by l which is 0.48 by 5 which is 0.096; this is minus 0.096.
The last column is simply the negative of the previous column. So, minus 0.24 minus
0.24 minus 0.096; 0.096, let us write down this matrix in the clearer way E I the labels
are 1 2 5 and 6 1 2 5 and 6 the values are 0.8, 0.4, 0.24 minus 0.24 0.4, 0.8, 0.24 minus
0.24, 0.24, 0.24, 0.196096 minus 0.24 minus 0.24 minus 0.96096.
So, we have now K B C and K A B; let us write down both of them here, but straightly in
a different manner.
117
So, I am going to do this for both them the cases; this is K A B which is E I times of and
this is K B C which is E I times of if you look at K A B the labels are 3, I am marking
them in red because 3 is a restrained degree, then the next degree is 1 which is a
unrestrained degree and then the restrained degree 4, then 5.
Similarly, 3 1 4 5 if you look at the labels of K B C; K B C labels are 1 2 5 1 6; you can

see here you can see here 1 2 5 1 6. So, out of which 1 and 2 are unrestrained and 5 and 6
are restrained; so, restrained in red unrestrained in green. So, let us write down the
values; we already have the matrix here and this coping the matrix again for our
convenience. So, that is for K A B, similarly we can do for K B C copying the same
matrix again 0.8, 0.4, 0.24 minus 0.24 done.
If you look at the K matrix and total; there will be 6 degrees of freedom. So, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
and 6 out of which there is going to be a cross partition at 2 by 2. So, this is unrestrained;
this is unrestrained row unrestrained column. So, I call this as K u u, this is unrestrained
row restrained column this is restrained row unrestrained column; this is restrained row
restrained column. So, I want to pick up and only write K u u value here is which is E I
times of. So, what you 2 by 2 matrix.
Let us write down that which will be 1 2 1 1 2. So, from these 2 matrices let us pick up
the values of 1 1; I am such circling them for our convenience 1 1 is this value. So, I
write here 1.333, then I also have this value which is 0.800, then I want to pick up 1 2; 1
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2 is this value which is 0.4 I want to pick up 2 1; 2 1 is this value which is again 0.4; I
want to pick up 2 2 which is this value which is 0.8.
So, friends my K u u matrix is actually E I times of 2.133 0.4, 0.4 and 0.8.
So, K u u is E times of 2.133, 0.4; 0.4 and 0.8; let us find K u u inverse which will be one
by E I of determinant 5 4 6; I want you to compute this and check which I will get the
values as 0.8; 2.133 minus 0.4 minus 0.4; I can also check that K u u inverse multiplied
by K u u should give me identity matrix let us do that.
So, 1 by E I times of 1.546 multiplied by 0.8 minus 0.4, 0.4, 2.133 multiplied by E I
times of 2.133, 0.4, 0.4 and 0.8; if you multiply this lets say; for example, this value is
going to be 0.8 of 2.133 minus 0.16 divided by 1.546 will give you 1.0; this value if you
see 0.8 into 0.4 minus 0.8 into 0.4 this become 0; if you look at this value minus 0.4 in
2.133 plus 0.4, 2.133, this will become 0 and if you look at this value minus 0.4 that is
minus 0.16 plus 0.8 into 2.133 by 1.546 which will also become one. So, it is an identity
matrix. So, this statement is proved and therefore, this inverse is correct.
119
Module – 01
Lecture – 08
Example Problem: Continuous Beam (Part – 2)
Once I have the inverse with me, I can now compute the unrestrained displacement. To
do that, we need to estimate the fixed end moments.
120
Let us take 2 beams parallel. So, beam A, B of span 3 meters subjected to uniform
distributed load which is 20 kilo Newton per meter this is A and this is B the other beam
is B, C which is also fixed at both the ends, do not bother about the original condition
and the problem for as the basic element is a fixed beam.
So, B, C central concentrated load of intensity 40 kilo Newton equally spaced and this is
5 meters and based upon the equations we gave in the last lecture, I can compute M F A
B, M F B A and the reactions at A and B can compute also M F B C and M F C B and the
reactions at B and C respectively. So, let us do that M F A B will be plus w l square by
12 which is plus 20 into 3 square by 12 which will be plus 15 kilo Newton meter.
M F B A will be of the same value, but minus 15 kilo Newton meter because of the
simple reason anticlockwise moments are positive, I want to find the reactions. So, for
the given problem; it is easy to know that V A will be 20 into 3 by 2 that is 30 kilo
Newton which is upward positive. Similarly, V B is also positive; let us go to span B C;
M F B C will be p l by 8 which will be plus 40 into 5 by 8 which becomes plus 25 kilo
Newton meter M F C B will be minus 25 kilo Newton meter because this is clockwise
and anticlockwise is positive.
And V B is 40 by 2 which is plus 20 kilo Newton because it is upward; upward is

positive V C is also upward of 20 kilo Newton these are the fixed end moments. So, the
joint clause will be reversed of this.
121
That has now summarize this I have 2 beams A B and B C; the values are this is 15, this
is 15, this value is 30, this value is 30; that what we got from their last slide 15, 15, 30,
30.
Similarly, this value is 25, this is again 25 and this is 20, this is 20; I need to add this sum
this make a single being. So, let us say this is as usual 15, but this one to be clockwise 15
anticlockwise 25; anticlockwise 10 and this is 25 and this upward is 30 and this upward
is 50 that is 30 plus 20 and this upward is 20; this is my fixed end moments; it is not the
joint load please understand
Now, I want to create the joint load I draw the beam. Now let us create the joint loads by
reversing it. So, anticlockwise; so, make it clockwise 15 kilo Newton meter
anticlockwise. So, make it clockwise which is 10 kilo Newton meter clockwise; make it
anticlockwise 25 kilo Newton meter upward. So, make it downward 30 upward, make it
downward 50 kilo Newton and upward make it downward 20 kilo Newton. So, this is my
joint load.
122
Now, let us compare this with my standard convention what I had. So, the joint loads are
clockwise 15 kilo Newton meter clockwise 10 kilo Newton meter anticlockwise 25 kilo
Newton meter; this is downward 30 kilo Newton. This also downward 50 kilo Newton,
this is downward 20 kilo Newton, let us compare this with our standard and enter the
joint load vector.
The joint load vector will have 6 rows and one column the degrees of freedom are 1, 2, 3,
4, 5 and 6 out of which there is a partition at because these are unrestrained degrees of
freedom and these are restrained degrees of freedom. So, I call this vector as joint load as
joint load unrestrained; I call this vector as joint load restrained. So, if you look at the
degree of freedom one from this problem one corresponds to the rotation here 2
corresponds; so, 3, 4, 5 and 6; so, same logic here.
One corresponds to this anticlockwise I should say minus 10 the minus is because if you
compare this is clockwise joint load, but original convention is anticlockwise. So, minus
10; similarly, this is anticlockwise; the original is also anticlockwise; therefore, we can
say it is plus 25; 3 by that logic will be minus 15, 4 will be minus 30, 5 will be minus 50
and 6 will be minus 20.
You can compare you want; we can also draw that particular beam here for our
understanding and mark the degrees of freedom; this was theta 1, this was theta 2
unrestrained, then this is theta 3 this is 4, this is 5 and this is 6 because these 2 are
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unrestrained and these 4 are restrained. So, this is clockwise, but unrestrained
anticlockwise. So, minus 10 anticlockwise; anticlockwise plus 25, then clockwise, but
this is anticlockwise. So, minus 50 upward, but this is downward minus 30 upward, this
is downward. So, minus 50 upward this downward minus 20; so, I have this.
So, now I can write the J l u vector that is unrestrained vector is minus 10 and plus 25
correct; once I have this, I can now say the joint load displacement of unrestrained will
be k u u inverse of that of J l u.
So, a k u u inverse if you see we already worked out that it is with us here this is my k u
u inverse this is my k u u inverse, I will just rewrite it there which will be 1 by 1.546 E I
multiplied by point 8.4 minus 0.4 and 2.133 and this should be multiplied by the
unrestrained joint load vector which is minus 10 plus 25.
So, minus 10 plus 25; so, I get the unrestrained which is the theta 1 and theta 2 which
will be equal to minus 18 by 1.546 E I and this theta 2 is going to be plus 57.325 by
1.546 E I in radians. So, we have solved this for theta 1, but we have to find the end
moments that is important; we have only solved the unrestrained displacements may ask
you a question; what will be the vector of restrained displacements which are; what are
the restrained displacements in this problem theta 3, delta 4, delta 5, delta 6; what will be
this theta 3, delta 4, delta 5, delta 6; what will be this vector because this are restrained
degrees.
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So, as you correctly guessed, it will be 0; there is no need to work out that.
Now, our next job is to find due to the loads end moments and shear as a last step the
general equations is for finding M moment of ith beam we have to say K i and
displacement i plus fixed end moment of i. So, let us expand this for A B. So, M A B
which will be 4 by 4 which will be K of A B which will be again 4 by 4 and displacement
vector of A B which is 4 by one plus fixed end moments of A B which is 4 by 1.
So, this will be 4 by 1. So, what will this value for A B? So, let us again draw the
problem this was the original problem. So, this was the degrees of freedom theta 1 theta
2, theta 3, delta 4, delta 5 and delta 6. So, for M A B, the values will be this is A; this is B
and this is C M A B; the values will be as we correctly guessed is going to be M 3 that is
corresponding to this M 1 corresponding to this shear 4 corresponding to this shear 5
corresponding to this; this is for A B; I have to multiple this with K matrix of A B which
already we had; we can see here K matrix of A B and K matrix of B C separately.
I am just rewriting that the K matrix of A B which will be 1.333, 0.667, 0.667 minus
0.667; 0.667; 1.333; 0.667 minus 0.667, 0.667; 0.667, 0.445 minus 0.445 minus 0.667
minus 0.667 minus 0.445 and 0.445 this is for the beam A B.
And I want to now multiple this with the displacements of A B which will be theta 3
theta 1, delta 4 and delta 5 plus the fixed end moments of the member A B, we also
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already have this here fixed end moments of the member A B is available here. So, we
can directly write those values there, I am just doing it here is going to be plus 15 minus
15 plus 30 plus 30 this fixed end moments of A B. So, simplify this, but the question is
this matrix is known this vector is known; I have to estimate this vector; what happens to
this vector very interesting.
Theta 3 is 0, delta 4 is 0 and delta 5 is 0 and theta 1 is known we can see here theta 1 is
known. So, substitute that value here the value here and multiple process it and get that
vector A B which will be actually equal to I write the values here 7.234 minus 30.52,
22.234; 37.766 that is for A B. Similarly I can do for B C. So, I can do for B C, I again
draw the problem.
This is theta 1, this is theta 2, this is theta 3, this is delta 4, delta 5 and delta 6. This is A,
this is B and this is C this is B C. So, let us do it for B C, M B C will be actually K B C
delta B C plus fixed end moments of B C; M B C will have a vector which is 4 by one
what will be the values M 1 corresponding to this M 2 corresponding to this; this should
become 0 because this simple supported end and V 5 correspond to this and V 6
correspond to this.
Which will be equal to k B C we have the stiffness matrix of B C, I am writing it here we

already derive that. So, I am just writing it here this is for the span B C and this will
multiplied by delta B C which will be equal to theta 1, theta 2, delta 5 and delta 6; add
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this to the fixed end moments which we already have for the span B C which will be 25
minus 25 plus 20 and plus 20. So, very interesting delta 5 and delta 6 are 0 because they
are restrain marked in red also theta 1 theta 2 already known to us.
So, substitute here get the value and you will see that that value will be actually equal to
30.517; this become 0, 26.105, 13.895. So, let us plot these values.
So, span A B subjected to a load of 20 kilo Newton per meter, span B C subject to a
central load of 40. So, we say let us write down the values of the vector the original
beam problem was like this; this was theta 1, theta 2 and this is theta 3, delta 4, delta 5,
delta 6 and this vector; we look at this vector A B this is 7.234 and so on; I am just
marking them. So, I am copying this vector back again here.
So, 7.234; I am marking this vector here, this is M A B 7.234 minus 30.52, 22.234 and
37.766 that is what we have here then B C, we have this vector, I am just rewriting it,
here M B C is actually equal to 30.517, 0, 26.105 and 13.895 keeping this, let us now
super impose this value in the original figure.
So, now this is plus. So, this is going to be anticlockwise 7.234; this is minus. So,
clockwise 30.52; this is positive. So, upward 22.234 and this is upward 37.766; similarly
for this positive. So, anticlockwise 30.517 and this value is 0 and this is upward 26.105
and this is also upward 13.895.
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So, let us super impose this; interestingly, you will see that let us check this problem;
right, I can even remove this figure this figure is actually not required at this moment.
Now, let us check the span A B. So, checking the span A B the total upward force is
actually 22.234 plus 37.766 which actually equal to 20 into 360 meters. So, it is checked
if you take moment about of this point moment about A. So, moment about A will be 20
into 3 into 1.5 plus 30.52 minus 37.766 into 3 which will give you 7.234 anticlockwise
which is also checked.
If you looked at span B C you will see M C is 0 because it is simply supported. So, a
reaction 26.105 plus 13.895 is actually equal to downward reaction of 40. So, it is
checked if you take moment about this point that is M B which will be equal to 40 into
2.5 because this span is 5 meters 2.5 minus 13.895 into 5 will be exactly equal to 30.52
which is here and you will also see that these reactions are matching 30.52 clockwise
30.52 anticlockwise.
So, finally, I have a beam which is solved which is my summary for this load and for this
load the reactions are 7.234, 30.52, 22.234, 63.871; 13.895 because this value will be the
sum of these 2 reactions these 2 reactions. So, that is the whole problem which has been
solved and this loading is 20 kilo Newton per meter and this is 40 kilo Newton; this is 3
meter E I, this is 5 meter E I. The problem is now solved; we can also check this by one
more alternative which will discuss when we do the next problem.
128
129
Module – 01
Lecture – 09
Example Problem 2 (Part – 1)
So, friends, we will continue with the discussion on module 1. This lecture will be
lecture 9 where we will solve another example problem of a frame. Before that let us add
slightly more discussions to the last problem what we solved in the previous lecture. The
last problem; what we had is an example one of a 2 span continuous beam as you see in
the screen theta one theta 2 are unrestrained, there is a freedom marked in green color,
theta 3, delta 4, 5 and 6 are restrained; there is a freedom marked in red color keeping
fixed beam as a basic module; span A B will have degrees of freedom labels as theta 3
theta 1, delta 4 and delta 5 taking A as the jth end and B as the kth end.
130
Similarly, span B C will have degrees of freedom theta 1, theta 2, delta 5 and delta 6,
both will be the jth end and C will be the kth end taking this at the module.
We have generated for example, 3 1 4 5; 3 1 4 5; we generated this stiffness matrix

similarly for K B C 1 2 5 6; 1 2 5 6 generated, we partitioned the matrix and got K u u as
2 by 2 and we picked up K u u founded K u inverse and applied the joint loads computed
the joint load vector partitioned the matrix for unrestrained restrained and unrestrained
vector is picked up.
131
Then we solved this for delta u.
132
Then we apply and found out the moments; M moments and shears in both the spans A B
and B C and we have the results; here A B is this value and B C is this value any way
from the free body diagram we checked and showed that the values what you have in a
and B C are matching; what we adhere is another way of checking this which will now
discuss.
133
So, this was the solution we had now we want to check this once again if you look at the
matrix the K matrix.
We said that K has got sub matrices K u u, K u r, K r u; K r r which we have partitioned

the matrix. So, this is unrestrained restrained unrestrained restrained.
So, we can also say K r u multiplied by delta u minus J L r will be actually equal to the
restrained vector r. So, you can see this going to be a 4 by 2 matrix; if you look at the full
stiffness matrix of size the full stiffness matrix will be a size 6 by 6. So, this will be 4 by
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2, this will be 2 by 1; this again J L r if you see the vector this going to be 4 by 1; it is
going to be 4 by 1 and I will get ultimately 4 by 1 as my result.
So, from the given matrix K A B from the given matrix K A B and K B C can always
pick up the labels for K r u. So, let us write down this value as a K matrix will have
labels 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; similarly 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. So, I have a partition at 2 by 2 because
that is my unrestrained degree of freedom. So, now, these values can be picked up from
the respective K matrices K A B and K B C and this can be filled up.
So, I leave this exercise to you.
So, I fill up this matrix and I get K r u matrix 4 by 2 as below which is going to be E I of
this is first row first column second column r. So, it was going to be 3, 4, 5 and 6. So, this
value is 0.667; this value is 0.667 and this value is going to be minus 0.667 plus 0.24
which will be minus 0.427 in this is minus 0.24. So, this will be 0; this will be 0.24; this
is minus 0.24.
So, that is going to be my K r u matrix delta u v already have I am rewriting it again

1.546 E I. So, we have this value here delta u which is 1.546 E I; 0.8 minus 0.4 and so on
and I get delta u as this value; let us rewrite it here minus 18 and 57.325 that is what the
value we have here 1.546 common 18 and 3.25. So, this; what we are having here.
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Now, we look at the J L r vector this what I am looking at J L r, I can write it here; J L r
is going to be minus 15 minus 30 minus 50 and minus 20; let me rewrite this matrix
back, again here J L r is going to be minus 15 minus 30 minus 50 and minus 20.
Let us substitute in that equation to get R r which is the restrained vector of 4 by 1 which
actually V equal to look at the original problem a restrained degrees of freedom are theta
3, delta 4 the restrained degrees are theta 3, delta 4, delta 5 and delta 6 correspondingly;
the reactions will be M 3, V 4, V 5 and V 6.
So, let us go back here and do that which will be M 3, V 4, V 5, V 6 which can be
obtained as E I times of J L r. So, 0.667, 0, 0.667 that is my K r u minus 0.427, 0.24
minus 0.24 minus 0.24 multiplied by 1 by E I minus 18 by 1.546, 57.325 by 1.546 and
subtract this with my J L r which is minus 15 minus 30 minus 50 and minus 20. If I do
this simplification, I get M 3, V 4, V 5 and V 6 as 7.234, 22.234, 63.871 and 13.895.
So, let us compare the results; what we have with this here. So, I can say the M 3, V 4, V
5 and v 6 will be essentially this value 7.234 and this value 22.234 and this value which
is 63.871 and this value which is 13.895. So, if you compare this value with what we
have here is exactly the same. So, one can check the solution by this method also. So,
that the solution obtained by the previous steps and the final step are compared and
verified.
136
Having said this, let us move on to the second example problem to solve a single bay
single story frame. So, let us take example 2.
A single bay single story frame and try to solve this problem. So, let both the ends be
fixed, let us also put the restrained here let us apply a loading to this part of the frame
which is given to be 12 kilo Newton per meter. Let us apply a point load here which is at
the center of intensity 50 kilo Newton. Let us put a 2 point loads here of intensity 20 kilo
Newton and 30 kilo Newton of equal space.
Let the dimensions of the frame be height of 6 meters and width of 4 meters. Let us have
E I constant throughout. Now the first step as you see will be to mark the degrees of
freedom. So, let us mark unrestrained degree then restrained degree unrestrained degree
we will use green color. So, there will be rotation here which is theta 1; there can be
rotation here which is theta 2, these are the 2 unrestrained degrees what we have and the
restrained degrees are going to be theta 3, delta 4, delta 5 and no accelerate deformation
therefore, delta 5, theta 6 delta 7 and delta 8, no accelerate deformation therefore, delta 8
and delta 9 and delta 10.
So, we have for in information from this the stiffness matrix of the complete frame A B C
D that is this is A, this is B, this is C, this is D will be of size 9 by 9 theta 1 and theta 2
are unrestrained degrees and theta 3, delta 4, delta 5 theta 6 delta 7, delta 8 and delta 9 all
restrained degrees therefore, the matrix will have a partition the size of the matrix will be
137
unrestrained and restrained this is unrestrained restrained unrestrained restrained, this
will be 2 by 2 the total size is 9 by 9.
Therefore this is going to be 2 rows and 7 columns that is K u u, this is K u r, this K r u

which will be 5 rows and 2 columns K r r will be 5 rows and 5 columns. So, we have to
invert only a 2 by 2 matrix for this problem that is number 1. Let us also write another
statement. From this figure let us talk about the member let say what is my jth end and
kth end this is the orientation member and what are the degrees of freedom labels let us
talk about member A B. So, I am writing this as member B A. So, jth end is A B kth end
is A A. So, becomes my orientation.
So, this is my x M i, this is my y M i for this member. So, degrees of labels could be
theta 1, theta 3, delta 9 and delta 4. Similarly member B C B end is J and C end is K
degrees of freedom are going to be let say this is x M i; this is y M i for this member B
C. So, the degrees of freedom labels are going to be theta 1, theta 2, delta 5 and delta 8.
Similarly for the member C, D C is a jth end, D is a kth end. So, I am going to mark this
again as x M i and y M i therefore, labels are going to be theta 2 theta 6 delta 9 delta 7.
Having said this let us mark the displacement vector rotational and translational both
which is going to be this is going to be 7 by 2 and this is going to be 7 by 7 total is 9. So,
this is going to be a vector of 9 by one which will have theta 1, theta 2, then theta 3, delta
4, delta 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 where I am going to do a partition at this level. So, this is also
138
written as delta u and delta r also for the member A B let us try to find this 4 E I by L
value; we need the rotational constants which is going to be 4 E I; let us take the E I
value for this member is 2 I, this member is I and this member is 2 I.
Let us not take E I as constant; let us vary the E I. So, in that case twice by L is 4 meters,
it will give me 1.333 E I. Similarly 2 E I by L for the beam will be 2 E I into 2 by 6
which is 0.667 E I for the member B C 4 E I by L could be 4 E I into 1 by 4 which is E I
2 E I by L could be 2 E I into 1 by 4 which is 0.5 E I for the member C D 4 E I by L
could be 4 E I into 2 by 6 which is 1.333 E I, then 2 E I by L will be 2 E I into 2 by 6
which is 0.667 E I.
139
Module - 01
Lecture - 09
Example Problem 2 (Part - 2)
140
Once we have this values let us try to enter K AB matrix which is stiffness matrix for the
member AB which I am entering here. The labels are as you see from here for AB the
labels are 1 3 9 4. So, I should say the labels are 1, 3, 9, 4 which I am entering. And just
now for the K AB the rotation of the constants are these. So, let us say 1.333, 0.667, then
0.333 which you already derived so I do not think we have to explain this again you can
verify the previous lecture and try to fill up this matrix easily without any confusion.
So, let us fill up this matrix from the rotational coefficients. So, I do not think there is an
ambiguity in this let us once again explain for the benefit of the users. Adding these two
divide by l that is 6 meter will give you this. This value is negative of this coefficient.
Similarly, adding these two by l will give you this; the fourth value is a negative of the
third value. Similarly, adding these 2 by l will give you this. Adding these 2 by l will give
you this. Adding these 2 by l again will give you this; this value will be negative of this.
The fourth column is negative of the third column as you see here. Let us write down for
K BC; the next member which is again EI.
Let us write down the labels for this. If you look at this BC has labels 1, 2, 5, 8. So, I
should say 1, 2, 5, and 8.
141
Similarly for BC 4 EI by l is 1 and 2 EI by l is 0.5; so 1.5 by l which is 0.375 and minus

0.375. Say this is 1, and 0.5, 1.5 by l, 0.375 minus 0.375 again 1.5 by l 0.375, 0.375.
0.375 plus 0.375 by l which is 0.188 minus 0.188. The fourth column is the opposite of
the third column by sin. So, let us fill up this. So, K BC is also completed.
Let us go for K CD which is EI let us have the labels of KCD.
142
(Refer Slide Time: 04:11).
If you look at this CD as labels 2 6 9 7; so 2, 6, 9 and 7; 2, 6, 9 and 7 and we already

know 4 EI by l is 1.33 and 2 EI by l is 0.667; so 1.33 0.667 addition of these 2 by l again,
so 0.333 minus 0.333. Similarly 1.333 0.667 addition of this by l again so 0.333, and
minus 0.333; these two 1.333 plus 0.67 by l again which is again 0.333 again 333: so 666
by l 0.111 minus 0.111.
The fourth column is opposite of third minus 0.333 minus 0.333 minus 0.111 and plus
0.111. So, we have no issues we have got the stiffness matrix for K AB, K BC, and K
CD.
143
So, now I want to form. So, let us talk about K uu matrix which will be 2 by 2 because
the understand degrees of freedom are only 2 by 2 for this problem. Let us estimate this
value from the known matrices of a b c.
So, let us say 1 1 I want to see. So, let us look into all. So, there is easy way of doing
this; let us see how this can be done without any error. Carefully see here 1 is present in
AB BC, 2 is present in BC and CD. So, for first row let us straight look into both these
matrices, because 1 is present in both so let us look into K AB. First row first column
1.33 I am writing it here k 11 1.33 first row k 1. So, let us enter that value here 1.33.
Then let us look into the next matrix which is 1 2. This is 1 1 again 1 value here let us
take that value plus 1.0 which becomes 2.333. Similarly 1 2: 1 2 is available in K BC 1
2is this value so let us say 0.5. Similarly for 2: let us go back to this matrix 2 1 is 0.5 you
do not have to go to K AB this is nothing of 2 order here no; no 2 number is here. So, 2 1
is 0.5; so 2 1 is 0.5. Similarly it let us go to 2 2 which is going to be 1; 2 2 you also have
one more 2 2 in the next matrix which is this.
So, the total will be 1 plus 1.333 which is 1 plus 1.333 which is 2.333 absolutely
symmetric and square matrix. So, K uu matrix is EI times of 2.333 0.5, 0.5 and 2.333.
Let us find K uu inverse which will be 1 by 5.193 EI. You can easily estimated from the
first principles which will be again 2.333 2.333, minus 0.5 minus 0.5.
144
The next step is to find the fixed end moments caused because of the loads on each span
of the member. Let us do one by one. Let us say span AB subjected to a uniform
distributed load of 12 kilo Newton per meter and this distance is 6 meters; is or not. So,
this will cause a moment as I am indicating here. So, this value will be 12 into l square
by 12 which will be 36, this will also be 36, and this reaction will be 12 into 6 by 2
which will also 36 and 36.
So, now I can write the vector which will be of degree is 1, 3, 9, and 4 these are degrees
you can see here, member AB as degrees 1, 3, 9, and 4. So, 1, 3, 9, and 4. For 1 1 is
marked here two is marked here and so on. So, 1 is here 1 will be here. So, this is
anticlockwise is positive therefore this is going to be minus 36, this is 3 which is
anticlockwise, so plus 36 and 9 and 4 both are minus 36 because they are towards left.
Similarly let us do it for the beam span BC this is B and this is C central concentrated
load 50 which will have moments of this type and ensures of this type, the span is 4
meters. So, this is going to be wl square by pl by 8. So, 4 by 8 which is going to be 25
this is also going to be 25 kilo Newton meter, and this reaction is also going to be 50 by
2 which is 25 kilo Newton; this is also 25 kilo Newton.
So, if I write the vector for the span BC the labels will be 1, 2, 5 and 8, because you
know there is a label of BC 1, 2, 5, and 8. So, 1, 2, 5, and 8 the values will be
145
anticlockwise of plus 25 this is clockwise of minus 25 and the reaction ensures is upward
positive so plus 25 and this also positive plus 25.
Let us do it for the third case which is CD. CD is got two loads. So, this is C and this is
D end this is separated by a distance 6 meters that is a span of the beam, ok.
It has got 1 load which is 20 kilo Newton. So, this is going to be 2 meters this is 4
meters. So, this will generate the moment P AB square by l square which will be 20 into
4 into 2 square by 6 square which gives me 8.889 and this value will be 20 into 2 into 4
square by 6 square which will be 17.778. And taking moment towards the point D this
reaction will be let us call is V C. So, taking moments about D 20 into 4 plus minus V C
into 6 will be 2, so that gives me V C as 13.333 and V D will be 20 minus 13.333 which
will be 6.667.
Similarly, let us do it for the other load. There is again C n D n the other load is of
intensity 30 kilo Newton this is 2 meters and this is 4 meter. So, this value will be 30 into
2 into 4 square by 6 square which makes 26.667. And this value will be 30 into 4 into 2
square by 6 square which makes it as 13.333 and the reactions this reaction and this
reaction will be 10 and 20 which can be said as V C into 6 is equal to 30 into 2 which V
C will be ten kilo Newton’s which we got and the total is 30 therefore these 20.
146
Now, let me write down the fixed end moments of the member CD for the labels 2, 6, 9,
and 7 that is the label of CD; 2, 6, 9, and 7: 2, 6, 9, and 7. So, I should say to summarize
this we have to add this let us make a summary and continue this problem in the next
lecture.
So, in this lecture we estimated the end moments and reactions of example 1 by other
technique and compare the answers; we did this. And we found the results are exactly
same. The second conclusion we can make is we are working on example 2. We are able
to locate and label the degrees of freedom both unrestrained and restrained. We are able
to find the stiffness matrix for all the three members K BC, CD. And then we also found
out K uu, K uu inverse. We are in the process of estimating the joint load which will
discuss in the next lecture.
Thank you.
147
Prof. Srinivasan Chandrashekarn
Module - 01
Lecture - 10
Example Problem 2 Continued...
Friends, let us continue with the example 2 in the 10th lecture, in module 1. This is the
example; what we are working out we have a single bay single story frame, we have
marked the degrees of freedom for the members AB, BC and CD by identified the size of
each stiffness matrices and the labels we worked out the stiffness matrices of each
member K AB, K BC and K CD.
148
We combine them and obtain partition matrix K uu.
149
We also got the inverse of this the next step.
We have to determine, to find the fixed end moments, we did for the span AB, this is for
the span AB, we did this also for the span BC, we did this also for the span CD, we are
going to do this.
150
Now, for CD, let us say as for as 2 is concerned, let us mark the degrees of freedom for
let say member CD member CD has theta 2. So, let us look at the degrees of freedom of
the member CD, then say theta 2 theta 6, then delta 9 and delta 7 that is what we have
here.
Let us mark it here for our convenience, this is C end, this is D end, this is theta 2, this is
theta 6, this is delta 9 and delta 7.
151
So, now I have to compare theta 2 with this value and this value let us enter this here. So,
this is anticlockwise; clockwise. So, I should say minus 17.778, then minus 13.333 that is
my theta 2 that is M 2. Similarly for 6, I have to compare this value and these value both
are anticlockwise; so, plus 8.889 plus 26.667. Similarly for 9, I should compare this
value and this value both are towards left. So, minus this value is minus 13.333 and
minus 10.000.
Similarly, for 7, I should compare this value and V D which will be V D is also acting
this way. So, minus 6.667 and minus 20; so, which amounts to minus 31.111 plus 35.556
minus 23.333 and minus 26.667; now I am interest in estimating the joint loads.
Lets us go back to the problem; have a small addition. In the problem, the addition is this
frame is also subjected to an external moment; an external moment of 20 kilo Newton
meter and 30 kilo Newton meter at the joints B and C respectively. So, let us now work
out the joint load vector. So, I have the FEM vectors, let us write down those values here,
once again fixed end moments vectors. So, for AB and BC, we have this values.
Let us write down that fixed end moment vectors for AB, I have which will be the labels
of 1, 3, 9 and 4 minus 36 plus 36 minus 36 minus 36 and for BC, we have the labels are
1, 2, 5 and 8; the values are plus 25 minus 25 plus 25 and plus 25 and for CD, we have
the fixed end moment vector as minus 31.111, 35.556 minus 23.333 and minus 26.667
the labels are 2 6 9 and 7.
152
So, now I want to estimate the joint load vector let us do the joint load vector which is
going to be 9 rows and 1 column; let me do that here. So, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9; let us
see the one; I have to pick up this value, I have to pick up this value, I have to reverse
them because I am talking about joint load. So, plus 36 minus 25 in addition; if we look
at the problem, I also have a load of plus 20 at theta 1; is it not.
So, let us include that also. So, I going to be plus twenty which makes this as plus 31.
Similarly 2 I have looked into this value, this value and there is one more 30 kilo Newton
meter applied. So, plus 30 that is anticlockwise and plus 25 and plus 31.111 which makes
it as 86.111, if you look at 3, it will be this value; there is no other 3. So, reverse the sign
minus 36.
Look at 4; this value reverse the sign plus 36 why reverse the sign; we are looking for the
joint load vector then the fifth one is this value reverse the sign minus 25, sixth value this
reverse the sign minus 35.556, seventh value will be this reverse the sign. So, plus
26.667 eighth row is this value; so, minus 25.000 and ninth value will be this plus this.
So, let us reverse the sign; so plus 36 plus 23.333; which makes it as plus 59.333.
Now, we partition this matrix at 2 that is the unrestrained degree of freedom this is
restrained. So, I can say J L will have now 2 values. This is J L unrestrained, this is J L
restrained, this is 9 by 1. So, this is going to be 2 by 1, this is 7 by 1. So, J L u if you
really want to write J L u alone which is going to be 31 and 86.111, these 2 values having
said this that is used this value K comprises of unrestrained restrained unrestrained
restrained.
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Let say these are the partition this is k u u this is k u r this is k r u this is k r r multiplied
by this delta u delta r which will be actually equal to the joint load vector.
So, now I can expand this k u u into delta u is J L u therefore, delta u is actually k u
inverse of J L u I have k u u I have J L u, I can find delta u.
Let us do that. So, delta u which will be the unrestrained degrees theta 1 and theta 2 you
can see the problem these are unrestrained degrees marked in green theta 1 and theta 2
which will be given by 1 by 5.193 EI multiplied by k u u inverse, we already have it
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here, we already have it here. So, I am just writing it here 2.333 minus 0.5 minus 0.5;
2.333 multiplied by this vector which is 31 and 86.111.
So, 31 and 86.111; so, I must get this value as 1 by 5.193 EI of 29.268 and 185.397, so
many radians because they both are rotations; that is my delta u.
Now I am interested in finding end moment and the end shears. So, the equations is M i
will be K i delta i plus fixed end moments of the member i. So, let us expand this for M
AB which will be the labels of AB or 1 3 9 4 therefore, M 1, M 3, V 9 and V 4 which is
going to be EI times of K AB which I am writing here 1.333, 0.667, 0.333 minus 0.333,
1.333, 0.667, 0.33, minus 0.333. This is again 0.333; 0.333, 0.111 and minus 0.111 that is
K AB, K AB multiplied by.
So, this is going to be 4 by 1, this is 4 by 4 expected to be 4 by 1 which is going to be the

displacements for the first degree for member AB. So, it is going to be theta 1, theta 3,
delta 9 and delta 4. So, out of which you; now these 3 are 0 you can look at the problem
theta 3, theta 3, then delta 9, delta 9 and delta 4, delta 4, they are restrained therefore,
they are 0.
So, they are 0 which will be added to the fixed end moments of the member AB which is
here which is fixed end moments of the member AB I am just adding this vector back
again so minus 36 plus 36 minus 36; 36. So, one can work it out and try to find out the
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moments where theta one actually is equal to 29.268 by 5.193 EI substitute that and one
can find the moments n moments and n shears of this.
So, it is very simple; 1.33 of this minus 36 will be able to get. For example, I will find
out the first vector let us say M 1, M 3, V 9, V 4 which will be equal to minus 28.487,
39.759, 34.143, and so on. So, I think you should be able to fill up this and check that is
for AB.
Let us do for M BC which is again the BC labels are 1 2 5 and 8 1 2 5 and 8; that is how
the labels of M BC which will be EI times of the stiffness matrix 1.5 0.375 minus 0.375
multiplied by theta 1, theta 2, delta 5 and delta 8 plus fixed end moments of the member
BC which is available here and see here this vector 25 minus 25, 25, 25. So, let us do that
here 25 minus 25 and both are 25 and we all know that delta 5 and delta 8 are 0 because
they are restrained degrees of freedom.
Substituting, I may get M 1, M 2, V 5, V 8 as 48.487, 13.519, 40.502 and 9.498 that is

for the member BC.
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Similarly, we can do for the member CD for M CD; we have the vector as M 2, M 6, V 9
and V 7 that is the label for the member CD which will be equal to EI times of the
stiffness matrix of the member CD multiplied by theta 2, theta 6, delta 9 and delta 7 plus
fixed end moments of the member CD which is minus 31.111 that is the fixed end
moment you can see here of the member CD and this copying it there.
35.556 minus 23.333 minus 26.667; once I do this because if we look at these values
you. Now theta 6 9 and 7 will be 0; they are restrained degrees and theta 2 value is
known to us theta 2 is 1 by 5.193 EI of 185.397; substituting I will get M 2, M 6, V 9 and
V 7 as 16.479, 59.369 minus 11.444 minus 38.556.
I request you to please check these values yourself and verify them. So, now, we have
computed the end moments in all the cases let us check them now.
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So, I have 3 member of the beam and the frame M 1, M 3, let us mark the degrees of
freedom in the given frame the degrees of freedom in the given frame are marked again
for our comparison which is theta 1, theta 2, theta 3, delta 4, delta 5, theta 6, delta 7,
delta 8 and delta 9.
So, let us find out the values we will enter this values now here I am writing this values
this is for AB which is M 1, M 3, V 9 and V 4; this is for the member AB which is
actually equal to minus 28.487, 39.759 and so on; let us mark it here for the member AB.
So, this corresponds to first degree. So, minus clockwise 28.487, M 3 is plus. So,
anticlockwise 39.759 and V 9 is to the right positive. So, the V 9 is negative; so 34.123
and so on.
Similarly, one can plot for M BC, I am plotting the value directly. So, which is 48.487
and this is 13.511 and this is 9.498 and this is 40.502 and this value for CD 16.479, I
want you to check this values 11.444 and this is 59.369 and 38.556; let us check this
values.
So, this is subjected to some lateral load of 12 kilo Newton per meter, this should be
actually equal to the reactions if you look at the sum of these moments 28 and 48; the net
balance is 20 which is acting and disjoint. Similarly, if you look at 16 and 15, 13 and 16,
you get the next value moment as 30 is available in the frame here. So, these 2 are
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matched similarly if you look at the load 50, if you look at add these reactions nearly to
50.
Similarly, if you look at these loads twenty and thirty and add these reactions they will
add up to 50. So, one can check the fixed end moments and end shears as you computed
and one can really solve the like this.
Further you can also used this relationship K ru delta u minus J r should be the end
reactions r.
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I want you to do as a simple assignment and check and show the values are as same as
this. So, friends let us write down the summary for this problem.
We have understood that the example 2 which is a single bay single story orthogonal
structure is solved using stiffness method. So, we have seen that the method employed to
solve this problem is not problem specific, it is very general; is it not and the basic
element used is a fixed beam; is it not and further the process is repetitive. So, keeping
this in mind this can be easily programmed in a digital computer.
So, I will also give you the computer codes to solve this problem. Later, I want you to
first do it by hand and try to have a comfortable solution. Then we can compare these
answers by writing computer program run the same problem in the program and compare
the results.
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Module – 01
Lecture – 11
Friends, let us continue with the 11th lecture in module 1. Here, we will discuss another
example problem of orthogonal structures planar. Before we move on to the general
principle applied to problem 3, let us try quickly revisit what we are seen in the last
example.
161
The last example is actually a single bay single story frame as you see in the figure here
the 3 members, A B, B C and C D of different EI values subjected to variety of loads on
the span A B, B C and C D; if you look at the results; what we have obtained? We
obtained the stiffness matrix for the member A B stiffness matrix for the member B C
and stiffness matrix for the member C D considering fixed beam as a standard model.
For example, while deriving the stiffness matrix for A B, the labels where theta 1, theta 3,
delta 9 and delta 4, this is simple to a fixed beam of p q r and s. So, 2 rotations and 2
translations where this is my x axes and this is my y axes. So, for every member, I have
to orient the axes and accordingly, I must select the label similarly for K B C, we should
have labels as theta 1, theta 2 and delta 5 and delta 8 for K C D, the labels are going to be
theta 2, theta 6, delta 9 and delta 7.
So, the whole derivation we have neglected the axial deformation friends, it is because of
this reason you will see delta 9 and delta 9 are same at the point B and C similarly delta
five is same at the points are the nodes a and B by the same reason delta 8 is same at the
nodes D and C. So, among this where very well known that theta one and theta 2 are
unrestrained degrees and remaining theta 3 through delta 9 are restrained degrees. So, we
found the stiffness matrix with u and r we partitioned the stiffness matrix the total matrix
is 9 by 9 we partitioned it with 2 by 2 and further, then we also partition the
displacements delta u as theta 1, and theta 2 and delta restrained will be actually the
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remaining theta 3 onwards which is actually 0 because all are restrained degrees of
freedom.
We obtained delta u by inverting K u u, we use this relationship K u u into delta u is

actually equal to J L u we found that delta u by inverting this matrix and we got delta u,
then we found out fixed end moments in end reaction beam using this relationship fixed
end moments of the ith member. So, the finite solution what we have looked like this,
this is subjected to A u D l of 12 kilo Newton per meter for a span of 6 meters which is A
B.
Similarly, for B C, we had a point load of 50 kilo Newton which is equally spaced and
this distance is 4 meters and for C D, we had again loads which are 20 kilo Newton and
30 kilo Newton which are equally spaced; in addition, we also had joint moments here as
20 and here as 30. So, for this we found out the results; the results are as follows this
reaction end moment is 39.759 and this is 28.9487 and this reaction was 34.123 and this
value was 37.877.
And for this beam, this reaction was 48.487 and this was 13.519 and this became 16.479
and this became 59.369; this reaction was 40.502 and this reaction is 9.498 and this
reaction is 11.444 and this reaction shear is 38.556.
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So, one can apply it; check and see let us take this span A B. So, let us say sigma F H
should be 0. So, one can see here 12 into 6 is actually equal to 34.123 plus 37.877 sigma
M A. let us try to find out which is going to be plus 28.9487 plus 12 into 6 into 3 minus
34.123 into 6 which will be counter clockwise of 39.75 which is as same as this value.
If we look at span B C, sigma F y should be set to 0. So, 40.502 plus 9.498 amounts to
50. Similarly want to compute M B will be actually equal to minus 13.519 minus 9.498
into 4 plus 50 into 2 which amounts to anticlockwise of 48.489 which is same as this in
addition you can see the net moment join B is 20 and the net moment at joint C is 30.
So, by this logic, one can check the section C D, I leave it to you; check for any error in
the solution. So, let us try to find here general summary what we have so far applied to
these 2 problems. So, the first step is identify unrestrained and restrained degrees of
freedom essentially displacements, they can be translational or rotational.
But please note, first set of labels will be unrestrained, the second set of labels will be
restrained, this is required if we really want to partition the matrix for analysis; the
second step was to determine the stiffness matrix of every member, fixed beam
neglecting axial deformation is considered x m and y m of the ith member is chosen to
identify the labels of stiffness matrix of the ith member.
164
So, once K i of all the members are found out then we partition the k matrix of the entire
system and obtain only K unrestrained matrix then invert this matrix from the fixed end
moment, we need to identify the joint load vector, joint load vector is nothing but reverse
the sign of fixed end moment.
And identify the joint vector, the joint load matrix is also partitioned as unrestrained and
restrained, then K unrestrained with joint load unrestrained is K unrestrained with
displacements, unrestrained is joint load unrestrained.
So, then we obtain delta u which is actually K u u inverse of joint load unrestrained. So,
we can get unrestrained displacements and friends we all now remember the restrained
displacements will be 0. Then we identified the end moments and end reactions of each
member by using this algorithm, L i delta i plus fixed end moments of the ith member
and found out the M i vector for every member and then one can check this solution also
with the following relationship K r u delta u minus J L r should be actually also equal to
the reaction of.
So, substitute this examine the results obtained from the previous steps and then compare
and validate.
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So, interestingly friends, in this case, the method proposed which is actually the stiffness
method does not depend on the type or geometry of the problem, it is independent of the
type of load the procedure applied is generic it has got repetitive steps and therefore,
easily programmable. Let us apply this for another problem. In fact, we will not solve
this problem, but we will see how solution can be obtained for these problems.
So, this is example 3 which is slightly a complicated problems; let us say have a frame
like this which is fixed at both the ends. Now the moment of inertia of the column
166
section and the beam sections are marked as shown in the screen; let us also name the
joints A, B, C, D, E and F. Let us see the loading applied to the system, there is a joint
load here is about 20 kilo Newton, there is a joint load here which is about 30 kilo
Newton; that is all.
There are unknown member loads there are directly applied on the joints. So, what is the
first step the first step is identify unrestrained and restrained displacements at each node;
is it not; let us do that let us mark unrestrained in green and restrained in red. So, this is
theta 1, theta 2, theta 3, theta 4, delta 5; since delta 5 is same at nodes B and C, we can
say that axial deformations are neglected.
So, delta 5, then delta 6, then delta 7, then we have theta 8, delta 9 and delta 10, theta 11,
delta 12 and delta 13. So, now, friends there are 13 degrees of freedom; let us now say
what are unrestrained degrees; we can name them theta 1, theta 2, theta 3, theta 4, delta
5, delta 6 and delta 7; what all the restrained degrees of freedom, we can name them
theta 8, delta 9, delta 10, theta 11, delta 12, delta 13.
So, that makes total 30 degrees out of which seven are unrestrained the remaining 6 are
restrained. So, there is no difficulty in doing.
The first step which is identifying this degrees of freedom and next step is for a member
this is step number 2 let us identify what should be the jth end and kth end that is
167
orientation of the member and what all the degrees of freedom labels let us take for
example, B A the moment, I say this is the orientation. So, this is going to be my x m and
y m for B A. So, I should write here B A jth end; jth end is at B kth end is at A and what
are the degrees of freedom compare this with the standard fixed beam.
Let us say the fixed beam is marked parallel for our understanding; let us call this as
theta p, this as theta q, this as delta r and delta s, that is a standard beam, we have
neglecting axis deformation. So, what are the labels compared to that as for as the
member B A is concerned, so theta 1, theta 8, delta 5 and delta 9. So, let us do that. So,
the labels are theta 1, theta 8, delta 5 and delta 9.
Similarly, let us do for the member B C. So, the B C will get aligned this way this is x m
and this is going to be y m, right. So, jth end is at B and kth end is at C. So, for the
member B C jth end is at B and this is at C let see; what are the labels. So, you correctly
pointed out rotation left rotation, right, normal displacements left normal displacements
right. So, theta 1, theta 2 and this is delta 10 and this is delta 6. So, that is right. So, let us
write down that theta 1, theta 2, delta 10 and delta 6.
Let us do it for C D. So, C D will be oriented in this fashion. So, this is going to be my x
i, this is going to be my y i. So, the labels are going to be theta 2 theta 3 delta five and
delta seven. So, for the member C D, C is the jth end and D is the kth end and the labels
are theta 2, theta 3, delta 5 and delta 7, correct; theta 2, theta 3, delta 5 and delta 7, let us
do for the member D E, the is the orientation which is x m and this is y m. So, D and E
theta 3, theta 4 and delta 6 and 13 correct.
So, let us do that here. So, for the member D E, D and E are the ends in the labels are
theta 3, theta 4, delta 6 and delta 13, you can see here theta 3, theta 4 ,delta 6 and delta
13; then for the member E F; let us do the orientation for E F; E is the jth end and F is the
kth end and the labels are rotation at j rotation at k displacements at j displacements at k,
so 4, 11, 7, 12 correct. So, 4, 11, 7 and 12 thetas are rotations and deltas are translations.
So, this step number 2. So, there is no confusion step number 2; we can do it for these
problems, correct. Let us next step say step number 3.
168
Module – 01
Lecture – 11
169
In step number 3, I want to find the stiffness matrix of any ith member. So, let us do it for
k A B, if we want to do it for k A B, k A B has 3 I and the span is 6 meters. Let us say
what is 4 E I by l for this which is going to be 4 E into 3 I by 6 meters.
This distance is 6 meters and this distance is 4 meters and this distance is 2 meters and
this distance is 3 meters, right. So, l is 6 meters. So, that becomes 2 E I and 2 E I by l
will be half of that which is simply E I.
Similarly, required for span B C we need to also find the E I is 2 I in this case and the
span of B C is 4 meters; therefore, 4 E I by l for this problem could be 4 E into 2 I by 4
which is 2 E I and 2 E I by l is actually E I; is it not is E I; let us do this for K C D. So, K
C D again has 2 I and the span of C D is 3 meters; therefore, the rotational coefficient 4
E I by l could be 4 E into 2 I by 3 which is 2.667 and 2 E I by l will be half of this which
is 1.333; let us do this for K D E.
170
In this case, the E I value actually is 6 E I and the span is 2 meters; therefore, 4 E I by l
of this span would be 4 E into 6 I by 2 which is going to be 12 E I and 2 E I by l will be
half of that which is 6 E I that is the rotational coefficient for this member D E; let us do
this for E F; here E I is going to be 10 E I and the span is going to be 3 meters; therefore,
4 E I by l would be 4 E into 10 I by 3 is going to be 13.333 E I and 2 E I by l is going to
be half of that which is 6.667 E I.
So, now we have the rotational coefficients for K A B, K B C E I again C D, D E and E

F. So, we can now write the stiffness coefficient on the stiffness matrix for the member K
A B for the general member K i.
171
We should say E I of the rotational coefficients E I by l 2 E I by l; remember, this is 2 E I

by l, this is 4 E I by l, once I have this these sum of these 2 by l that is 6 E I by l square
minus 6 E I by l square; similarly sum of these 2 by l which will be 6 E I by l square
minus 6 E I by l square.
Similarly, sum of these 2 by l again; so, 6 E I by l square sum of these 2 which is 6 E I by

l square, then sum of these 2 12 E I by l cube minus 12 E I by l cube; the last column will
be the minus of the third column which is minus 6 E I by l square minus 6 E I by l square
minus 12 E I by l cube 12 E I by l cube; use this now for every member and write down
the stiffness matrix.
172
Let us do it for K A B faster K A B is going to be E I times of what are the labels of A B

we already said the labels of A B could be 1, 8, 5, 9.
Let us do that labels here 1, 8, 5, 9. So, 2 rotations and then translations that is order 1, 8,
5 and 9 rotations and then translations. So, in that case, we already know the rotation
coefficient of A B is 2 and 1; we can do that here. So, 21.5 minus 0.5; so, 21.5 minus 0.5;
so, 0.5, 0.5, 0.167 minus 0.167; so, minus 0.5 minus 0.5 minus 0.167; 0.167 K A B.
173
Similarly, I can do for K B C which is E I times of. So, let us see what are the labels of B
C, B C labels are rotations and translations 1, 2, 10, 6 and B C values are 2 A in E I. So,
let us do that here 1, 2, 10, 6. So, 1, 2, 10, 6; the values are 2.0, 1.0, 0.5, 0.75 minus 0.75,
2, 1, 0.75 minus 0.75, 0.75, 0.75, 0.375 and 375 negative minus 0.75, 0.75, 375 and 375
that is K B C.
Let us do it for K C D which is again going to be E I times of C D labels are 2, 3, 5, 7.

So, 2, 3, 5, 7 and the values for K C D is 2.667, 1.333, 1.333 minus 1.333, 2.667, 1.333,
174
1.333 minus 1.333, 1.333, 1.333, 0.889 minus 0.889. So, this is going to be the negative
of the third column.
So, we now obtain K C D with the labels; let us now do K D E which is again E I times
of if you look at the labels of D E, they are going to be 3, 4, 6 and 13 values are going to
be 12, 6, 9 and minus 9 I get K D E.
Let us do for last span K E F is also going to be E I times of I want you to label the
degrees of freedom of K E F 2 rotations and 2 translations of 4, 11, 7, 12 . So, 4, 11, 7,
175
12; 4, 11, 7, 12 the values are 13.333, 6.667; the remaining can be obtain as we have just
now explain.
Let us write down this matrix a forth column is actually a negative of the third column;
now we have a stiffness matrix of A B, B C, C D, D E and E F; 5 members, we want to
combine them and then form the stiffness matrix which is unrestrained degree.
So, can you tell me; how many unrestrained degrees are there in this problem. So, go
back to the figure unrestrained degrees are about seven. So, the K u u matrix will be
square of size 7 by 7.
So, let us say this is going to be 7 by 7; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. So, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7; so,

pick up the values of these rows and columns from all the matrices and then enter the
values if you try to do your exercise, I am entering the values here you can please check.
So, 4.0, 1.0, 0.5 minus 0.75, 1.0, 4.667, 1.333, 1.333 minus 0.75 minus 1.333 and third
row will be I will enter it here 0, 1.333, 14.667, 6.0, 1.333, 9.0 minus 1.333.
Forth will be 0, 0, 6.0, 25.333, 0, 9.0, 6.667, fifth row values will be 0.5, 1.333, 1.333, 0,
1.056, 0 minus 0.889; sixth row values will be minus 0.75 minus 0.75, 90, 9.0, 0, 9.375
and 0; the last row values are minus 1.333, minus 1.333, 6.667 minus 0.889, 0, 5.334, I
get K u u which is nothing, but choosing the values of these for example, K 1 1; this
value will be obtained from how can you check this, it is very easy please see the labels.
176
K 1 1 or anything related to 1 can be obtained from 2 matrices; one is this matrix because
there is 1 here other is this matrix because there is 1 here, let us go to this matrix K B A,
let us search for 1 1. So, I get this let us write down the value. So, 2.0, 1, 1, then let us go
to this value again 2.0. So, we have 2.0 and 2.0 which will ultimately become 4. So, that
is how one can check all the values chosen from these matrices and get K u u once I get
K u u, then I have to go for the fixed end moments of all the members let us look at the
loading diagram of this problem.
The members do not have any load only the loads are the joints. So, I can directly write
the joint loads directly let us copy this figure let us copy this and put it here. So, the joint
load vector will be let say there is no load on 3 1 0 1. So, let say 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
10, 11, 12 and 13 and 13 degrees of freedom. So, no load on 1 0, no load on 2, you can
see here 0 and at 3; there is no moment. So, 0 at 4; no moment, 0 at 5 which is a
translation there is a force. So, plus 20, then 6; there is a load which is down. So, minus
30 and 7 is translational no load 0 8; no load 9 and 10 again, no load, 11 no load, 12 and
13; no load that becomes my joint load vector.
So, out of which the unrestrained degrees of freedom are 7 in number. So, I will partition
this matrix at 7. So, this becomes J L u and this becomes J L r. So, I want to write the J L
u separately I can write J L u.
177
Once I get J L u K u u of delta u is J L u. So, I can find delta u as K u u inverse of J L u,

once I get delta u, I can apply this equation and solve for M i that is M A B, M B C, M C
Dm M D E and M E F; I can solve this value and check the moment. So, I am leaving
this solution to you because of a simple reason K u u as you see here. So, 7 by 7 matrix.
So, you need to invert this matrix.
So, I will give you a computer program using MATLAB which can invert this matrix and
then solve in the mean time you can also try and try to solve this problem and check. So,
friends we have discussed and mostly completed the discussion on stiffness method of
analysis.
178
For planar orthogonal members, we found the systems or the method used is highly
generic and I should say it is simple easily programmable we have shown 3 examples to
solve the problem and understand. I hope you have realized and understood and enjoyed
the method. In the next lecture, we will discuss about the stiffness method applied to
planar non orthogonal members.
179
Prof. Srinivasan Chandrashekaran
Module – 01
Lecture – 12
Planar, Non-Orthogonal Structures 1 (Part – 1)
Friends, let us continue the lecture on module, 1 this lecture is lecture 12 where we are
going to discuss about planar non orthogonal structure analysis.
180
Let us try to understand the application of this kind of problem in reality. We all have
agreed and understood that if we have a single frame of a simple type whatever maybe
the end support conditions, whatever maybe the kind of loading. As long as the members
are orthogonal to each other we could do a very comfortable analysis by writing the
stiffness matrices of all these members finding the unrestrained stiffness sub matrix then
find the end moments and shears of each member and we can solve the problem.
To do this we have to identify unrestrained degrees of freedom and then the restrained
degrees of freedom of a given problem these degrees of freedom can be displacements
which are translational and rotational at every node. So, the methods become more
complicated when the structural members of the system are not at 90 degrees to each
other. Let us see an example. Let us take for example, the jacket structure or a jacket
platform which is also called as template structure which is one of the offshore platforms
which are meant for shallow waters a typical view of this platform schematically looks
like this, these are all different levels of deck let us say multi tier deck, they will be
supported by some structural system.
The structural system can even be a truss type it can be a beam column type. There are
now tubular members which are then extended to the sea bed which are then founded in
the piles. So, this becomes my sea bed possibly, this becomes my water level, mean sea
level and then they will also be braced to resist the lateral forces arising from the wave
181
and then the super structure will have forces which are encountered by the wind. So,
therefore, look at the structural system which is supporting the top side, the members
here are actually not orthogonal to each other. So, this angle is not 90 degrees. So, there
is a possibility that the members are interconnected to each other not at 90 degree, but at
discrete angles like a K joint like a T joint like a Y joint where the members may not
have all the time 90 degrees between them. So, such systems are called non orthogonal
structural systems. What is the difficulty with non orthogonal structural structures
systems?
So, now we have a conventional equation of K the stiffness matrix of the entire structure
I call this as K c where c stands for the complete structure multiplied by the displacement
of the complete structure is actually equal to the joint load vector of the complete
structure plus end restraints generated for the complete structure. This above equation is
valid only when the local axes system of the member and reference axes system of the
complete structure matches.
If this matching happens then one can establish K in terms of sub matrix by dividing
them and partition them, then solving them for delta u then Mi as we have discussed in
the previous examples. When the reference axes of the system and the local axes of the
members of the system are not same, they are not mapped, they are not aligned then the
stiffness matrix written for the member for each member may not be same as that of
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stiffness matrix written for the members which are not aligned with the reference axes of
the structural system. So, we need actually do some transformation of the local stiffness
matrix to the reference axes system matrix and try to solve the problem.
Let us see the complication starts only when the members are non orthogonal to each
other. So, we can make a statement that all members must be aligned if not aligned
transformed with respect to the reference axes. Individual stiffness matrices of each
member should be developed in the same manner as we discussed earlier. So, there is no
confusion in that.
There is no confusion in that, but should be transformed within the frame of reference
axes, some literature call the two axes systems as X and Y, xm and ym they call this as
local axes system and this is called as reference axes system some literature address this
as global axes system the meaning is going to be same.
So, there has got to be a connectivity established between the local axes and the
reference axes system to solve the problem. Whatever derivation we so far had for a
member aligned along xm ym axes, that is a local axes system of the member is all
completely valid, but they need to be transformed when the local axes system is not
mapped exactly to the reference axes system. If the local axes system and the reference
axes system are one and the same then the issue will not be there that is possible only
when the members are orthogonal to each other, when the members are non orthogonal
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to each other then the mapping of local axes system to the reference system is a major
issue.
We need to do this transformation not only one way, but it is vice versa from local to
reference axes we may have to do. Sometimes in reference to local axes also we may
have to do because it is required for the design of the members. Both way we should
have an idea how this can be done.
So, now, the stiffness matrix Ki what we have discussed so far are with reference to xm
ym axes system, we can otherwise call this for our understanding as local axes system
where m is the index of the member. Now each member if you look at the standard
notation we had if this is the member. If these are the end supports of the fixed beam if
this becomes my xm and this is accepted to be my ym, and if this is my ith member the
member has got two ends this end is called the jth end and this node is called the kth
node.
So, it is very interesting one must choose the xm axes such that the length of the member
lies on the positive side. What do you mean by this? Let us say I have a member which is
fixed at both the ends. If I choose my xm here and ym here the length of the member lies
on the negative side of xm. So, this is a wrong notation.
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So, it all depends upon where do you locate your jth end of the member. Subsequently
the kth end of the member is located on the positive side of xm axis, ym axis is located
anti clockwise some literature address this as counter clockwise it is one and the same
anti clockwise by 90 degrees to xm. So, let us again draw a member, this is my member
these are the fixed supports of the member I am marking xm and ym here which is ninety
degree anti clockwise with respect to xm.
So, this becomes my jth end this becomes my kth end. So, all conditions are satisfied like
the length of the member is on the positive side of xm j is chosen such that the length of
the member lies on xm positive - ym is anti clockwise 90 degree from xm and xm ym
now becomes the member axes system or otherwise also called local axes system. So,
whatever derivation we have done for the ith member the stiffness matrix derivation all
are valid for the local axes system.
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So, it is very important to note that choice of jth end helps to orient the member local
axes to that of reference axes. So, it is all depending upon where do you choose your jth
end. Again give some example, let us take two examples. An orthogonal system and
members with non orthogonal to each other, let us a b let us mark the reference axes for
both of them as same. So, this is X and Y for both of them it is same x and y, but the
local axes are going to be different let us mark the member indices this is the first
member the second member and the third member, similarly here the first member,
second member and third member.
Now, I want to mark the J and K ends of the first member. So, we know that I have to
mark xm and ym this way because the length of the member should be on the positive
side. So, this becomes my jth end and this becomes my kth end of the member 1.
Similarly, if you want to do it for member 2 this becomes xm of the member 2 and ym of
the member 2 therefore, this end becomes the jth end of member 2 and the kth end of the
member 2. Similarly, for member 3 I have to choose the length of the member to be on
the positive side of xm and ym is anti clockwise 90 degree, so this becomes my jth end
this becomes my kth end.
So, choice of jth end actually helps up to orient the member with reference to the
reference axes let us do this for this problem which is shown in picture b so obviously, I
am going to plan member 1. So, I can say this is my xm and this becomes my ym and
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this is my jth end this is my kth end. And for the member 2 this is my xm this is my ym
and therefore, this becomes my jth end, this becomes my kth end. And for the member 3
I can either do it this way or the earlier way like we have done for member 1. So, this is
xm ym. So, let me put a suffix this is 1 indicating for the member 1 this is 2 indicating
for the member 2 and this is 3 indicating for the member 3. It is not xm q and ym q ym
three indicates this is for the member, this is the axes and this is the member id that is
how it is done.
So, orienting the member with reference to the global axes will happen by choosing the
jth and kth end of each member. When the members are non orthogonal when the
members are non orthogonal obviously, you will see the local axes of the members are
not aligned with the reference axes of the structural system except of the member 2 it is
possible for member 1 and member 3 they are not aligned. So, member 1 and member 3
need to be transformed either not because their axes are not getting mapped or aligned
having said this.
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Module - 01
Lecture – 12
Planar, Non-Orthogonal Structures 1 (Part - 2)
188
Let us make a statement in case of non orthogonal frames orientation of the local axes
that is xm ym may be such that this cannot be aligned or mapped to the same orientation
of the reference axes that is x y, for example, in figure b, member 1 and 3 have this
problem; is it not? In such cases, what do we do? What is required; hence the member
stiffness matrix cannot be directly written with respect to the reference axes.
But there is a solution for this problem can be transformed to the reference axes system
one good news is that K i written for member axes or local axes system will be valid you
do not have to change that only thing you have to do is we need to transform this matrix.
That is K i written for xm ym frame need to be transformed to K i of x y frame, we have

to this; this is true when members are non orthogonal please understand this just not
demand any additional effort to determine i. So, no additional effort is required to derive
on compute K i with xm ym frame its already known. So, whatever method, we have
been using methods being used earlier are all valid, I have to only transform this that is
all.
So, let me write K i xm ym needs a transformation into the reference axes x y. So, please
understand K on x y frame cannot be written directly for non orthogonal members its
very very important. So, what do you mean by non orthogonal members when the local
axes of the member does not map aligned match exactly with the global axes or the
references axes they are called non orthogonal members. So, for these members the
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stiffness matrix for the member cannot be written directly on the reference axes system,
you can always write only on the local axes system and this should be transformed that is
the problem here.
Now, let us take a simple beam element and see what additional data is required to use
this element.
In the non orthogonal frames, the question is now we have taking a beam element which
is slightly modified in sense to suit to be a member of remember of non orthogonal
frames, if you remember in the last set of derivation we actually neglected axial
deformation; is it not. Now let us have a beam element, let us now have a beam element
which includes axial deformation also. So, let us take a beam element.
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So, let me mark the beam element here which is fixed at both the ends is our basic
model, let us mark the degrees of freedom, we already know this is theta p, this is theta q
and this one is delta r, this delta s. Now let us introduce 2 more displacements axial at the
j th end k th end of the member, we call this as delta t and this as delta h the member as
got the length L i of the member and this is my j th end, this is my k th end therefore, this
will be my x m axes and this will be my y m axes and the origin is at j th end that is the
origin, I do not have to explain you the rotational coefficients of stiffness matrix and the
displacement coefficient at p, q, r and s.
So, now the stiffness matrix will be of size 6 by 6 is there are 6 degrees of freedom. So, it
means p, q, r, s, t and h. Similarly p, q, r, s, t and h. So, we already know this matrix. So,
let us write down that matrix let us write down only this sub matrix p, q, r, s, p, q, r, s.
So, this is going to be kpp, kqp and this is kqq and this is kpq rotational coefficients;
once I get this, I can find out this value which will be simply kpp plus kqp by L i, this
will be minus of kpp plus kqp by L i and this value will be kpq plus kqq by L i and this is
minus kpq plus kqq by L i the third column will be kpp plus kpq by L i that is this sum
by L i and this will be kqp plus kqq by L i and this value, I am writing it here, I am just
writing it here, there is no space. So, this value is going to be the sum of these 2 by L i.
So, kpp plus kpq plus kqp plus kqq by L i square and this value will be simply minus of
this value that is kpp plus kpq plus kqp plus kqq by L i square where as the fourth
column is actually the negative of the third column which can be filled up as it is. So,
191
this already we have derived there is no confusion of this; let us derive only this matrix
separately.
So, let us take a beam undergoing axial deformation by unity. So, now, this will be ktt
and this has to be kht that is force in the t th degree by giving unit displacement in the t
th degree force in the h th degree by giving unit displacement in the t th degree. So, ktt
will be actually equal to AE by l of delta u, we know this is one therefore, this simply AE
by l and kht will be negative of this value because this going to be opposite to kht. So,
minus similarly if I give unit displacement at this dimension, I will get khh and kth. So,
kth or khh will be positive AE by l of delta u which is one this will be negative AE by l.
So, I have a matrix now which is for t h; t h only which will be AE by l minus AE by l
minus AE by l and AE by l; let us substitute this in the full stiffness matrix and write the
full stiffness matrix of the structural system.
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And we also know the rotational coefficients that is kpp is 4 EI by l and k p q is 2 EI by l

and similarly k q p is also 2 EI by l and kqq is 4 EI by l, we know these we have already
derived them let us now write the full stiffness matrix for the member at the local axes.
Let us note the labels p q r s t and h. So, p, q, r, s, t and h. So, this is 4 EI by l, this is 2 EI
by l this is going to be 6 EI by l square; this is minus 6 EI by l square and these 2 will be
0, this is going to be 4 EI by l this is 2 EI by l this is 6 EI by l square minus 6 EI by l
square again 0. So, this going to be 6 EI by l square 6 EI by l square 12 EI by l cube
minus 12 E I by l cube again, 0 is going to be minus 6 EI by l square minus 6 EI by l
square minus 12 EI by l cube and 12 EI by l cube and this is 0; let us say these are all 0s
and this will be AE by l minus AE by l minus AE by l and AE by L i get the full 6 by 6
matrix of the ith member at the local axes xm ym I do not think any confusion in this
specific case.
Now, the argument is if the local axes of the member does not orient with the global axes
of the reference axes system I need to do the transformation. So, I have to derive the
transformation matrix to transform this matrix to the reference axes system.
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So, friends, let us look at the summary we said when the members are non orthogonal the
reference axes x y does not map with the local axes x m y m therefore, K i which has
been derived for xm ym is still valid, but only to the local axes ki xy reference axes
cannot be obtained or derived directly.
So, ki xm ym should be transformed to the reference axes system. So, how to do this that
we will see we have also derived the full stiffness matrix 6 by 6 including the axial
deformation for a standard beam element which may be required in case of analysis of
non orthogonal members.
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Module - 01
Lecture - 13
Non-Orthogonal Structures 2 (Part - 1)
Friends, let us continue with the 13th lecture in module 1, where we are going to talk
about the continuation of analysis of non-orthogonal structures.
195
We already said that in case of non-orthogonal structures, that is members which are not
intersecting at 90 degrees to each other k i of the member derived based on the local axes
x m y m is valid, but need to be transformed to the plane of reference axes x-y. We will
talk about how this transformation is going to happen.
Let us consider 2 orthogonal set of axes, let us say x 1 y 1 and x 2 y 2, let us consider
this; say this is x 1 y 1 and this is x 2 and y 2, you will basically observe that y 1 is
anticlockwise 90 degree to x 1. Similarly y 2 is anticlockwise 90 degree to y 2. So, we
196
are maintaining that relationship between y 1 and x 1 be it x 1 y 1 axes or other reference
axes x to it, we have a common point origin O. Let x 2 y 2 be rotated anticlockwise by
theta degrees; let us say this is theta degree. Now I want to find out the components of
these respective in the other coordinate. So, let us say this is going to be V 1, I call this as
V 1 bar and I call this component that is this component as V 2. Let us say this is our V,
let us now mark V 1 and V 2 such that they are mapped as shown in the figure.
One can resolve x 1 y 1 to x 2 y 2 axes. So, one can say that V 1 is going to be that is this
component is going to be V 1 bar cos theta plus V 2 bar. Similarly, V 2 can be said as V 2
bar cos theta because this angle will also be theta minus V 1 bar sin theta because the
component of V 1 bar will be opposite to it. So, I can now express this in a simple matrix
form V 1; V 2 can be said as cos theta sin theta minus sin theta and cos theta of V 1 bar V
2 bar; we can express this as V is some matrix T of V bar.
Now, I say T matrix is called the transformation; alternatively I can also resolve x 2 y 2
to x 1 y 1 axes. So, by that logic; I should now find out V 1 bar and V 2 bar is it not
which will be V 1 cos theta minus V 2 sin theta and V 2 bar will be V 2 cos theta plus V
1 sin theta expressing this in a matrix form cos theta minus sin theta sin theta cos theta of
V 1 V 2. So, I should say V bar is T transpose of V.
Please see this matrix please see this matrix with this matrix you will see that this is
actually a transpose of T the rows and columns are interchanged. Now, two expressions
expression one and expression 2 both are valid where the T matrix is actually equal to
cos sin minus sin cos where c stands for cos and s stands for sin.
197
So, we have 2 relationships now which is simply V is actually equal to the

transformation matrix into V bar or V bar is transformation matrix transpose into V
where the transformation matrix is given by cos theta sin theta minus sin theta and cos
theta where theta is the angle between the 2 axes measured in a specific style I will come
to the point; what I want you to pay attention is some specific properties. Let us look at
this figure whenever we are connecting V bar to V.
We are saying T transpose whenever we are connecting V to V bar we say T and further
V bars are x 1 y 1 Vs are x 2 y 2. So, for any number which is arbitrarily oriented let us
take I have a beam or I have a column member I have a shaft member arbitrarily oriented
which is similar to or parallel to this. So, now, this becomes my local axes x m and y m
and this becomes my reference axes x and y.
So, with this argument that is say this is my x y axes and this could be my x m y m axes
and therefore, theta is inclination or rotation of x m with respect to x measured in a
anticlockwise manner that is very important in the last lecture we already seen and
understood that how x m and y m are given for our mark for a given section or member.
So, x m should be considered in such a manner that the length of the member should be
on the positive side of x m and y m is 90 degrees anticlockwise to x m is it not we
already know how to x m and y m for a given member which arbitrarily oriented with
respect to the reference axes x and y, right.
198
Let us now look at the specific property of this T matrix which is the transformation
matrix we know T matrix is actually cos theta sin theta minus sin theta and cos theta; let
us try to find the inverse of this matrix which will be 1 by cos square theta plus sin
square theta of cos theta minus sin theta sin theta and cos theta because this is now equal
to 1 which will be as same as the transpose of this matrix is it not change of rows and
columns. So, T inverse is actually equal to T transpose hence the transformation matrix is
orthogonal having said this, let us now talk about transformation of the end moments and
reactions of an arbitrarily beam with respect to the reference axes systems.
199
Let us mark a beam which is arbitrarily oriented let us also mark the degrees of freedom,
let us say this is inclined by an angle theta let us mark these values let us now mark the
degrees of freedom; let us say this is we know it is theta p equal and end moment is m p
of the i-th member and we know this is theta q equalling end moment is m q of the i-th
member.
And this reminds my x m and y m axes then let us mark the vertical reaction along y
which is V r similar to delta r and we also have here V s similar to delta s of the i-th
member let us also mark the axial deformations which will be H t of the i-th member
causing delta T and this will be h; H of the i-th member causing delta H please note that
all the symbols used here does not have a bar on the top it means they are local this is
similar to a fixed beam which is arbitrarily oriented.
Let us now try to map this try to map this with reference to the reference axes which is x
y Let us mark all of them back again here. So, this is going to be m p bar theta p, I am
using bar of the i-th member and this is going to be m q bar with theta q of the i-th
member and now this reaction along y will be parallel to y this was parallel to y m this is
now parallel to y this value is going to be V r bar delta r.
Similarly, will mark it here this is going to be V bar s delta s and this reaction like this
was parallel to x m. So, this will be parallel to x. So, this is going to be H bar T delta T
and this is going to be H bar H I delta H the difference between these 2 figures are the
following all degrees of freedom displacement translations are marked without a bar on
the top whereas, there are bar in; here the degrees of freedom are marked along with x
and y plane here they are marked on x y plane which is the reference axes. Now I want to
see; how I can map this on to this or the reference axes to the local axes.
Let us do that the m p and m p bar m q and m q bar whatever may be the angle of
inclination has no deference. So, let us write down that.
200
I should say m p bar m q bar V r bar V s bar H t bar and H h bar. So, all these are
displacements along the reference axes this is reference axes this should be equal to
some transformation matrix and connect this to the local axes I can equally mark this is
going to be simply m p m q V r V s H t and H h, there is no bar let us go back to this
figure m p bar is as same as m p, I should say one and there is no contribution from
anything else. Similarly m q and m q bar are exactly mapped. So, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, let us
talk about V bar r; we just now did this transformation of transforming any 2 value of V
1 horizontal vertical. So, we will use that logic now and say that V r bar will be actually
equal to we can write it here I can write here.
So, V r bar will be actually equal to V r cos theta is it not plus H t sin theta is it not if we
want to find V s that is write hand side that is the k-th end this is my j-th end this is my
k-th end similarly the j-th end and the k-th end and the k-th end you know V s bar will be
actually equal to V s cos theta and H h sin theta. So, one can write this similarly for the
horizontal forces then one can generate the matrix as you see here. So, it is going to be 0,
0 cos theta 0 sin theta 0 and 0, 0, 0 cos theta sin theta this will be 0 0 minus sin theta 0
cos theta 0 and this is 0, 0, 0 minus sin theta 0 cos theta.
So now, I can say m bar is actually equal to T transpose of m of i-th member. So, this
matrix actually the T transpose matrix. So, by transposing this once again I will get T.
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Module - 01
Lecture – 13
Non-Orthogonal Structures 2 (Part – 2)
202
So, I can now find m I will be actually t matrix of m bar. So, I can write that simply we
say m p, m q, v r, v s, H t and H h, should be equal to the transpose of the matrix, so 1
multiplied by m bar v bar and H t bar.
So, I can now ray this information is true. We also know the T transpose is as same as T
inverse and T is supposed to be orthogonal, this is also true.
Having said this, we can now write the following set of equations delta bar on the i-th
member a simply T transpose of the i-th member of delta of the i-th member and delta of
the i-th member is T of the i-th member of delta bar. So, I call this as 3 a and 3 b where
delta i is simply theta p, theta q, delta r, delta s, delta t, delta h, delta bar i will be theta
bar p q, delta r s, delta bar s, delta bar t, delta bar h ok.
Now, if you look at the transpose of transformation matrix there are cos and sine values.
So, if the members arbitrarily oriented if this becomes theta and this is my x m and this is
my X and x m is measured from X anticlockwise, you know this component is actually
cos theta and this component a sin theta so I can call this component as c x because, I am
resolving this along x axis, and I can call this component as c y because I am resolving
this along the y axis. So, now having said this my transformation matrix T can be said
slightly in a different manner ok.
203
Look at this matrix cos is replaced with c x, and sin is replace with c y and look at this
matrix now and so on. So, as we said let us re insist is fact for solving the problem there
are two axes.
The reference axes which is X Y the member axes which is x m and y m. Now it is
interesting to note that local axes x m, y m is rotated anticlockwise by theta degrees with
respect to the reference axes is not.
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So, I call this angle as theta. So, theta is measured anticlockwise that is positive x m with
respect to positive x is measured correct. Now, this will govern the orientation of the
member with respect to reference axes the most interesting feature is the T matrix will
automatically take care of this mapping, it means just enter theta in counterclockwise
direction measured from x y that is all.
So, whatever maybe the value if the value is more than 90 more than 180, it is
automatically taken care of in the T matrix. Let us take an arbitrary oriented member.
This becomes my x m and normal to this, becomes my y m axes and this is my global
axes or reference axes x and y. Now this is my j-th end, this is my k-th end and the
member has an orientation theta, the member has a length which is actually equal to L i
which I want to map, so that can be easily done. So, let us project these values on the x y
plane, so this is X k, this is X j, this is Y j, Y k is not.
So, now I can find C x which is cos theta which is actually X k minus X j by L i, C y
which is sin theta can be Y k minus Y j by L i where L i is square root of X k minus X j
square plus Y k minus Y j square. So, once I know C x, C y and theta, I can always
define the matrix T for a given oriented member of theta with respect to x y axes ok.
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So, now for known orientation of xm, ym axes with reference to the x y axes
transformation matrix is completely known.
Now, we also know the stiffness matrix of the i-th member in the local axes is not, that is
this matrix which is p q r s t h 4 EI by l, 2 EI by l we know this matrix, this is for the
local axes. Now I want to find the stiffness matrix of this member bar with respect to the
global axes ok.
206
We know m i is equal to k i of delta i, let us call equation number one. We also know m i
is transformation matrix of i-th member with respect to m bar i, and delta local is
transformation matrix of i-th member to delta global, I call this as equation number two.
Substituting this we can very well say, now substituting 2 in 1. So, let us replace the left
hand side with T of m bar i, is not will be equal to k delta i is again replace thus T delta
bar i, I want to convert this into reference axes system. So, pre multiply with a T end bars
I get m bar i, will be T i inverse, k i T i of delta bar i, we already know T is an orthogonal
matrix therefore, T inverse is a same as same as T transpose. So, k i of T of delta bar i.
So, friends I have a relationship now m bar is sum value of delta i, so I can now say this
is what we call as k bar. So, k bar i which is the global stiffness matrix of the member is
nothing but T transpose k t.
Now let us write that here, so k bar of any member is T transpose of that member k local
of that member and again post multiply by the transpose matrix, I mean transformation
matrix. So, we have established a relationship to find the global stiffness matrix of i-th
member, which is arbitrarily oriented, is not with respect to the reference axes correct.
Now, I can write m bar i is k bar i of delta bar, so the equation this is 3, this equation 4
gives the relationship between component end displacements that is delta bar and end
actions of the member that is m bar in x y axes system is not.
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Now, we can say T matrix is the transformation matrix which is given by and 1 can write
T transpose as well. So, once I know T and T transpose, I can always find K global with
the simple equation T transpose k local with T where k i is known value for i-th member
is not.
We already have this matrix with us, which need not be change which is completely valid
it is only transform with this equation that is what we want to emphasize.
208
So, friends in the summary we understood that for an arbitrarily oriented member whose
local axes are x m y m need to be transformed to the reference axes system x y; however,
the stiffness matrix what you have worked out, for the local axes is valid provided it is
transformed in the reference axes system.
So, all relationships like moment local is T of moment global or moment global is T
transpose of moment local similarly, k global is T transpose k T and so on, which we
discussed in this lecture we will continue discussion and apply it on a problem, and show
you how this can be solved easily for a nonorthogonal structures.
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Module - 01
Lecture - 14
Non-Orthogonal Structures 3 (Part – 1)
So, friends let us continue with the discussions on planar Non-orthogonal structural
members, This is lecture fourteen and lecture one. Where we will explain and continue to
discuss about solving non orthogonal structural members. We already said that K bar of
the i-th member can be given by T transpose of the i-th member k local of the i-th
member and t of the i-th member, where k bar is the stiffness matrix of i-th member in
the reference axes system.
210
Hence the convectional expression m bar i will be equal to k bar i of delta bar i is also
valid, where all of them are being expressed in the reference axes system.
So, we already have this expression, where T transpose or T of arbitrarily oriented

member for all the six degrees is given by this. And T matrix that is the transformation
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matrix is also known to us, which is interchange of this rows and columns, and the k
matrix of local for six degrees of freedom namely p q r s t and h is also known to us is it
not.
So, I hope you will be able to fill up the remaining values by looking at this except that
in the last case is going to be AE by l minus AE by l, AE by l and AE by l. Now look at
this expression, if you want to find k global I have to do T transpose pre multiplier to my
k i, and then post multiply this at the transformation matrix, I have all the three here I
think you can do a simple arithmetic and try to find k bar as an interesting exercise for
any i-th matrix, there is no difficulty in getting this.
Once we get k bar then, we know the following equations are valid K of delta is joint
load plus restraints call this is equation 1 k uu that is un restrain degree of delta u will be
again valid with delta u J L u and k r u with delta u is again minus J L r will give you the
end moments and shear of the given member.
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Let us now find out what are those important steps, which make the analysis of non
orthogonal structures special let us see this.
First step could be choosing the j-th end member of a member, will position the x m, y m
axes of the member, how to choose this we already have an idea, origin of the axes x m,
y m is at j-th n, x m axes should be oriented towards k-th end making length of the
member in the positive side of x m and y m axes is 90 degrees anticlockwise to x that is
how you will choose this. So, now this will fix the k-th end. So, for a given member x m
y m is fixed, now locate position of the reference axes that is x y, now find theta which is
the anticlockwise angle between x y and x m y m.
Friends let us elaborate this; this is my x m, y m of a given member. Let us say this is my
x m and y m of a given member.
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And let us say this is my x y axes of the whole structure, I am looking for the angle theta
which is anticlockwise inclination of x m with respect to x.
Then next step could be since theta is known, find c x and c y and determine the
transformation matrix T for each member. After that choose unrestrained displacements
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both translational and rotational, as first group then choose restrained displacements as
second group friends, when we do this we have to do an important step here, we have to
take care that the unrestrained and restrained degrees of freedom are chosen with respect
to the reference axes, I will explain this with the problem.
So, I should write here not with respect to local x m, y m axes its very important step.
Lets explain this with an example, let us take a problem very quickly just explain this, I
have got a frame which has non orthogonal members as you see here.
Now I want to mark the reference axes exactly here, x y axes. Now I want to mark the
degrees of freedom right, so labelling is different but degrees of freedom alone let us
discuss.
So, I am marking the understand degrees so, 1, 2 and let us say 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 the
restrained degrees could be, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15. So, we have got the group the
unrestrained degrees first, and then the restrained degree levels while marking them
please note my x and y displacements, which are unrestrained displacements, and
restrained displacements are all oriented with reference to the reference axes, but not
with reference to the local x m or y m axes, this is very important. You must choose the
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unrestrained and restrained degrees of freedom in such a manner that they are marked
with respect to the reference axes that is how it is done.
Joint load should be computed again, you should compute the joint loads, with respect to
reference axes. So, you know joint loads are actually reversal of signs of the fixed end
moments, so fixed end moments of any i-th member of bar that is global will be actually;
T transpose, of the i-th member of the fixed end moment of the i-th member.
Let us call this equation number 4 now for our understanding let us recollect fixed end
moments of the i-th member is simply for the values of p q r s t and h, so I should say
this is going to be m maybe M A, M B, V A, V B, H A and H B.
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So, that is how we can compute for each member, let us try to explain this in a graphical
form. Let us make two statements I am drawing them individually, they are parallel of
the same length one is for the local axes, other is the reference axes. We know this is my
j-th end; this is my k-th end, because the member should be oriented towards the positive
side of x m and y m should be 90 degrees to x m ok.
So, I want to mark the degrees of freedom, let us say this is going to be my M p. This is
my M q, that is the moments this is my V r this is my V s and this is going to be my H t
and this is my H h, please note the degrees of freedom, in x m y m axes are marked
parallel and normal to this axes. When you move this to the global axes system, then I
mark in a different manner this is going to be my M bar p this is my M bar q, M bar
refers to the reference axes, this is going to be my V bar r and V bar s, and this is going
to be my H bar t and H bar h. Please note the sign conventions of these they are related to
this axes, please note the sign conventional of these they are related to these two axes, so
there is a difference ok.
Now, if I say FEM of the local which can be simply M p, M q, V r, V s, H t and H h. If I

say FEM bar of the i-th member, then that should be equal to m bar p, m bar q, v bar r, v
bar s, H bar t, and H bar h.
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Now FEM bar actually is a transformed value of FEM so, therefore, the fixed end
moments bar is the transformed FEM vector of the member in the reference axes, how to
get this we already gave this equation, let us once again write the equation there is no
problem. FEM in the global of the i-th member will be given by T transpose of the i-th
member of FEM of local, so I can get FEM bar, now once I get FEM bar reverse the sign
of FEM bar to get the joint load ok.
So, now I can get joint load bar of every member, but I want the joint load of the entire
structure.
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Once I get this then the end moments M i of the member will be equal to the k local of
the member, multiplied by delta i of the member, plus fixed end moment vector of the i-
th member whereas, I can expand this and write (Refer Time: 20:54) M p, M q, V r, V s,
H t, H h will be actually equal to the K matrix of the i-th member in local multiply by
delta of the i-th member plus fixed end moments of the i-th member, but I am not
interested in knowing m, I want to know M bar.
219
So, M bar vector of the i-th member is given by K bar vector sorry matrix of the i-th
member, multiplied by delta bar of the i-th member plus fixed end moments of the i-th
member. It is very easy to get the end reactions of the member as M bar p, M bar q, V bar
r, V bar s, H bar t, and H bar h I can get this. So now, we have to apply this discussion to
a specific problem, and solve the problem using non orthogonal matrix knowledge and
try to find out this problem.
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Module - 01
Lecture - 14
Non-Orthogonal Structures 3 (Part - 2)
Let us try to apply this problem. But before that I want to show you a very interesting
computer code which has been used to solve the problem in the previous 2 examples of
orthogonal structures.
221
So, remember in planar orthogonal structures, we have 2 examples; the first example was
a problem of this kind which had loading of this kind and this is 3 comma EI, this is 5
comma EI and these were the unrestrained and restrained degrees of freedom which we
have marked to solve the problem.
Now, I want to show you how a computer program can help you to solve this problem;
we already have the solution for this which is; so, this value was 7.234 and this is 30.52
and this reaction 22.234 and this reaction is 63.871 in total and this value is 13.895 that
is what we got; we can solve this problem using the computer code which is being shown
here.
222
You can see here; this problem solves a plane orthogonal structure using stiffness matrix
method, we need identify the number of members, here we are given 2 because there are
2 members that is AB and BC; let us mark them here AB and BC; there are 2 members.
So, I have given 2 here is in input for simplicity, since EI is constant, I have said I is and
E is not varying length of the members in input which is 3 meter and 5 meter 3 meter and
5 meter I can say here.
And the member numbers are 1 and 2 member number; this is member 1 and this is
member 2. Now unrestrained degrees are 2 was an input, you can see here marked in
green theta 1 and theta 2 restrained degrees are 4 that is 3, 4, 5, 6. So, they are 4 and
labels of unrestrained degrees of 1 and 2; you can see here theta 1 and theta 2. So, theta 1
and theta 2 unrestrained degrees are 3, 4, 5, 6.
Let us see; what is a global labels of member 1; let us look at member one what are the
local labels member one is member AB the local labels will be 3 1 4 and 5 for the
member BC the labels are 1 2 5 and 6.
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So, that is what I entered here. Then let us talk about the fixed end moments, if you look
at the problem, the fixed end moments has been computed like this, you already have
their value the previous lecture. Please see that then we compute the rotation coefficients,
then we get the stiffness matrix, once we get the matrix, we print the matrix, we do the
calculation, map them for different labels of each member, then we get the stiffness
matrix of the entire structure, then we try to get the unrestrained stiffness matrix alone;
unrestrained stiffness matrix alone.
224
Then we get the inverse of that then subsequently, we give the joint loads look at the
joint loads, we already computed; thus from the last lecture amongst there, the first 2
values are unrestrained joint loads then we use a relationship to compute the delta u;
delta u which is k inverse of joint load unrestrained, then once we get delta u, we can
find the end moments of each member; member 1 and member 2. Let us see the results
you know the local stiffness matrix of the first member, if you look at the previous
problem solution, you will see exactly it is same; it is for the member 2, this is for the
complete structure.
Now, from this I cut out only these values partition this matrix; is it not. So, I get only
this which I went out here we get the inverse of this, whereas 1 by EI is available here. In
fact, in all this cases you know EI is constant; is it not. So, here also EI is constant and so
on; we get the joint load vector, then we get the unrestrained displacement which is again
1 by EI, then we get the member end reactions which is here this is for the member 1,
this is for the 2.
Let us try to plot this you will see for member 1; member 1, let us draw this, again this is
anticlockwise 7.24 and this is clockwise because negative. So, 30.52, this is upper 22.24,
this is also upper 37.76 for the member 2, this for the member 1, for the member 2, you
will see that this becomes 30.52 which matches with this the answer, we have which we
already solved and this is 0 because this simply supported end for the problem see here.
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The simply supported end for the problem, therefore, the moment is 0 there which we get
here then the reactions are 26.1 and 13.89 which exactly matches with this value. So, the
sum of these 2; the sum of this and this will amount to this. So, the code exactly solves
the same problem and the manual solution; what we had matches with the results; what
we have in the code this is the code what we have they given the full code for your
understanding you can rerun the program again and try to get the results.
Similarly, we can also solve the second problem which we did we remember the second
problem was example 2 of orthogonal structure. So, this is the example which we solved
by hand, we applied a joint load here, but just 20 kilo Newton meter and here 30 kilo
Newton meter and this was 4 meters.
And the height of the frame was 6 meters right and this is subjected to a member load of
12 kilo Newton per meter and there were 2 more loads of 20 kilo Newton and 30 kilo
Newton here which are equally spaced and this is a central load here of 50 kilo Newton
this was the structure; is it not.
And this member is 2 I, this member had I this member had 2 I and E is constant correct,
this was the problem, then we mark the unrestrained and restrained degrees of freedom
for this problem correct. So, the unrestrained degrees where theta 1 and theta 2, the
restrained degrees where marked as theta 3, delta 4, delta 5, theta 6, delta 7, delta 8 and
delta 9 this also delta 5 this delta 8 because axial deformations are neglected; is it not.
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So, for this we have the member labels let us write down the labels here is easy to write
down here this is A, this is B, this is C and D. So, we say member B A, this was my x m
y m for this member; for this member, this is x m and y m for this member this is x m
and this is y m correct. So, for the member B A the labels where I write here for the B A
the labels are theta 1, theta 3 and delta 9 and delta 4 for the member BC the labels where
theta 1, theta 2, delta 5 and delta 8 and for the member C D, the labels where theta 2
theta 6 delta 9 and delta 7 correct, we add this values which we did in the earlier problem
please see that we have a computer coding.
Now there are 3 members I am marking them with red color for our clearance 3 members
I is varying we can see here 2 I. So, I can say 2 1 2 fine member lengths in meters 6
meter this is 4 meter this is again 6 meter. So, 6 4 6 member numbers 1 2 1 3; how many
unrestrained degrees are there marked in green 2 1 and 2. So, unrestrained degrees
remaining restrained because there are total 9; there are total 9 is it not. So, labels are one
and 2 for unrestrained; unrestrained it is 3 to 9, correct. So, let us talk about member 1
the global members 1 3 9 4, you see here 1 3 9 4 for member 2 1 2 5 8 for member 2 one
2 5 8; is it not this is 2 actually right, this is let us write it clearly this is 2 right m then 26
9 7 26 9, we have it here.
Once we do this, we get the stiffness matrix, then we apply the loads, the program is
continuing from here it continues here; that is how the program continues and then we
227
get the global end moment matrix for 3 members member 1, member 2 and member 3;
let us write down the values which I am having here; if you compare the results; what we
already had shown in the previous lecture this is my stiffness matrix for the member 1 of
course, there is a multiplier of E out I is included in this E is out.
Let us say EI an multiplier this is EI and multiplier you can compare this results are
exactly same and this is for the member 3 EI, this my total stiffness matrix out of which
unrestrained is this value this is nothing, but K uu I have EI out here also and this is same
as that this is K uu inverse which has 1 by EI here, this is my joint load vector which we
computed this is my delta u the delta u value is exactly same what we had. So, there is 1
by EI here.
So, these are the results of end moments for first member second member and third
member.
So, let us mark them separately and compare the results for our convenience, I am
drawing member wise this is the first member this is the second member this is the third
member. So, this is A and B, this is B and C, this is C and D, right. So, let us mark the
value. So, let us A and B; so, we know a has got theta one here you can see that the labels
of AB, we have to transformed in the same style the labels of AB is 1 3 9 4.
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Comparing that one 3 9 4 that is how we have to write. So, this is going to be minus. So,
this is 28.4847, this is anticlockwise which is 39.7576; this is minus. Therefore, is going
to be 34.1212; this is 37.8788; correct.
Similarly, BC you will see this is going to be positive, so, 48.4847 and this is going to be
13.5.47 and this value is 40 point; let us say 5 and this value is 9.5.
Similarly, when you come here this is 16.4843 and this is 59.3536 and this is negative
therefore, 11.4342 and this is 38.5658 just for the check the load applied here is 20 and
30; you know these 2 will amount to 50. Similarly the load applied here was 50, these 2
amounts to 50; the load applied here was 12 for length of 6 meters 72. So, these 2 will
amount to 72.
So, it is very clear that the problem is examined and check we get the same answers as
we are solved by hand using the computer method which is stiffness matrix method. So,
friends we have given the coding we have run the problem we have given the results
which are exactly matching with the same methodology what we solved by hand. We
have one more problem which I gave you which we only marked which I want to you to
solve. So, the problem was example 3 which I will spend few minutes in explaining the
solution of this problem as well this is the problem given, right.
229
So, this is 6 meters and 3 I, this is 4 meters and 2 I, this is 3 meters and 2 I, this is 2
meters and 6 I, this is 3 meters and 10 I, that is a problem.
We mark the degrees of freedom unrestrained theta 1, theta 2, theta 3, theta 4, delta 5,
delta 6.
And then the restrained degrees theta 8, delta 9, delta 10, theta 11, delta 12 and delta 13.
So, there are 13 degrees of freedom. So, this is member nomenclature AB C D E and Fl
230
the loading where like this actually this frame is subjected to 20 kilo Newton here and 30
kilo Newton here that is what is the problem given, correct.
We already said that the member B A, B A, BC, C D, D E and E F has the following
labels which is theta 1, theta 8, theta 1, theta 8, then delta 5 and delta 9 is it not.
Similarly, BC theta 1, theta 2, 10 and 6: similarly C D 2 3 5 and 7: similarly D E 3 46
and 13 E F 4 11 7 and 12 that is how we got.
So, we wrote the program; I mean use the same program, give the input appropriately
and develop the answers. So, this is the stiffness matrix of the first member there is a
multiplier of EI to this the second member multiplier of EI to this which is exactly
matching what we derived in the previous lecture, EI to this member 3 member 4 and
member 5, these are a stiffness matrixes then based on this we found out the unrestrained
stiffness matrix 7 because there are 7 unrestrained degrees you can see here. So, it will be
7 by 7 3 7 by 7 which is going to be EI again.
Which is actually K uu we inverted this matrix 1 by EI is there B substitute of joint

vector and got del u where 1 by EI is again there once we get this we have obtain the end
reactions of member 1, member 2, member 3, member 4 and member 5 which we can
plot and give you the answers I am plotting them here member 1, member 2, member 3,
member 4 and member 5. So, the values are very simple, I am looking for member 1. So,
this is 7.98, 10.9091.
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So this is 3.148 and this is 3.148; similarly member 2 below cat these are the values. So,
is going to be clockwise 7.98; you can see there is a perfect match this anticlockwise and
this is clockwise is it not. So, this is going to be again clockwise 15.6556; this is minus
5.91; this is plus 5.91 and so on. So, you can plot them and interpret them like this.
So, friends let us look at the summary very quickly we have discussed about the
procedure to solve non orthogonal members, we have explained how the global end
reactions can be obtained we have also demonstrated the full computer code to solve the
orthogonal structures. And we said that the results what we had by hand computation or
exactly matching with the computer solution; is it not. So, we have discussed about the
computer methods of solving the problem we also gave you the computer code and as a
perfect compatibility of the solution for the update example problems.
I hope you have enjoyed the lecture. And I am sure you will key in this code in
MATLAB and try to solve the problem once again and verify the solutions. And then you
will enjoy solving more and more problems in your classrooms.
Thank you very much and bye.
232
Module - 01
Lecture - 15
Example problem - Planar non-orthogonal structure
Friends, welcome to the 15th lecture in module 1, where we are going to now solve
couple of example problems on Planar Non-orthogonal Structures. We will also discuss
the relevant computer codes with which the problems have been solved. We will explain
the computer code steps and also the solutions obtained from the computer program.
Let us quickly revise the steps in solving a non-orthogonal structure.
233
The steps involved could be the following for the given problem first identify the j end
and k end of each member friends please recollect a very important statement identifying
j end k end is actually locating the x m y m axes which we call local axes of each
member. So, while doing; so, please understand that x m should be facing towards the
positive length of the member and y m axes should be anticlockwise 90 degrees from the
x m axes.
Locate the j end k end of each member after doing that let us compute the C x C y which
are called the transformation matrix coefficients of each member also identify or label
the degrees of freedom at each node first the unrestrained set of degrees of freedom then
the restrained set of degrees of freedom we should do this.
So, then I will know what is the size of each matrix of the member what the size of the
complete total matrix of the structure, I will also know size if the unrestrained stiffness
matrix of the structure I will be able to do this. Now I can have a clue I think all of you
will agree strongly with me. Since we are including the axial deformation in the analysis
hence the size of stiffness matrix of each member will be 6 by 6 and the size of
unrestrained stiffness matrix of the complete structure will be the unrestrained degrees of
freedom.
So, we have to be very clear about the size of different sub matrices in the given stiffness
matrix.
234
So, the next step is estimate the stiffness matrix of each member, we already have this
equation with us derived in the last set of lectures; we know this is going to be a 6 by 6
matrix, we already have a fixed beam as our basic module, we know that this is going to
be theta p theta q delta r delta s delta T and delta H where this is my x m axes this is my
y m axes of the member the member has a length l I EI and A .
So, we already derived the 6 by 6 matrix of each member. So, estimate this for each
member also identify the global labels of each member that is very important once we
have done this, then K global of each member which will be T transpose k local T
because transformation matrix of each member is now known to us, once I have this then
assemble. So, let us do this for every member assemble k matrix global of the complete
structure then plug out K bar uu sub matrix from K total K bar total.
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Then compute fixed end moments of i-th member in local axes, find fixed end moment
of the i-th member in global axes which will be T transpose of the i-th member and fixed
end moment of the i-th member; once I have this completed then estimate the joint load
vector in global degrees of freedom for the complete structure from this plug out the joint
load vector of the unrestrained degree from the global joint load vector.
Then use this equation delta bar global will be actually equal to K u u global inverse of J
L u global, you get delta bar unrestrained friends it is very evident and you will
understand and agree delta bar r of the system will be actually a null vector, it will be 0
restrained degrees of freedom after obtaining delta u; one can calculate the m bar of
every member that is the global end moments and shear of every member from simply k
bar of every member multiplied by delta bar of every member plus any fixed end
moment of every member in global terms. So, we have to do this and identify the end
moments and end shears.
236
Let us take an example and solve this problem let us take example 1; this is my structural
system which is fixed here as well as fixed here let us call this end as A, B and C; let us
mark the dimensions of this structure. So, this is 2 meters. And let us say this is 4 meters;
let the height of the frame be 4 meters. Now interestingly, this is my global axes and for
every member the local axes is going to be different.
Let say the I value the moment of inertia of each member is 0.0016; this member also
has I this member also has I E is constant whatever may be the value; whatever maybe
the material, it is constant through and through area of cross section is 0.120 meters
square, this is meter 4, it is also constant. So, A and A once you have this let us say the
system has a joint load which is ten kilo Newton applied on the structure, I think from
simple geometry I can find is angle theta you know theta is actually tan inverse of 4 by 2
which is going to be 63.435 degrees.
By this logic this angle is also theta, now let us fix up the local axes of each member; this
is my first member, this is my second member. So, let us say the local axes of this
member has the j end here and the k end here and this becomes my x m and this becomes
my y m similarly for the second member this becomes my j-th end k-th end and this
becomes my x m axes and this becomes my y m axes. So, let us make a table and try to
compute some information required for the calculation.
237
Let us say member number what are the ends that is the jth end and the kth end what is
the length of the member what could be the value of theta and what could be the value of
cos theta and sin theta C x and C y and what are the global labels of the member let us do
this table for member number one member number one j end is that A; is it not; k end is
that B for member number 2 j end is that B and this that C the length of the member AB
is incline which will be square root of which will be square root of 4 square plus 2 square
which will be actually equal to 4.472 meters.
The length BC is simply 4 meters. So, now, x m is oriented this way from the global axes
x anticlockwise. So, positive; so, theta is going to be plus 63.435 degrees as far as the
second member is concerned theta is 0 degrees; let us compute cos theta and sin; this is
going to be 0.447 and this is 0.894 and this is 1, this is 0 cos 0 1 sin 0 0; let us now enter
the global labels before that let us mark restrained and unrestrained degrees of freedom.
So, let us mark unrestrained degrees in green. So, let us say there will be a rotation here
which I marking as theta one there will be a horizontal displacement here which is a
vertical; so delta 2 and delta 3.
These are the unrestrained degrees the restrained degrees are going to be let us say theta
4, delta 5 and delta 6 and theta 7, delta 8 and delta 9. So, now, let us mark the labels
global. So, let us say j end k end for the member AB. So, I should say the labels are 7 and
1; these are the 2 moments 7 and 1, then the next is along the y axes. So, 9 and 2 the next
is along the x axes. So, 8 and 3; how do you label this take a fixed beam; let us say this is
x m this is y m; is it not; so 1, 2, then along y 3, 4, then 5 and 6. So, same style here 7
and 2, 7 and 1 are the moments the 9 and 2 or along y axes global and then 8 and 3 along
x axes global.
Similarly, let us do it for the second member. So, you can do it easily; now 1 4 2 5 and 3
6; correct, it is done after we do this.
238
Let us compute the rotational coefficients because we need them for the stiffness matrix
let us do it for the member AB you know it is going to be 4 EI by l which is going to be
EI times 0.0016 by 4.472. Similarly 2 EI by l which is 2 times 0.0016 by 4.472; this is
for the member AB, we can also do this for the member BC which is 4 times E 0.0016 by
length of the member which is 4.0 and 2 EI by l which is 2 E 0.0016 by 4.0.
Once I have this values, I can now enter K AB, I can find the stiffness matrix local of AB
and stiffness matrix local of BC from the standard equation of 6 by 6 which we already
have which are meant for p q r s t and h similarly p q r s t and h, we have this matrix with
us, we know this matrix; let us do it for K AB and K BC; similarly I can also now find
the transformation matrix.
239
Transformation matrix T of any member I is actually given by it is 6 by 6 matrix 1, then

1 and 0 0 C x 0 C y, 0 then 0 0 0 C x 0 C y, then 0 0 minus C y 0 C x 0, then 0 0 0 minus
C y 0 C x.
Where C x and C y or available in the table, here you can see here we already have C x
and C y for both the members. So, one can compute this transformation matrix for the
member AB and for the member BC. So, there is no problem; is it not? I can also
compute the transpose of this matrix for AB; the transpose of this matrix for BC that is
also a very easy problem. So, let us do this. Now let us complete this after getting this.
240
Module - 01
Lecture – 15
Example problem - Planar non-orthogonal structure
241
Let us estimate the joint load vector because if you look at the figure the structure does
not have any member loading it has only one load in the joint. So, directly I can write the
joint load vector because there are no fixed end moments generated by the loads on the
member. So, one carefully can observe that this 10 kilo Newton load is applied along
with the degree of freedom which is 3 remaining all joint loads are practically 0.
So, with thus logic the joint load vector can be entered as 0 0 plus 10. So, there are 12, 1
2, 3, 6; I mean 9 values; is it not there is a 9 degree of freedom, here we have total 9
degrees of freedom; is it not. So, we have 9 the vector is 9 by 1. So, one can make a sub
matrix of this. So, this is J L unrestrained and this is J L restrained why unrestrained
there are 3 unrestrained degrees of freedom for this problem, there are 3 green
unrestrained degrees of freedom; therefore, I partition this matrix at 3 let me J L u.
242
So, J L u is actually 0 0 plus 10. In fact, I can call this a J L u bar; is it not because these
degrees of freedom are related to the reference axes system x y, I get the J L bar. Once I
get that I can now find the total stiffness matrix. First let me find K bar of each member
as T transpose of the ith member with K of the ith member with T of the ith member. So,
now, I can do this for K A B which will be T transpose of A B K of A B and T of A B,
then I do this for B C which will be T transpose of B C; K of B C and then T of B C.
Now, K A B will have labels K A B K bar; A B will have now labels you can be identify
this labels 7, 1, 9, 2, 8, 3; is it not. So, 7, 1, 9, 2, 8, 3 these are global labels. So, 7, 1, 9, 2,
8 and 3 there are global labels. Similarly I can also find for K B C bar which will again
be a 6 by 6 the labels will be 1, 4, 2, 5, 3, 6, 1, 4, 2, 5, 3, 6. So, what I do; I assemble this
matrix and get K total.
243
I get K bar total which will be a 9 by 9 matrix which will contain a partition sub matrices
this will be K u u; this is K u r; this is K r u; this is K r r; all will be bars because this is K
bar all will be with reference to the reference axes x y system now.
K u u will be of size 3 by 3; I plug out K u u and K u u bar for this structure can be
worked out from the program which we get this as E into10 power minus 4. Before that
let us write down the values of let us write down for simplicity write down the values of
K bar A B which is E into 10 power minus 4; 14, 7, 2 minus 2 minus 4, 4, 7, 14, 2 minus
2 minus 4, 4, 2, 2, 2, 1, 5 minus 2, 1, 5, 1, 0, 6 minus 1, 0, 6 minus 2 minus 2 minus 2 1,
5, 1, 5 minus 1, 0, 6, 1, 0, 6 minus 4 minus 4, 1, 0, 6 minus 1, 0, 6, 55 minus 55. 4, 4
minus 1, 0, 6, 1, 0, 6 minus 55; 55 the labels will be 7, 1, 9, 2, 8, 3 7, 1, 9, 2, 8, 3 just for
a K A B.
244
Let us do it for K bar B C which will be E 10 power minus 4, 16, 8, 6 minus 6, 0, 0, 8,

16, 6 minus 6, 0, 0, 6, 6, 3 minus 3, 0, 0 minus 6 minus 6 minus 3, 3, 0, 0, 300 and minus
300; the labels will be 1, 4, 2, 5, 3, 6, 1, 4, 2, 5, 3, 6.
Now, assemble this matrix get K total then plug out K u u and we get K u u; K
unrestrained bar.
Which is 3 by 3 matrix which will be equal to E into10 power minus 4, 34, 4, 4, 2, 18, 1,
0, 6, 4, 1, 0, 6, 3, 55 and the degrees of freedom would be 1, 2 and 3 which are
245
unrestrained as degrees of freedom for the given problem. Let us try to find K u u inverse
of this problem which will be one by E times of 330.863 minus 4.561 minus 2.631,
53.769, 32.980.
Now, I do the operation of delta u bar which will be K u u bar inverse multiplied by J L
u. Now I have both of them. So, I get delta u bar as 1 by E minus 26.307 minus 160.545
and 329.804.
Now, I can interpret delta bar A B as A B as 6 degrees of freedom. So, the values will be
0 minus 26.307 0 minus 160.545, 0, 329.804, delta bar B C will be is 1 by E of 1 by E of
minus 26.307 0 minus 160.545, 0, 329.804 and 0.
Now, I want to find M bar that is end moment and reactions of the member A B in simple
terms, I can use if you want to find M bar of any ith member, I should say K bar; K bar
of the ith member and delta bar of the ith member plus fixed end moments of the ith
member; is it not?
246
So, by this logic, I can now find M bar A B which will be looked at the degrees of
freedom of A B; 7, 1, 9, 2, 8, 3; 7, 1, 9, 2, 8, 3. So, 7; rotation 1, rotation 9 and 2 are
vertical reactions 8 and 3 are horizontal reactions keeping that in mind, I can say now
this is M bar 7 M bar 1 rotations that is end moments.
Then vertical reactions that is along y, then horizontal reactions along x at different
labels; is it not which is computed as 0.1572, 0.1384 minus 0.0639, 0.0639 minus
0.1059; 0.1059, this for M A B; let us do it for M bar B C which will be look at the labels
of M bar B C M bar B C as 1, 4, 2, 5, 3, 6. So, 1 and 2 are 1 and 4 are rotations that is
end moments 2 and 5 are vertical reactions 3 and 6 are horizontal reactions keeping that
in mind, I can now write M bar 1, M bar 4, V bar 2, V bar 5, H bar 3 and H bar 6; is it
not.
So, which will be actually equal to minus 0.1384 minus 0.1174 minus 0639 plus 0639,
9.8941 minus 9.8941; let us see the computer program how this works.
247
So, this is the problem there are 2 members in the problem; is it not; let us use the green
color, there are 2 members in the problem, I values are given as per the input length as
the members are given area of cross sections given in square meters thetas computer for
each member.
So, we need C x, C y to calculate. So, that has been done here C x, C y; there are 3
unrestrained degrees and 6 restrained degrees the labels of unrestrained of 1, 2, 3 and
labels of restrained are 4 to 9 as you see here. So, then we have the local member labels
the global member labels for 1, 7, 1, 9, 2, 8, 3 which is as same as this see here 7, 1, 9, 2,
8, 3 which is same as this you can see here 7, 1, 9, 2, 8, 3; similarly 1, 4, 2, 5, 3, 6, then
obtain the transformation matrix for member 1 and member 2.
248
Once this is completed; find the fixed end moments in this problem, they are 0, find the
rotation coefficients and the axes stiffness coefficient, they got the values, once this is
completed, obtain the stiffness matrix for each member. So, obtain K i local. So, print the
local stiffness matrix, then find the transformation matrix and transpose matrix an obtain
K global. So, now, here you get K bar of i which is nothing, but K bar of i is T transpose
K T of i; is it not. So, T transpose T transpose K T of i, we got K bar i of each member,
once I get that we compute the F E M bar and find the stiffness matrix as total structure
plug out unrestrained stiffness matrix and get the inverse that is we got K u u bar and we
got K u u bar inverse.
249
Once I get that I create the load vector create the joint load vector unplug out the
unrestrained joint load vector, then I find the unrestrained displacement which will be
unrestrained displacement in global degree will be K bar inverse u u inverse J L u we got
this, once I obtain; I can find M bar of ith member as K bar of the ith member with delta
bar of the ith member plus f E M bar of the ith member which is the equation here look
at the results.
250
So, this is my member 1, this is my stiffness matrix local of the member 1, this is my
transformation matrix of the member 1, this is transpose of the matrix, this is K bar that
is K global of member 1.
Similarly, we get local matrix for member 2 transformation matrix. So, there is a
multiplier here E, there is a multiplier here E, there is a multiplier here E, again there is a
multiplier here in K bar E. So, this is actually K bar A B. Now this is actually K bar B C.
251
Once I have this, I assemble this and get the total stiffness matrix which is 9 by 9 which
is K bar total where E is constant out; from this I plug out only the sub matrix which is u
u which is 3 by 3. So, I plug out only this matrix and write this has K u u bar with E
outside; is it not.
Then I invert this matrix, I get K bar u u inverse with 1 by E out, then I get the joint load
vector I partition this, I get J L u V bar, then I find del u which is nothing, but del bar u
this K u u bar inverse of J L bar u, I get this which will be 1 by E times of this, then we
find del bar of the member A B, then we find M bar of the member A B, similarly del bar
of the member B C and M bar of the member B C, let us plot these results and show how
do they match.
So, let us show these results. This is my original structural system. So, you know this is
my M bar of member 1; the degrees of freedom of the structure if you remember, I am
just marking them again; this was theta 1, delta 2, delta 3 and theta 4, delta 5, delta 6,
theta 7, delta 8 and delta 9. So, for the member 1, the labels could be you know the labels
are 7, 1, 9, 2, 8, 3 rotations, then along y and along x, similarly for the member B C will
be 1, 4, 2, 5, 3, 6, correct; 1, 4, 2, 5, 3, 6.
Let us now interpret the results 0.1572; let me write down the values this is positive. So,
anticlockwise 0.1572 is plus again. So, 0.1384, then 9; 9 is here is minus. So, downward
0.0639, then 2 which is plus positive 0.0639, then 8 is minus. So, this way which is
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0.1059 and 3 which is positive. So, let us say 0.1059 that is the E multiplier; in all this
cases, E is constant this for member 1.
Let us do it for member 2. So, member 2 the labels are 1. So, let us say 1 minus. So, it is
going to be clockwise which is 0.1384 and 2 is also negative. So, clockwise 0.1174, then
2 is negative. So, downward 0.0639 and 5 is positive. So, upward 0.0639, then the degree
of freedom 3 is positive. So, 9.8941 and this is negative which is 9.8941.
So, friends; if you look at this problem, this problem was applied to load of 10 kilo
Newton here which actually amounts to 9.841 plus point. So, 10 it is exactly matching
that is how the problem is solved. So, it is very interesting friends in this lecture, we
understood the computer program for solving a non-orthogonal structure, we have
marked that labels and degrees of freedom unrestrained restrained followed. The exact
procedure what we discussed in the derivation and did the coding exactly on the same
line and got the answers which is being solved for this problem.
I hope you will understand and practice this particular problem again with the coding
given on the screen, I will you obtain the same set of results.
253
Module - 01
Lecture - 16
Planar non-orthogonal frame using computer code
Friends, let us continue with the discussion on the 16th lecture in module 1; where we
are going to solve another example problem in planar non-orthogonal frame. But we will
solve this problem directly using the computer code. We will not solve this by hand
directly, will simulate the labels and the program lines in the code use a solution directly
from the code and interpret the results.
254
The example problem is like this before looking at the problem let us quickly revise we
have to identify the j and k ends of each member, locate the local axes, compute
transformation matrix coefficients and then the matrix get the transpose identify
unrestrained and restrained set of degrees of freedom labels get local stiffness matrix
then global stiffness matrix get K bar global total matrix and K bar uu for the structure.
Since axial deformation is added in the analysis you know k of every matrix local will be
of size 6 by 6; estimate the k matrix find the K bar assemble and get K uu bar find the
255
fixed end moments from the member loading find FEM bar using this relationship then
estimate the joint load bar in reference axes degrees of freedom plug out only the
unrestrained values find the displacement in unrestrained degrees and find the end
moments and shear force in each member in global degrees of freedom.
That is the steps involved let us take an example which I marking; here I am taking a
similar example which create some similarity with the existing code.
256
So, it is easy for you to follow let us say the I value of this member is 2.28 10 power 9
mm 4 and cross section area is 1.35 into 10 power 5 mm square, the I value for this
member is 3.125 10 power 9 mm 4 and cross section area is 1.5 10 power 5 meter square
and moment of inertia for this member is same as the vertical column which is exactly
the value which I am writing on the board now.
Let us write down the dimensions of the system this is 6 meters; this is 2 meter and the
height of the structure is 4 meters E is constant same material maybe T maybe concrete
does not matter, let us try to find the value theta. So, theta will be exactly equal to tan
inverse of 4 by 2 which is 63.435 degrees which will be as same as this value; is it not?
Now let us mark the degrees of freedom for this problem I will do it separately let us say
the global reference axes is marked here and the degrees of freedom label or with
reference to that. So, this is going to be sorry unrestrained degrees theta bar 1, theta bar 2
delta bar 3, delta bar 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11.
Let us now mark the local axes for each member. So, let us say this is my X m and Y m
for member 1; this is my X m and Y m for member 2 and this is my X m and Y m for
member 3. Now I would like to know what is the angle of inclination of each member
with reference to may global axes x; X and y. So, for this member this value is ninety
degrees for this member, this is 0 degrees is it not.
For this it is going to be this is my reference axes x. So, one can see here this is rotated
clockwise by a value 63.435 degrees which is negative because clockwise. Let us see;
what are the labels for member A B, for member A B; what are the labels the global
labels are. So, the labels are 7, 1, 9, 4, 8, 3. Similarly for the member B C, the labels are
1, 2, 4, 6 and 3, 5 for the member C D the labels are 2, 10, 6, 12 and 5 11, correct.
257
So, rotations along Y, along X, rotations along Y, along X, rotations along Y, along X,
rotations along Y, along X; so, one can identify the labels after doing this, let us make a
table; let say the member the joint which is may j and k end and then the length of the
member then C X C Y after knowing theta. So, I think you will be able to compute this
for the member one that is A B for the member B C for the member C D; these are A and
B.
Let us say this is A, this is B, C and D; A B, B C and C D l, I you know this member is
going to be 4 meters this member is going to be 6 meters this member is going to be
square root of sum of squares which is going to be 4.472 meters. So, the angle is 90. So,
cos 90 and sin 90; this angle is 0 cos 0 7 0 and this is going to be 0.447 cos of minus
theta is simply cos theta sin of minus theta is minus sin theta; you got the values. Once I
have this, I can now find a transformation matrix. Let us go to the program directly.
258
Module - 01
Lecture – 16
Planar non-orthogonal frame using computer code
259
Start with the program. So, number of members are 3 number of members are 3 let us
input the I value.
The I value you know 2.28; 3.125 and 2.28 in meter to the power 4 let us do that 2.28
3.125; 2.28, let us input the length, let us input the area, let us get theta unrestrained
degrees are 6 in number you can see that unrestrained degrees are 6 in number, they are
green in number and remaining 6 are restrained degrees.
So, 6 in number and 6 in number the global labels of L 1, L 2, L 3, you can see here 7, 1,
9, 4, 8, 3; 7, 1, 9, 4, 8, 3 and so on, then I can find the transformation matrix; you can
find the rotational stiffness.
260
Find the member matrix, then find the transformation matrix and get the transpose; let us
get these values; I am directly getting it here, I am entering it here.
So, I am trying to get each member here. So, I am writing it here. So, we get K A B as E
into 10 power minus 4, 23, 11, 9 minus 9, 0, 0, 11, 23, 9 minus 9, 0, 0, 9, 9, 4 minus 4, 0,
0 minus 9 minus 9 minus 4, 4, 0, 0, 338 minus 338, 338, 338.
261
Similarly, I can find K B C which is E 10 to the power minus 4, 21, 10, 5 minus 5, 0, 0,
10, 21, 5 minus 5, 0, 0, 5, 5, 2 minus 2, 0, 0 minus 5 minus 5, 2, 0, 0, 250. Similarly, one
can find K C D also; there is no big deal about it, you assemble this and get K u u bar.
So, get the total stiffness matrix complete get the total stiffness matrix.
Then plug out the unrestrained matrix alone. So, we get K u u, but in the global degree
which will be E into 10 power minus 4, 44, 10, 9, 5, 0, 0 minus 5, 10, 41, 0, 5, 6 minus 2,
9, 0, 250, 4, 0 minus 250, 0. So, 5, 5, 0, 339, 0, minus 2 minus 250, 0, 3, 1, 3, minus 120.
So, minus 5, minus 2, 0, minus 2, minus 120, 2, 44 K u bar.
We directly get this from this statement then we inverted we get K u u inverse, then we
get the joint load vector; we can see at the joint load vector if you look at the figure the
joint loads are applied for this problem, I shown the figure here, I get; I have one load of
50 kilo Newton and other one of 100 kilo Newton applied along the degree of freedom 3
and 6.
So, joint load along 3 and 6 along 3 it is positive along 6 negative from this, you plug out
the joint load unrestrained degree then get delta u. So, the delta u obtained in the global
degree is actually 1 by E of minus 986.0 minus 75.8, 2882.9 minus 2.50, 898.50 minus
3682.2 at degrees of freedom level 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.
262
Once we get this, then we try to find the del bar and M A bar of every member for every
member. So, we now find M bar A B which will be M 7, M 1, V 9, V 4, H 8, H 3 which
actually is equal to 1.3408. There is a multiplier of E outside 2.167, 0.0858 minus 0.0858
minus 0.3894; 0.3894.
Similarly, I get this is my local stiffness matrix of A B, this is my global matrix of A B,

this is my local stiffness matrix of B C, this is my global stiffness matrix of B C.
263
This is my local stiffness matrix of C D, this is my global stiffness matrix of C D where

all have an multiplier of E outside.
264
Then we are able to get the full stiffness matrix the column 11 and 12 are here, then K u
u, E is common out here inverse of K u u. So, we have 1 by E, here this is my joint load
vector this is my partition. So, this is my J L u and this is my J L r, then I get unrestrained
degree of freedom which is del bar of the whole system.
Where one by E is a multiplier once I get this, I get M bar A B, I get M bar B C and I will
get M bar C D. So, let us see the labels of A B, B C and C D. So, the labels of A B, B C
and C D could be 7, 1, 9, 4, 8, 3 similarly for B C it is 1, 2, 4, 6, 3, 5; for this, it is going
265
to be 2, 10, 6, 12, 5, 11; let us try to plot these results maybe here itself, there are 3
elements; let us mark those elements first element second element third element let us
enter the values.
You know this is going to be 1.34 plus. So, 1.3408 there is an E multiplier, we cannot
entering in that value here, then plus 0.2167, then along y is my reference axes is going
to be the third value which is 0.0858; the forth value is negative 0.0858, the fifth value is
negative. So, opposite 0.3894 and this is 0.3894; let us do it for the next member 1 and 2.
So, this going to be minus of clockwise 0.2167, 2 is anticlockwise 0.7314; this is upward
0.0858, this is downward 0.0858 and this is 49.6106 and this is 49.6106; let us do it for
the third member.
This is minus. So, 0.7314 and minus again. So, clockwise which is 0.6541, then minus
minus 99.9142 and this is plus 99.9142 and this is positive 49.6106; this is negative
49.6106. So, friends please check the compatibility the moments are compatible; the
reactions are compatible the moments are compatible the reactions are compatible we
know there is the net force of 50 applied here which is actually equal to this plus this is it
not.
Which is opposed by this 450, similarly there is a net downward force of 100 applied
here which is actually equal to this plus this system is in equilibrium now and we are
solve the problem.
So, friends, we have explained you how to solve a planar non-orthogonal structure using
computer code which has been slightly modified to accommodate the input as per the
problem. So, we have solve 2 examples of non-orthogonal planar structure with 2
member and 3 member, we can solve n number of problems by using this code by
making appropriate modification adding the fixed end moments for the member loading
and do the procedure I hope you have understood and you will practice this coding and
solve such similar examples for your tutorials.
266
Module - 01
Lecture - 17
Non-orthogonal frame - Example 3
Friends, welcome to the 17th lecture in module 1. We will discuss one more example
problem on planar non orthogonal frame. We will solve this problem on the fundamental
steps and then use the computer codes.
267
Which we discussed in the last lecture to solve this problem the input frame which is
going to be analyzed is shown in the screen now. So, if the dimensions of the frame are
given, 6 meter and 3 meters and this is 4 meters. The frame is subjected to you know
uniform distributed load on the member, vertical column of intensity 30 kilo Newton per
meter and a vertical load of 100 kilo Newton at a distance of 2 meters and 4 meters as
marked in the problem.
Let us now mark the degrees of freedom unrestrained and restrained for the given
problem. So, unrestrained degrees are marked in green. So, theta 1, theta 2 delta 3 and
delta 4 5 6 now the restrained degrees are marked in red 7 8 and 9 10 11 and 12. So,
these are actually global degrees of freedom. So, let us put the bars on them for our clear
understanding these are global degrees of freedom.
So, the global axis is indicated here, this is my x axis and y axis this is the reference axis
system and of course, each members will have a local axis which are going to identify.
So, now, let us say the unrestrained degrees are 6, in number that is theta 1 theta 2 delta 3
4 5 and 6 and restrained degrees of freedom are 7 8 and 9 10 11 and 12. Let us now mark
the local axes, let us take a table let us say a member the joint which is going to be the j-
th end and the k-th end then the corresponding theta of the member.
Then the area and moment of inertia of the member length of the member then C x and
Cy and then the global labels let us make this table, let us take the member a b this is
268
member 1 this is member 2 this is member 3; let us say member 1which is at A, B, C and
D. So, remember AB which is the first member.
The local axis the joint is at A and this is at B. So, the local axis is marked here. So, this
is going to be my x m and y m. So, the direction of rotation of the local with respect to
global is this angle anti clockwise positive therefore, I should say this is 90 degrees.
Now, for the member BC which is member number 2, now local axis and global axis
have marked as x m and y m. So, the angle is 0 degrees and the members are j th node z
B this is z c now the member CD member indication 3, the local axis is xm and normal
to that is y m you know this is my corresponding reference axis and this is my angle
which is actually as same as this angle this angle is actually can be computed as 53.123
degrees from the geometry.
So, now this is clock wise. So, I am saying the ends are at C and D. So, the angle is
going to be 53.123 degrees. So, one can work out the cos and sin of values of them
respectively yt let us say what is the area and moment of inertia of this sections, let say
the i of this section is going to be 2.28 into 10 power minus 3, we are entering it in meter
4.
I 2 is 3.125 into 10 power minus 3 and this is same as 2.28 into 10 power minus 3; area
in square meters this member has area of 0.135 this has 0.150 this has 0.135 length of the
member AB is 4 meters BC is 6 meters.
And CD is 5 meters sum of root of sum of squares let us enter the global labels for the
member AB, global labels should always say the order as moments in the i j and k end
then along y in j and k end and along x in j and k end. So, by that logic this label will be
7 1 9 4 8 3 is it not.
Similarly, for member BC 1 2 4 6 3 5 for member CD its going to be 2 10 6 12 5 11; so

we have the labels entered. Now, one can then compute the local stiffness matrix of the
member AB member BC and member CD you have seen the program let us find out
those values.
269
Let us say the inputs are as given in the standard program this is local member number 1.
The local stiffness matrix which will be entered here is what I am writing here this is
KAB which will have an E multiplier outside 0.0023 0.011, 0.0009 minus 000900 and
so, on which will be a 6 by 6 matrix and labels will be p q r s t and h there is no
numbering for this label because this is a local stiffness matrix ok.
Now, we also worked out the transformation matrix and the transpose of this. So, I can
find K bar AB which is the global stiffness matrix which is T for AB transpose K local
AB then T for AB I get K global say K global is entered here with a multiplier of E
outside and we get K global now. So, I have K global AB.
270
Similarly, for member number 2 I have K local for the member AB; so K local for the
member BC again a multiplier E with 6 by 6 ok.
So, the values are 0.0021 0.0010, 0 point triple 05 minus triple 05 and 0 and 0 and so, on.
So, the labels could be again p q r s t h, which are local labels, which cannot be assigned
to a global labels until you do this for transformation. So, when I say now the k global
for AB is available then I can enter the labels as 7 1 9 4 8 3. So, this is because these are
global labels.
Similarly, for the member BC the labels could be 1 2 3 sorry 4 6 3 1 2 3 1 and 5 we can
do this.
271
We also found for the member number three the local stiffness matrix with a multiplier E
outside we did transformation and we got kg for member CD; with an E multiplier
outside and the labels could be 2 10 6 12 5 11. Now, friends we have K global AB, K
global BC and K global CD with us with the labels ok.
We can assemble them to form the total stiffness matrix. So, we use the program which I
gave you in the last lecture and we got K total which is here.
272
So, again this is K bar total which is global which has a multiplier E outside and now the
labels are continuous the labels are continuous 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12.
Similarly, the first row second row third row and forth row and so on till 12 we already
know this program or this problem has 6 unrestrained degrees of freedom, we said that
there are six unrestrained degrees of freedom right. So, therefore, we do the partition at
this level and we pick up only this matrix this is nothing but K unrestrained degree which
we write here.
So, again there is an E multiplier which is actually K bar uu, we have pick up that then
found the inverse of this matrix which will be 1 by E of this which is K unrestrained
inverse which is given by this equation and the solution is here. So, now we have K uu
bar.
273
Module - 01
Lecture - 17
Non-orthogonal frame - Example 3
274
Once we have K uu bar, then I can always find delta unrestrained as K uu bar inverse of
the include. So, now, our aim is to find the joint load, look at the system of loading.
So, member AB has a member loading member BC has member loading; so, we have to
find out the FEM for each one of them fixed end moments, let us take the member AB;
let us take the member AB for example, say member AB.
We have a vertical column subjected to uniform distributed load of intensity 30 kilo

Newton per meter over height of 4 meters for this will generate end moments of this
275
order and if you quickly work out this values will be 40, 40, 60 and 60. Similarly for the
member BC, the loading pattern is given like this, this is 6 meter long, this is the load of
100 kilo Newton, at 2 meter and 4 meter, we walk out; the fixed moments for this
because of this loading this value will be 88.89, this will be 44.44 and this reaction will
be 66.67 and this is going to be 33.33.
Let us write down the fixed end moments for this, fixed end moments local for the
member AB could be you can see here; the degrees of freedom are compared with this
problem, we can write this is as 40 minus 40, 60, 60, 0 and 0, the new transformation I
can find FEM bar of the member A, B as T AB transpose of FEM which gets me FEM
bar as 40 minus 40, 0, 0 minus 60 minus 60 of the labels 7, 1, 9, 4, 8, 3.
Similarly, FEM local of the member BC would be 88.89; 33.33; sorry 44.44 minus
66.67; 33.3330 and 0 and I do the same transformation; I get FEM bar which is same as
this because the angle of inclination is 0 in this case and the labels are essentially 1 2 4 6
3 5.
So, I get the same values 88.81 minus 44.44; 66.67; 33.33 3 0 and 0 which will be FEM
bar of the member BC, so I now FEM bar of AB FEM bar of BC. Now I can combine
them and form a joint code vector; let us take for example, the joint code vector of the
first row will be plus 40 that is reversal of this and minus 88.89 which I get minus 48.89
which I am getting here.
276
So, this is nothing, but the J L; the joint code vector bar of the complete structure you
can see there are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 rows.
Now, I apply this equation del u bar will be K uu inverse bar of J L u bar. Apply this and
get del u bar as 1 by e multiplier once I get this, then I apply M bar AB will be M bar AB
will be k bar AB that is k global into del bar AB that is global displacement plus FEM
bar of AB, I apply this equation M bar AB will be actually M 7, M 1, V 9, V 4, H 8, H 3
which will be given by these values which we are 10 from the program which will be
able to get directly from the program.
So, we try to plot and get the answers here this is for M bar AB member 1.
Then this is for M bar BC member 2 and this is for M bar BC; sorry, CD which is
member 3; let us try to plot this values for the figure.
277
So, this is my system when let us incorporate these results and enter them here. So, if
you look at this value plus 58.74. So, it is going to be anticlockwise 58.745 and the next
one if you see minus; so, clockwise 43.948.
Then along y that see here plus 57. So, this is going to be plus 57.451 and this is minus
57.451 not minus its negative automatically, then the next one is minus 60 3. So, I will
change the direction 63.699; 56.301, then we apply the next load for this member. So,
this is 43.948 and 54.81, 56.301; 56.301, 57.45, 42.55 and this is going to be 42.55;
sorry, 54.81 and 42.55 and 56.301 and this is further 42.696 and this is going to be 42.55
the plate load matches with this and we get the end reactions.
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So, friends we discussed about the planar non orthogonal frames problem with three
examples we also presented the computer code used to solve the problem. And we
followed the same steps which are more or less repetitive in the stiffness method to solve
this problem.
I hope you enjoyed this and you will try to solve much more problems in the same style
and compare the answers with analytical solutions.
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Module - 01
Lecture - 18
Planar truss system
Friends let us continue with the 18th lecture in module 1. So far we have discussed about
framed structures we just got bending elements, both orthogonal and non orthogonal
members in the given planer system. In this two lectures we will talk about how to solve
the planar truss system using stiffness method. You know truss members have
orientations which are non orthogonal. Therefore, there is no specialty about orthogonal
and non orthogonal analysis as for as truss members are concerned; usually we all agree
that truss members do have diagonal members in a truss system therefore, non
orthogonal members are very common in truss system.
So, we will talk about planar truss system, which also contain non orthogonal members
in a general analysis.
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In a truss system, joints are assumed to be pinned, it means no moment transfer can
occur therefore; they can only resist axial force and axial deformations.
So, therefore, at every node or let us say joint in a truss system, there are only two
possible independent displacements of joint translation with reference to the reference
axes; similarly in local axes system each joint can have only two joint translations.
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So, no rotations at the ends; having said this let us try to draw the transformation
between the global to the local axes, say this is the truss member inclined to an arbitrary
value theta.
There is a style of marking this theta because this theta should be always measured with
reference to the global axes. It means what is the inclination of the local axes x m with
reference to the global axes x. So, the angle of theta is with reference to the capital X to
small x that is theta.
Let us say we have a member which is inclined arbitrarily, which has two joints or two
nodes let us name these as j and k as usual and let us this angle be measured from the
global x to the local x as theta. So, this is my x m axis this is going to be my y m axis
which is local coordinate system and we all know that there will be independent
translations, happening along x and along y we know we will name this as P r of the i-th
member and the displacement delta r similarly at disjoint p s of the i-th member and
displacement this s similarly in the axial direction it is p t of the i-th member and
displacement delta t and this is p h of i-th member and delta h.
This convention is similar to what we have discussed in the beam elements, also accept
that I have removed the end rotations theta p and theta q that is all I have kept r s t h as
usual let us compare this with another axes system, but in this case I am going to mark
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the degrees of freedom related to the global axes. So, this is going to be my along y
which is p r bar delta r bar, we know that bar represents the global responses.
Similarly, in this case is going to be p r s delta bar s similarly along x this is going to be p
bar t delta bar t and along x in the k-th node will be p bar h delta bar h. So, this
represents my reference axes system x and y and this represents my local axes system x
m and y m and theta is measured from the global towards local in the anticlockwise
direction. They also say that c x is cos theta and c y represents sin theta. So, now, what I
want is to convert the local responses with respect to the reference axes responses which
I called as transformation.
So, I can write the transformation vector here very easily which will be let us say p r p s
p t and p h which is connected to the global responses, which is p r bar, p s bar, p t bar
and p h bar using a transformation matrix. So, let us quickly see how do we transform
this you know if I resolve p r bar we resolve p r bar along y m; obviously, this angle is
theta this is also theta. So, I can say this going to be p r will be p r bar cos theta and if we
resolve this p s down it will be minus sin theta. So, I can write it as a transformation like
this similarly in the other end I can say this is going to be c x and minus c y.
Similarly, I can always find p t that is along x axis there is the transformation which can
be C y 0 C 6 0 which will have contribution from r and s similarly the other end will
have contribution from t and h; so C y 0 C x. So, now, I can write this as p vector is
equation number one now I can write a new equation saying p vector in local for i-th
member will be transformation matrix for the truss of i-th member multiplied by p bar of
i-th member equation number 2.
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Therefore all relationships like the displacement of the truss member of the i-th member
will be again connected to the transformation matrix of the i-th member with the top the
responses of the i-th member in the reference axes system, I call this equation number 3.
Further if you want to find the responses of the truss member in reference axes system
delta bar, this can be simply given by T transpose of the truss member with that of the
local axes responses which is 4. Where delta transpose in this local axes will be simply
delta r, delta s, delta T and delta h whereas, delta bar in the global reference axes system
will be simply delta bar, delta s, delta t and delta h respectively, now since we have
derived the stiffness coefficients for the member of a beam element.
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Now, we can do the same thing by just transforming it for the axial response member, I
can say now the stiffness matrix of the truss member of an i-th element can be simply
given by a 4 by 4 matrix, which will have r s t and h as rows and columns and you know
this will be 0 and this will be AE by l minus AE by l minus AE by l and AE by l. This is
standard stiffness matrix for a truss member without n rotations if we really want to
define the global stiffness matrix of this with reference to the reference x system the i-th
member can simply say use the transformation matrix transpose u is the local matrix of
this and then again multiply this with the transformation matrix of the i-th member to get
this equation 5 I can call this is equation six.
Now, I can also write the responses of the truss member in reference axes system will be
simply k bar of the truss member multiplied by delta bar of the truss member plus if there
are any end reactions of the truss member.
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Where p bar of the truss member vector is simply p bar r p bar s, p bar t and p bar h and f
p bar of the truss member will be end reactions in r degree of freedom, in s degree of
freedom in t degree of freedom and h degree of freedom respectively of the i-th member
ok.
So, it is very simple the planar truss problem looks much simpler than the beam element
problem, let us take an example on apply this to a problem and solve the problem using
stiffness method.
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We have also give you the computer code will use the computer code rather to solve this
problem. So, we are now going to solve example 1 of a planar truss system using
stiffness method. So, let us draw this problem here, the supports are this way indicated
the loads are indicated here, it is going a 40 kilo Newton load are played at this node and
the 20 kilo Newton load are played at this node.
Let us name the loads as A B C and D that is name the members as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. So, there
are 5 members in this truss system let us make a small table which are required now let
us say the area of cross section of this numbers let us say E is constant what are may be
the value for the material, this member has got a as the value this number has point a a as
the value and this number has A as the value and these two members has 1.2A as the
value where A is actually 5000 mm square.
So, this becomes 4000 for the member BC, 5000 for both the members AB and CD for
the members 4 and 5 that is member BD and AC this is about 1.2 times of 5 which is 6
thousand. So, A is known E is known, now let us mark the length the dimensions this is
about four meters this is also 4 meters. Now let us mark the unrestrained and restrained
degrees of freedom, let us draw the figure slightly in the bigger size let us see how many
un restrain degrees of freedom this stress has the displacement degrees you know joint B
has t 2 joint C has 2.
These are unrestrained and the restrained degrees of freedom joint A has 2 and joint D
has 2 these are nothing, but displacements along x and along y is not let us mark them.
So, say this is my truss system ok.
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Let us mark the unrestrained degrees this is going to be delta 1 and delta 2 and to be delta
3 and delta 4 then the restrained degrees delta 5 delta 6, 7 and delta 8 in the reference
system is this, this is my global x and global y now I want to mark the local x and y of
every member let us do that in blue color
So, this member will have x m and y m, here this member will have x m x m and y m
here, the fourth member will have x m and y m here and the fifth member will have x m
and y m here. So, let us make a small table the table is very interesting and easy you say
the member let us say the ends where is my j-th end, where is my k-th end for the
member what is the length of the member in meet us what is the angle theta of the
member therefore, what is my c x and c y and what are my global labels let us do that.
So, for the member AB the joint A and B are a j end and k end respectively this is 4
meters theta is plus 90, you have to measure x m angle with the reference axes. So, this
value you know this is 90 degree therefore, cos and sin can be worked out I will fix the
global level slightly later now let us do this BC, this is for B and C 4meters again, but
this angle is 0 a for this is one and this is 0 similarly for the member CD this is D and C
you know the origin is here this is again 4 meters again plus 90.
So, 0 and 1, for the member BD original set B because this is A this is B this joint is C
this joint is D. So, BD is or not the length is root of root 2 into 4 meters that is 5.646 now
the angle, you have to measure this angle with reference to this x x axis which is going to
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be minus 45 its anticlockwise is positive is not. So, this going to be 0.707 this is minus
0.707; for the member AC it is at a and c length is 5.676 meters.
If you look at this angle, this angle is anticlockwise 45; so plus 45. So, it is going to be
0.707 and as points 0.707. Let us look at the global levels please compare a standard
truss element a standard truss element, which will have x m and y m the degrees of
freedom are r s t and h is not? So, first two labels are along y, the second two labels are
along x correct. So, now, let us look at the member AB. So, first two labels are along y
global y. So, 6 and 2 were the labels 6 and 2 the next two labels are along x. So, it is 5 m
1.
Similarly, for the member BC you can write now 2413 that is along y and then along x
similarly for the member CD the D is here, the 8473. The first two refers degrees of
freedom starting from the j-th node, the second two refers degrees of freedom again
starting from j-th node correct let us for the member BD the origin is here therefore,
along y 2 and 8 p very careful we are looking for global level; so 2 and 8 and then along
x 1 and 7 correct.
So, for AC origin is here along global y 6 and 4; so 6 and 4 then along global x 5 and 3. I
do not think there is any doubt here still you can understand very clearly there will no
difficulty in this correct once we mark this based upon the values of c x and c y once I
know the transformation matrix, I can easily find out transformation matrix for each
member because I know C x and C y I can now find each member transformation matrix
very easily. One can also find KAB using this relationship; you know K local is going to
be from equation 5.
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So, use question 5 AE and l are known therefore, I can easily find K AB which will be E
into 10 power minus 3 for the local labels r s t and h will be 0 0 0 0, 4 zeros here 2 zeros
here these also r s t and h 1.25, minus 1.25 minus 1.25 and 1.25 the K AB. Let us do this
K BC which will be E into 10 power minus 3 again similarly I can do this for local K CD
which will be E 10 power minus 3 and so on is not?
I can do it for KBD which is E 10 power minus 3, I can do it for KAC which is E 10
power minus 3. So, now, friends we have the stiffness matrices for all the 5 members you
290
can see here for the member a b, b c, c d, d b, d and a c we have all the 5 members we
also have the transformation matrix for all the members for a b for all the 5 members we
have the transformation matrix because we have the relationship of c x and c y. Now I
can always find K global of the truss member of any member, which is given by this
relationship T transpose K local and T all the member.
So, I use this expression and find K global of all the members. So, now, I get k global of
the truss member, for all the 5 members because I have the transformation matrix of all
the 5 members I have local stiffness matrix of all the 5 members I can use this
relationship and compute this. Now what we have with us says the K global matrix of all
the 5 members which I am now writing here.
So, I should say K bar AB which is E into 10 power minus 3 by using this relationship K
bar AB will be T transpose of AB multiplied by K AB then T of K AB is not? We can
easily get this K AB will be given by 0.0013 minus 0.0013 0 0 that is K AB let us find K
BC.
Now, let us marl the degrees of freedom label here; we already know K AB as a degree
of freedom 6251. So, let us mark the labels here because we need this labels 6251, 3251
we need this labels to assemble this stiffness matrix later now K BC which will be E 10
power minus 3 now the labels are in this case 2413 they can also find K CD.
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Which will be E K AB has no multiplier simply E this also has no multiplier simply it is
E end to this.
E times of 0.0013 0.0013 0 0; now or the labels for K CD are 8473. Let us do this for K
BD with a diagonal member which will have a multiplier of this value 0.5304, now the
labels are going to be 281 and 7 similarly I can do this for K AC. So, the labels are going
to be 6 4 5 and 3. So, we have all the K bar for all the members, we need assemble this
and apply the equation and solve the problem which will do the next lecture.
292
So, in this lecture we understand that how to derive the stiffness matrix for plane truss
system, how to derive the transformation matrix for each member within attempted solve
a problem using stiffness method. We will continue the solution the next lecture.
293
Module - 01
Lecture - 19
Planar Truss System Examples (Part – 1)
Friends, let us continue with the discussion on planar truss system which we had in the
last lecture. We are talking about the computer method of structural analysis applied to
planar truss system examples. We had this problem in the last lecture that there are 5
member truss as shown in the example here. We arrived at the unrestrained; unrestrained
degrees of freedom, then we made this table and calculated the transformation coefficient
C x and C y.
294
295
Then we estimated the stiffness matrices and transformation coefficients matrices for all
the members and worked out the global stiffness matrix of each member as A B, B C and
so on.
296
So we have got A B, B C, C D, B D and A C all the members.
Let us continue with the discussion on estimating the joint loads for this problem.
297
So, looking at this example you know the joint forces are applied at degrees of freedom
you can see here delta one the problem the forces are applied at 40 and 20 here.
That is do that at this is 40 kilo Newton and this is 20 kilo Newton. So, now, the joint
load vector at delta one you get 40 and delta 2 0, delta 3 0, delta 4 is again 20. So, let us
do the joint load vector in the simple term like this.
298
So, the joint load vector bar that is a global is plus 40, 0, 0, minus 20, the labels could be
1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, 6, 7, 8. So, there is a partition here. Now I can apply this equation delta
bar that is the reference axes displacement will be given by K uu inverse multiplied by J
L u. Now I have K uu inverse I have to assembling this stiffness matrix we get K uu
inverse as let us first find K uu which will be actually E times of 0.0015 minus 0.0005
minus 0.0010 and 0.
0.0018, 0, 0, 0.0015 and 0.0005 and 0018 with symmetry here and the labels could be 1,
2, 3 and 4 for the unrestrained degrees of freedom.
299
Now, I find K uu inverse which will be one by E 10 power 3 1.5534, 0.4628, 1.1319
minus 0.3372, 0.6995, 0.3372 minus 0.1005, 1.5534 minus 0.4628 and 0.6995.
That is the labels could be again 1, 2, 3 and 4, this is K uu inverse; now I apply this
equation to find the displacement in reference axes system as k bar uu inverse multiplied
by J L u bar I substitute this.
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Now, I will get delta bar with reference to the reference axes system as 1 into 10 power 4
by E 6.8881, 2.0521, 5.4532 and minus 2.7479, the degrees of freedom are going to be 1,
2 and 3 and four.
So, that is my global displacement vector in the reference axes system, once I get this, I
can always find the member forces in each member.
So, for A B, let us say I want to find the member forces for A B which will be V bar 6, V
bar 2, H bar 5 and H bar 1 which will amount to minus 25.6509 plus 25.6509 and 0s,
similarly M B C these are all M bars will be V bar 2, V bar 4, H bar 1 and H bar 5 which
will be 0, 0, 14.3491 and minus 14.3491.
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Let us do it for M C D which will be labeled as V bar 8, V bar 4, H bar 7 and H bar 3
which will be 34.3491 minus 34.3491, 0, 0. Similarly M bar B D which will be labeled
as V bar 2, V bar 8, H bar 1 and H bar 7 which will be minus 25.6509, 25.6509, 25.6509,
again 25.6509.
Let us work out M bar A C which will have labels has V bar 6, V bar 4, H bar 5 and H
bar 3 which will amount to minus 14.3491, 14.3491 minus 14.3491 and 14.3491.
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Assembling all these M bar values of all the members they can always find the end
reaction has I show you here now.
So, this is my given truss system with these are my supports; now if you look at the final
reactions the final reactions are going to be plus 40, then this is minus 20, then this is
minus 40, then this is plus 60 and this is 14.349 and 25.651 checking that you know if
you take moment about the point A. So, you know as going to be 40 into 4 plus 20 into 4
again minus 60 into 4 which will be 0 which is conformed.
So, that is how we get the final reaction one can also find the forces in the members as
we can take it from each member.
303
So, member 1, member 2, member 3, member 4 and member 5; let us do it separately for
each member. So, this is 25.65 and 25.65; you can always find this from this vector, if
you say M A B it is V 6, if you look at the degrees of freedom then always the mark the
degrees of freedom. So, this is going to be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; the labels are 6 2 and then 5
and 1.
So, conforming that look at A B 6 2 5 1 1. So, 6 minus 2 is plus I am marking it as minus

and plus other is 0; similarly for this member this is going to be 14.349 and 14.349 and
304
for this member; it is 34.349 and 34.349 and for this member, it is 25.261; 25.261.
Similarly 25.261 and 25.261 and for this member, it is 14.349 and 14.349, this is also
14.349 and this is 14.349 positive.
So, I got the reactions. Now I convert that into the system. So, I get now the values as
minus 40 plus 60 and 14.349 and 25.261 which is as same as what you get here. So, the
problem is now solved. We will do one more example. Now in this case, first we will
discuss the computer program for this problem you know there are 5 members in this
problem. So, there are 5 members we entered the length of the each member we entered
area of cross section of each member.
Then we entered the values of theta please understand, if you member is arbitrarily
oriented this is my x M and this is my y M, if this is my reference axes theta is always
measured anti clockwise positive entered the values of theta then labels of every member
is entered which we already have with us for example; L 1 member 1 has 6 2 5 1, see
here member 1 has 6 2 5 1. So, similarly we can entered these members labels, then we
find the transformation matrix for each member.
Then we obtain the assembly of the local stiffness matrix of each member and find the
global stiffness matrix of each member K bar, then we assemble them.
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And get the stiffness matrix completely partition them and get the unrestrained stiffness
matrix and get the inverse of the stiffness matrix entered the joint load vector the joint
load vector we can say from here I write down is going to be 40, 0, 0, minus 20, 0, 0, 0,
0, that is the value I have; let us compare this with the joint load vector here which is
exactly the same see 40, 0, 0 and minus 20, 4 0s. So, this is exactly the same here you
have is or not 40, 0, 0, minus 20, 0 0 0 0.
So, we have the joint load vector then we found out the unrestrained displacement
values.
306
Then we find the member forces then we check the member forces endly for each
member that is the computer program we have which we have used; solved this problem
for simple planar truss with 5 member.
307
Let us do one more problem; these are typical output which we have the answers for this
member. I wish you should go through them thoroughly and try to compare the values
what we have obtain for this member.
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Module - 01
Lecture - 19
Planar truss system examples
Let us do one more problem. But directly let us do this problem with the computer
methods. So the problem is like this.
309
So there are members are arranged in this manner, these are my supports, and these are
my loads. The dimensions are given: this is 3, meter 3, meter this is also 3 meter ok. Let
us mark the nodes A B C D E F. So, this has area A, this has area A, area A; this has 0.8
A, 0.8 A, 0.8 A, and 0.8A and these 2 members has 1.2 A where A, is 5000 mm square
and E is constant. Let us mark the unrestrained degrees of freedom for this problem. So,
this is delta 1, delta 2, delta 3, and delta 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8; let us also mark the restrained
degrees 9, 10, 11 and 12.
So, the reference axes system is this way, this is x y and each member will have a local
axes. To do that we have to identify the j and k ends of each member let us do that here.
So, let us say member j end k ends of each member, length of the member in meters, let
us enter theta. Let us find C x and C y then enter the global labels, because these are the
input from a computer program. Say members AB, BC, CD, DE, AF, FE, BF, CF and DF
there are 9 members 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 members ok.
For the member AB, I am taking this as A and B. So, similarly this becomes a local axis.
So, this becomes my x m this becomes may y m. Similarly, I can mark for all the
members I am entering the values. The length of the member is 3 meters, theta is
anticlockwise degree 90, so I can enter C x and C y. For member BC similarly B and C:
3 meters 0, 1, 0. For the member CD, C and D ends are j and k ends 3 meters CD is this
member 0, 1, 0.
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For DE, this is E and D. So, I should say that this is my x m and this is my y m for the
member DE. So, this is 3 meters plus 90 degree because this angle is 90 degree, so it
become 0 and 1. So AF, AF is this member the horizontal member which has got A and F
as j and k ends length is 3 meters 0 degree is 1 and 0. FE is this number where, F and E
are j and k ends length is 3 meters 0 degree 1 and 0. BF is this member, I say B and F it
means this is my x m and this becomes my y m. So you know x m is inclined minus theta
by 45 degrees. So, let us enter that as minus 45 and this becomes 0.707 minus 0.707. And
length of this member is root 2 times of 3 which is 4. 242.
CF is a vertical member, so I should say F and C it means the member is oriented this
manner; this is my x m and y m for this member the member as the length of 3 meters,
the angle is plus 90 that is 0 and 1. So, DF is the last member which has got at D and F.
So, the inclination is this way this is x m and this becomes y m. Remember from x m it is
anticlockwise. So, x m measured from this angle will be 135. So, I should say this is
length is 4.242 it is minus 135 degrees, therefore this becomes 0.707 and this becomes
0.707.
Let us enter the global labels y axis labels first x axis labels next. Let us take the member
AB reference axes, so very simple 10, 2, 9 and 1; so 10, 2, 9 and 1. Similarly, for this
member 2, 4, 1 and 3; for the next member 4, 6, 3 and 5; for the next member 12, 6, 11
and 5; for the next member 10, 8, 9 and 7; for the next member 8, 12, 7 and 11; for the
next member 2, 8, 1 and 7; for the next member 8, 4, 7, and 3; for the next member 6, 8,
5 and 7.
Having done this, let us try to find out the transformation coefficients, that is their
Stiffness coefficients.
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The Stiffness coefficients for the member AB, BC and so on is nothing but AE by l. I can
find out them value and get the local stiffness matrix, let us look at the program.
There are 9 members, I entered the length you can say here 6 times 3 which is taken from
here 1 2 3 4 5 6; 6 times 3 correct, then 4.242 3 4.242 you can see here 4.242 3 4.242.
So, I am following exactly the same method by entering the data. Length is entered, area
is given, then theta 90 0 0 90 you can see here; 90 0 0 90 then 0 0 minus 45; 0 0 minus
312
45 is 90 minus 13 we entered. We found the global labels for example member 1, 10 2 9
1 you can see here member 1 has 10 2 9 1 is or not. So we have the value.
Once I do this, we have got the transformation matrix for each the matrix. Then we
compute the transformation matrix, local stiffness matrix for each member which we get
here.
313
Then we assemble them, get global stiffness matrix, then stiffness matrix completely is
plotted from that K uu is obtain K bar uu is obtained, then inverse is obtained. So, now I
have K bar uu I also have K bar uu inverse from this.
Now let us come to the joint load vector. So, looked at this figure the degrees of freedom
look at the problem. So at 1 it is plus 20 then 2 and 3 no load at 4 it is minus 70
remaining all are 0. So, typically plus 20 0 0 minus 70 and all zeros that see that here;
plus 20 0 0 minus 70 then all are zeros is or not. So, I created the joint road vector then I
applied the problem found out unrestrained displacements then found member forces in
all the members and got the solution for this problem, which I am going to discuss it
here.
314
The answer is given in the sheet for all the members, ok.
The unstrained stiffness matrix available here, the inverse is available here, then the del
bar u is available here.
315
Whereas, the e multiplier is common available, joint forces are then plotted for this
problem which I am going to mark here; the end joint forces are marked here. This is the
truss system I have, the degrees of freedom you know this is going to be you can check it
once again the degrees of freedom are 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on. So, let us mark them here
accordingly, so I should mark this has plus 20 then 0 to 3 0 this is minus 70, 4, 5 is 0
remaining all are 0 this is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12.
So, let us mark this as minus 10 and this value as plus 25, then this as again minus 10
and this as plus 45, let us check this is point A. So, let us check moment about the point
A 20 into 3 plus 70 into 3 minus 45 into 6 is 0. So, it is checked. The reaction is being
made the total load is being made.
316
So, I can also draw the member forces for all the members. Let us say member 1,
member 2, member 3, member 4, member 5, member 6, 7, 8, and 9.
Let us mark the member values as well. So, this is 25 and 25, this is 45 and 45, this is
again 45 and 45, this is 10 and 10, this is this is 10 this is also 10 and 10, this is again 45
and 45. So, this is 45, 45, 45 and 45. For this member this is 25, 25, 25, and 25. For this
member it is 70 and 70. The member reactions are formed and they are as same as what
you have here which is going to be, so this value is 10 and this value is 25 and this value
is 45 and this value is again 10 which is as same as what you have here.
317
So friends, we now write down the summary. We solved two example problems on
planar truss system. We have use the computer codes to solve the problem. Codes are
explain to prepare the input data for the program the results are then interpreted.
I hope you have understood, you will practice this computer program in your MATLAB
software and try to solve couple of more problems and understand. They are very
interesting and simple. I wish that you should exercise all these problems back again at
your desktop and try to compare the answers and you will share your views and
conveniences you get we are adopting this computer method of structural analysis using
stiffness methods for solving a variety of problems.
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Module - 01
Lecture - 20
3d Structures : Analysis by Stiffness method (Part - 1)
Friends, welcome to the 20th lecture and module 1. In this lecture, we are going to
discuss about the stiffness method of analysis applied to 3 dimensional structures. In the
previous set of lectures, we have explained; how to use computer methods of structural
analysis for analyzing planar orthogonal and non-orthogonal members with beam
elements, then planar truss members using computer program. We have solved couple of
examples; explain the computer codes in detail and also solved them by hand and
compared the answers what you get from the computer problem.
We will extend the same algorithm, same logic, same sign conventions to the 3
dimensional structure to make this analysis very very simple and very compatibly easy.
So, let us brush; what we had in the beam element of a planar orthogonal structural
system 2 dimensional. Let us borrow the basics from there and extent slightly for 3
dimensional structures.
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We know that equation for joint equilibrium of planar structure is given by the stiffness
matrix complete multiplied by delta of the complete structure will be the joint load of the
complete structure plus any additional reaction of the complete structure equation 1.
Now, the above equation is also expandable to solve 3 dimensional structures similarly
the matrix equation describing equilibrium of beam element is given by M i is actually K
i T i delta i plus FEM of i equation 2; equation 2 is also extended to analyze 3
dimensional structures consisting of beam elements arbitrarily oriented in space having
said this, the first task in 3 dimensional analysis is to develop the stiffness matrix of the
complete structure which can be simply done by summation of member stiffness
matrices of individual elements.
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So, it is very important to note that the complete stiffness matrix of the space system will
be established in the reference axes system. So, what we are trying to say is we need to
find K bar of the space system that is what we want. Having said this, let us talk about
the sign convention.
Let us say have 3 axis, we calls axis in 1, axis 2 and axis 3; let us mark directed
representing translation forces like this along x along y and along z and the single arrow;
let us say this is vector representing translation or force, then let us put the thumb
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towards this direction of the right hand. So, point thumb of the right hand towards these
arrows 1 by 1.
So, if you put it towards one; remain 4 fingers the direction of folding 4 fingers will
indicate the direction of moment. Let us mark that which is also marked the double
arrow similarly is also marked with double arrow. Similarly is also marked with double
arrow. So, these indicate the direction of rotation or moment and this indicate the vector
representing rotation or moment.
So, all these are considered to be positive established using right hand system of
orthogonal coordinate axes now.
Let us consider a beam element; let us track mark what we had in the last planar
orthogonal systems, we had a beam element fixed at both the ends, this is considered to
be x m and y m of the beam element and the beam had theta p theta q delta r delta s and
delta p and delta h as a degrees of freedom. So, 2 rotations 2 translations along y and 2
translation long x, correct; let us extent this algorithm for a 3 dimensional member
arbitrarily oriented in space.
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So, let us mark the member with 2 joints j and k or the i-th member with 3 axis local are
going to be x axis normal to that is y axis and z m. So, this is local axes system which is
orthogonal to each other comparatively; let us have the global axes system like this x y
and z; this is let us say reference axes system. Now let us mark the degrees of freedom
which we had similar to that of what you had in this.
So, now let us mark theta p and theta q, then similarly along y, it was delta r is in r; delta
r and delta s and along this; this is going to be delta T and delta H which is similar to
what we had in the 2 dimensional truss states; is it not; in addition, let us also mark
displacements along y and rotations, etcetera. So, let us mark the additional degrees now.
So, this is going to be displacement along z I call this as v and correspondingly along this
I call as w rotation, I called this as theta l rotation, I called this as theta M and rotations I
call this as theta n and this rotation I call as theta o. So, now, for every end, I have 3
translations that is e t r n v and 3 rotations that is p l and l; similarly for the k joint 3
translations X, Y and Z; 3 rotations about X, about Y and about Z. So, there are 12
degrees of freedom. Now 3 translations and 3 rotations at each end makes it 12.
So, I can always write at the j-th end translations or t r and v correct X, Y and Z rotations
r l that is about X, then n about Y and p about Z. Similarly let us write for the k-th end
translations are along x h, along y s, along z w and rotations are about x m about y o and
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about z q. So, there are 12 degrees of freedom. So, my stiffness matrix member stiffness
matrix will be of size 12 by 12 we would like to derive them now.
So, now let us take unit displacement along t unit displacement along t z m.
So, this displacement is along t which is unity this will give you the forces K tt of the i-th
member and this is again b k h t of the i-th member. So, I should say this is unique
translation in x m direction at j-th n, then I should give unit translation in the y-th
direction, I should say this has unity which will now cause K pr, then K qr then K rr of
the i-th member then K s r of the i-th member.
So, this is unit translation in y m direction at j-th end, I can also give this translation
along z axis which I draw. So, we gave this as delta V as unity. So, this will create K rr,
this will create K vv and K wv and then the moment which will be K nv and K ov; let us
identify the planes where you have marking them. So, this is happening in x y plane; this
is happening in x y plane; this happening in x z plane.
Let us find unit rotations as well for these members.
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So, let us say we give unit rotation as one. So, we get the moments as K l l and K m l.
So, this is going to give me unit rotation about x; x axis, then this is going to cause a
rotation which is going to theta n is unity, this will give me K vn, K wn, K nn and K o n.
So, this is going to be unit rotation about y y axis, let us have one more figure which is
going to mark unit rotation as K pp; K q p which is resisted by K rp and K sp and this
value is going to be unity.
So, this is unit rotation about z m axis. So, we have got you know displacements along x,
y, z unit rotations about x, y, z. So, we have 6 on the z-th n. Similarly, one can draw the 6
for the k-th end as well which I am not doing it here.
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Module - 01
Lecture - 20
3d Structures : Analysis by Stiffness method (Part – 2)
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Let us, now write down the coefficients contribute in this matrix. Let us write down the
labels: t r v, l n p, h s w, then m o q that is an order of writing this.
Actually, we will look at them carefully t r v are actually translations and l and p are
rotations at j-th end. So, let us carefully write it here.
These are x y z translations at j-th end, these are x y z rotations at j-th end. Naturally this
will be h s and w then m o and q will be x y z translations at k-th end this is x y z
rotations at k-th end correct. Let us also mark the labels here this is t r v, then l n p, h s w,
m o and q.
So, now these are happening at the j-th end, these are happening at the k-th end, and
these are forces, and these are moments, Similarly these are forces, these are moments.
Let us fill up these values. When you give unit displacement along t only t and h are
influence you see here.
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Only t and h are influenced. So k tt then k ht remaining all are zeros. Similarly, when I
do it for h at the k-th end you see it will be k th and k hh remaining all will be zeros.
When you give unit displacement along r along r; r is along y. So, you get moment about
so you are doing on x y plane. So, r p r p s and q are invoked so let us do that when you
give along r r p s and q are invoked remaining all are 0.
Similarly, at the other end when you give along s you know r s p and q are invoked
remaining all are 0. When you give unit displacement along v you know let us see here
along v vn o and w are invoked. So, when you give along v vn so k vv vn o and w are
invoked remaining all are 0. Similarly, contemporary at k-th end will be w. So, k vw k
nw k ww and k ow remaining all are 0, so 0 0 1 more 0 and 1 0 0 0 ww zeros and 0 ok.
Now, let us give moments about l when I give moment about l l and m are invoked. So, l
and m are invoked, so l and m are invoked remaining all are 0. Similarly, at m l and m
are invoked remaining all are 0 so 0 0 0 and 0 0. Now you will give unit rotation about n
v n o and w are invoked.
So, v n o and w v n o and w are invoked remaining all are 0. Similarly contemporary o
will be; k vo k no k wo and k o o the last 1 is rotation about p. So, p q r as will be
involved. So, k rp k p p s k sp and k pq remaining all are 0. Similarly q, so k rq k pq k sq
and k qq remaining all are 0 so on.
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So, friends I do not think you have any difficulty in entering this matrix for a member
identifying the corresponding degrees of freedom influenced by giving unit displacement
along x y z and unit rotation about x y z both at the j-th end and k-th end respectively.
Now, our job is to fill up these values of coefficients from the known principle quantities
of beam element, we have to form the company stiffness matrix of a 3d beam element
which we will do now. Let us enter the same matrix again, now I am saying this is k
matrix of i-th member. Let us enter the labels t r v l n p h s w and m o q this is center at
the values, t r v l n p h s and w m o and q ok.
Now, you know by giving unit displacement along x, we will get this value which is
known to us which is a e by l. So, E Ax by l and t and h will be effected so minus E Ax
by l, similarly by giving along h this will be minus E Ax by l and plus E Ax by l
remaining all are 0, I have not enter the 0 values. So, let us enter them.
Next 1 is giving unit displacement along r along the y axis we know comparing the beam
element the stiffness matrix can be entered in simple as r p. So, r p s and q will be
invoked r and s are reactions p and q are moments. Therefore, in simple terms this will
be 6 E I z by l square q will be again minus 6 E I z by l square the reactions will be 12 E
I z by l cube and minus 12 E I z by l cube, 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0. Let us, do this for s also in s
you know 3 will be negative only along x will be positive. So, this is positive, remaining
all will be negative, remaining all are zeros by just convention known to us, then let us
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give unit rotation about z axis we have only know this value. So, that is going to cause
invoke p q r s.
So, p r s and q only this will be there we all know that is going to be 4 E I z by l. So, 4 E
I z by l and q is going to be 2 E I z by l which we already known for a 2 dimensional
main member I am entering them in green and the reactions are going to be along r is
positive. So, 6 E I z by l square along s it will be negative 6 E I z by l square remaining
all will be 0; so 0 and 0 0 0 and 1 0 and another 0 below and 0 0. Similarly, we can do it
for q also this is going to be 6 E I z by l square, then at p this will be 2 E Iz by l where, q
is going to be 4 E I z by l and for s it is going to be negative minus 6 E Iz by l square.
So, reactions are l square and moments are real remaining all are 0 2 0 0 2 zeros, then
member 0 0 0 0 then value. So, we have entered the 6 columns which are conventional
for a simple beam element which we already know, Let us do the remaining with red
color which is new for the 3 dimensional member. So, let us give unit displacement along
v and we will get now let us try to understand how do we get E I z here how do we get E
I z here.
So, look at the bending plane when I give unit displacement the rotation contribution
comes about the z axis. So, k p comes about the z axis that is why reducing I z here that
is why I z everywhere. Let, us now go to the unit displacement along z axis which is v,
when I give unit displacement along z axis which is v, it is x z plane. So, now when I
give displacement the rotation is going to happen about y axis. So I should use I y ok.
So, be careful we should use I y now. So, now this is going to be 0 0 12 E I y by l cube 0,
the again v means n. So minus 3, 6 E I y by l square then zeros then w will be invoked.
So, minus 12 e I y by l cube then minus 6 E I y by l square. So, v then correspondingly it
is going to w is it not v and correspondingly w, so let us fill up this column now.
So, w column which will have the same values, but with the different sign convention I y
l cube 0 6 E I y by l square, then 3 zeros, then 12 E I y by l cube then 1 0 6 E Iy by l
square and 0. Now, let us give unit rotation about x axis that is what we are going to do
about x axis you are rotating it about x axis. So, you get torsional moment ok.
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So, I should use now only we can see here only l and m are invoked only l and m are
invoked. So, l will be again, so these 3 are zeros this will be G Ix by l in till m all will be
zeros is going to be minus G Ix by l, similarly with m l and m will be invoked. So, this
will be 0 minus G Ix by l remaining all are zeros and m it is going to be G Ix by l
positive remaining all are 0.
Let us, now talk about the last column which is rotation about n. So, when I give that I
am going to invoke moment about I y moment about I y. So, I should say if I talk about n
the degrees of freedom are n v o and w, so n v o and w. So, let us talk about n v, so t r 0 v
is present, so it is going to be minus 6 E I y by 12 by l square then this is 0 4 E I y by l
next is 0 these 2 are zeros, w will have 6 E I y by l square and 0 and o o will have 2 E I y
by l.
Let us the last column o, which will be again these 2 are again zeros. So, this will be
minus 6 E Iy by l square. So, 0 going to be 2 E I y by l 0, then this is going to be 6 E Iy
by l square 0 and 4 E Iy by l 0. So friends, we have now all the coefficients of a 12 by 12
matrix which qualifies for the member stiffness of a beam element which is arbitrarily
oriented in space it is going to make the space element.
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Now, let us see how to estimate this I x, this I x I x actually is called torsional constant,
now for the beam element with rectangular cross section Ix can be given by ht cube by
12 1 minus 0.63 t by h plus 0.052 t by h cube. So this is approximate where, h is very
large compare to t. So, I have a rectangular cross section this is my h and this is my t, if h
is very large compare to t then I can use this approximate equation to compute the
torsional constant.
For rectangular cross section with very large value of h over t Ix can be approximated as
simply ht cube by 12 where this ratio will go very low.
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In case of I sections as shown, let us say this is tf this is bf breadth of the flange, this is
tw and this is hw. So, this is the web this is the flange Ix can be now the torsional
constant is one-third of summation of ht cube where, h is the longer dimension of
rectangle and t is the shorter dimension of rectangle.
Having said this, now I can find the torsional constant for this I section as 1 by 3 of h is
the longer 1 let us say I call this as member 1, member 2 and member three, for member
1 it is going to be bf tf cube this is for member 1, then for member 2 the longer 1 is hw
tw cube member two, plus again for member 3 it is bf tf cube is for member 3. So, I can
find the torsional constant approximately, using this relationship.
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So, now for the 3 dimensional member aligned in space, we know how to compute the
member stiffness matrix for a beam element of space structure. So, we know that this k it
is going to be 12 by 12, which is actually an extended derivation of 2d system. We also
explained you how to compute the torsional constant using approximate relationship for
these members.
Friends, we will continue with discussion in next lecture and try to see how we will
transform these member stiffness matrices to global stiffness matrix with reference to the
reference or global axes system. Then we will assemble these to form the k total of the
entire space structure to analyze the structure.
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Module - 01
Lecture - 21
3d structures: Transformation matrix
Friends, welcome to the 21st lecture in module 1, we have been discussing about the
computer methods of structural analysis applied to offshore structures, we have been
taking examples of beam element truss element with planar and non planar members
involved in a structural system on a 2 dimensional analysis. In the last lecture, we
introduced the 3 dimensional analysis and the member stiffness matrix of size 12 by 12,
we derived the stiffness matrix for the member which is on a space frame.
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Now, in this lecture we are going to discuss about how do we obtain or derive the
transformation matrix. Now the 1st question comes, why transformation matrix is
important. Very simple reason we all know that, in a space frame members can be
oriented in any fashion to be very specific; the local axes of the member may not
coincide with the reference axes system. In such situation whatever stiffness matrix we
derived in the last lecture they are considered to be local and they need to be transformed
which is with respect to the reference axes system.
Secondly, whatever load which is applied on the local need to be also transformed to get
J bar with reference to the x-y-z system. Most importantly, the member forces end
moments and reactions need to be computed with respect to the reference axes system,
but need to be also transformed to the local axes system of each member the question is
why this is required this is required because to design the member .
So, now the question is in a space frame members oriented in different formats and
alignments, how do we transform them to match the alignment with the top the reference
axes system. So, that is what we are going to discuss today in this lecture which we call
as a transformation matrix.
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One can see here, V0 is a vector which is arbitrarily oriented; this V0 vector is oriented
along the axis Y0. Now I want to transform this, this to the reference axes system for
example, we have considered the reference axes here has Y1, Y2 and Y3 axis which also
has an orientation with reference to X Y Z plane, but let us say I want to transformed this
to Y1, Y2 axis we can see here Y1, Y2 and Y3 axis are different from that of the Y0 axis
along which the vector or the member is oriented.
Now, let us defined the angles V0 is a vector which is oriented with respect to some set
of orthogonal axis Y1, Y2, Y3. Now vector V0 has its components, along Y1, Y2 and Y3
axis. To know it is component we should like to know the inclination of this vector or
position of this vector with reference to these 3 axis.
Let us, look at this symbol this is gamma 01. So, for example, gamma 01 is the angle
between the Y0 and Y1 axis. So, the first let us stands for Y0 and the second subscript
stands for Y1, with that algorithm please look at this angle Y 02 this is an inclination
with respect to Y0 and Y2. Similarly, Y0 and Y3 will give gamma 03. So, gamma 01,
gamma 02, gamma 03 are now the angles between the Y0 axis and Y1, Y2 or Y3
respectively.
Now, the corresponding components of them along Y1, Y2, Y3 are marked in blue color
and they are V1, V2 and V3. So this should be V3, this is V3 and this is V2 along V1, V2
and V3. So one can easily find the following relationship valid V1, V2 and V3 will be
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V0 cos gamma 01, V0 cos gamma 02 and V0 cos gamma 03, I call this equation number
as 1.
Whereas gamma 01, gamma 02, and gamma 03 are defined as angles between the vector
V0 or the axis Y0 to which vector is placed and the coordinate axes Y1, Y2 and Y3
respectively, now the above equation 1 the terms cos gamma 1, cos gamma 02, cos
gamma 03 are called direction cosines.
Now we have resolved the vector V0 along Y1, Y2, Y3 which are some set of coordinate
axes. Let us, now resolved this or transform this to a standard reference axes system
which is xyz. So, let us now draw a figure where the standard reference axes let X1, X2
and X3 be the reference axes as shown in the figure.
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So, let us name the figures this will be figure 1 which has component of vector V0 along
coordinate axes; let this be figure 2, where we are looking at components of V0 along
reference axes ok.
Let X1, X2 X1, X2 and X3 be the reference axis; obviously, this vector as a mistake this
was V3 and this was V2, I borrowed this figure from the previous. Now let us define the
angles, now let us define the angles of X1, X2 and X3 and the vector V0 or vector V1,
V2 and V3 because vectors V1, V2, V3 are already resolved along Y1, Y2, Y3 is it not
we already have this we can see here, V1 we have V1 we have, V 2 we have along Y2
and V3 we have along Y3.
So, now I am interested in knowing, what is the angle between this vectors and the
reference axes system X1, X2, X3. So, let us mark those angles let us say gamma 11 is
the angle between the V1 axis and X1 axis. So, the first subscript stands for V1 axis the
second subscript stands for the X1 axis. So, you can see here gamma 11. Similarly, the
angle between V1 and X2 should be gamma 12.
Similarly, the angle between V1 and X3there is this angle it will be gamma 13 by that
logic, I can now find or defined angles between the vector V2 with that of X1 X2 and X3
like for example, V2 vector is here, X1 is here the angle between V2 and X1 is here. So,
the first subscript in gamma 21 this stands for vector V2 and this stands for axis X1 and
so on.
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So, this figure explains or defines all angles between the respective vectors V1, V2 and
V3 which were resolved along some coordinate axes system Y1, Y2, Y3 when a push in
vector V0 is placed in space. Now I am transforming that vector or those vectors V1, V2
and V3 which were initially transformed through direction cosines along some reference
axes Y1, Y2, Y3 are now being transformed to the standard set of reference axes X1, X2,
X3, so you will like to do this.
So, now we can still write a statement that V1 vector makes an angle gamma 11 gamma
12 and gamma 13 with reference to X1, X2, X3. Similarly, V2 vector makes an angle
gamma 21, gamma 22, gamma 23 with reference to X1, X2, X3. Similarly, V3 makes an
angle gamma 31, gamma 32, gamma 33 with reference to X1, X2, X3 is that clear, so
this figure is clear.
Now, let us write this connecting equation or the matrix which connects the transformed
components of theses vectors. So, what is the transformed component of this vector
along X1, X2, X3 that is very clear here the transformed components are V1 bar, V2 bar
and V3 bar. So, now I want to connect V1 bar, V2 bar and V3 bar with that of V1, V2,
V3. Because V1, V2, V3 we already know, we can see from this previous equation V1,
V2 and V3 are known provided the direction cosines are measurable and the vector is
known to us ok.
So, now having now V1, V2, V3 we are interested in finding out the components of those
vectors resolved or transformed along the standard reference axes system X1, X2, X3
which I call as V1 bar, V2 bar and V3 bar.
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So, now we can write the governing equation which connects these 2 as below. So, the
set of equations connecting components along X1, X2, X3 system for the known
components of the vector V0 along Y1, Y2, Y3 are given below.
So, I should say V1 bar, V2 bar, V3 bar or simply V1 cos gamma 11 plus V2 cos gamma
21 plus V3 cos gamma 31, because these angles are defined with respect to X1 axis
where V1 is the component similarly with reference to X2 axis I can still write V1 cos
gamma 12 plus V2 cos gamma 22 plus V3 cos gamma 32, because these are all with
reference to axis 2 that is X2. Similarly, with reference to axis X3, 13, 23 and 33 I call
this as equation set 2.
Now, let us replace this cos term by a letter C. So, let C i j is actually equal to cos gamma
i j where, i represents the Y1, Y2, Y3 axes system and j represents X1, X2, X3 axis
system; by that logic I can convert equation 2 in much a simpler form as given here.
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So, I can now write V1 bar, V2 bar and V3 bar in a matrix form as C 11, C 21, C 31, C
12, C 22, C 32 and C 31, C 32, C 13, C 23 and C 33. Connecting these two V1, V2 and
V3 call equation number 3 I can now write a comprehensive equation of this as saying V
bar is expressed as C of the space transpose of that of V where Cs matrix refers to C 11,
C 12, C 13, C 21, C 22, C23, C31, C32, C 33.
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Friends, interestingly it also verifies that you can verify this individually verifies that C
space frame transpose matrix is as same as C space frame inverse I call this as equation
number 4 5.
So, now we have very comprehensive equation which is equation 4, V bar the component
of the vector, V0 along reference axes system X1, X2, X3 is simply given by the
transformation matrix for the direction cosine matrix; the direction cosine matrix Cs, if I
know the comprehensive of this vector along any predefined coordinate axes system Y1,
Y2, Y3. Please understand here one important statement this refers to a reference axes
system, this refers to some coordinate axes system.
The important point to note that is both of them do not refer to the axis of the original
vector V0 is it not that is very important. Having said this instead of a vector let us
considered as a member. So, I want to now find the member transformation matrix.
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Module - 01
Lecture - 21
3d structures: Transformation matrix
344
So let us say, I want to now know the member; we know the member say transformation,
we say member rotation matrix, there is a reason why I am called this as rotation, I will
explain this, later member rotation matrix. Let us consider the beam element which is
whose length is L i marked in red color, you can see a L i the member has 2 nodes j-th
node and k-th node; is it not; you can see here j-th node and k-th node.
Now, let us say the member is oriented along its local axes system which we all know it
is X m Y m and Z m, you can see here X m Y m and Z m there is a local axes. So, the
member is along aligned along X Y is 90 degree anticlockwise, Z is further 90 degree
anticlockwise. So, X m, Y m, Z m is a standard local axes system along which the
member is aligned which a very common principle what we also followed in the 2
dimensional analysis, we borrow the same logic back again here.
Now, this local axes system that is X m Y m Z m is placed arbitrarily in space with
reference to the standard reference axes system X, Y, Z you can see. So, reference axes
system is xyz local axes system is X m Y m Z m. So, on the other hand, we try to say by
making the statement, we are making an indirect statement that the member is aligned
arbitrarily it is placed arbitrarily in space correct because X m, Y m, Y Z is aligned to the
member you can see that. So, the member is arbitrarily place now.
So, now let us try to find out the angle of that axes system X m Y m Z m with reference
to X, Y, Z frame.
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So, gamma x, gamma y, gamma z are actually the angles of X m axis with respect to X Y
and Z respectively, you can see that in this figure X m axis with respect to X, let us say
gamma x; x m axis with respect to Y gamma y, X m axis with respect to Z gamma z; one
can always find the projection of this which will be actually equal to L i C x; this
distance; this value will be L i C x is it not.
This value will be L i C z and this value is L i C y so; obviously, this values also equal to
L i C x is or not and this value is also equal to L i C z. Therefore, the diagonal length can
be simply root of sum of this squares. So, this value now is actually equal to L i root of C
x square plus C z square this can be easily computed no confusion in this. So, I call this
as figure 3 which I am going to use for member rotation.
So, the figure is clear and these are the angles made by the X m axis with respect to the
reference axes xyz respectively now you can also write C x as cos gamma x let C y b cos
gamma y and C z b cos gamma z which are direction cosines now interestingly has the j
and k coordinates of the member positioned in space or no because you know the
position of this member or no; the direction cosines can be written as follows.
C X will be x k minus X j by L i C y will be Y k minus Y j by L i and C z is Z k minus Z

j by L i and L i can be simply said as root of X k minus X j square plus Y k minus Y j
square plus Z k minus Z j square. So, now, we know C x, C y and C z; we know of
course, the angles between them. So, direction cosines can be easily estimated based
upon these set of equations written on the screen now interestingly X k, Y k and Z k.
Similarly, X j, Y j and Z j or actually coordinates of the member or the beam element

placed in space is it not placed in space having said this.
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It is now important to note that the direction cosines; give the components of beam
element only along the reference axes system, but an important information of
orientation of the local axes system with reference to the reference axes system is not
known.
That is very important we need to find out this also therefore, it is clear that beam
element is oriented along the local axes which is in my case X m, Y m, Z m hence.
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Hence orientation of X m, Y m, Z m axes that is the local axes system with reference to
the reference axes system which is X, Y, Z is called as the psi angle, we need to compute
this; this is to be estimated. So, what the time to estimate is the orientation of local axes
system with respect to the reference axes system that is what we are interested.
To do this, we need estimate 2 things one the direction cosines, 2 the psi angle. So, we
need to know both of these to do this, right. So, importantly let us also try to understand
the angle of inclination of alpha and beta the angle of alpha and beta is also important
which will be using in the transformation.
So, we need to actually now, transform the beam element vectors or the beam element
matrices to the reference axes system.
So, friends in this lecture we learnt about the transformation of vector v zero along any
axis y 1, y 2, y 3, we have learnt a beam element transformation from local axes to the
global axes we understood that direction cosines which gives me the component along
reference axes and the psi angle which gives me the orientation of local axes with respect
to reference axes system are important. This is to be estimated for each member in a
space frame.
I hope you understood and the figures are of good clarity you will be able to redraw them
and understand the conventions and notations which are try to explain during the lecture.
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Give a reading once again and try to understand, if you have any difficulties please post
it in the discussion forum, we will try to help you out.
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Module - 01
Lecture - 22
Y-Z-X Transformation for 3d Analysis
Friends, welcome to the 22nd lecture, module 1. Where, we are continuing to discuss
about the 3 d analysis of structural members using stiffness method. In this lecture, we
are going to discuss about one important transformation procedure which is called Y-Z-X
transformation. We will talk about that in detail, we will derive the transformation matrix
for this particular sequence of transformation; let us first ask the question in 3 d analysis
by doing transformation what did we gain.
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Number one direction cosines give the components of the member along the reference
axes system, further the psi angle provides information about the orientation of local
axes system with respect to the reference axes system which we discussed in the last
lecture. We have already said how to obtain the direction cosines for arbitrarily oriented
beam element. We will now discuss how to get this psi angle in detail while doing so; it
is very important to note that the procedure of aligning the reference axes system to that
of local axes system is actually called transformation.
So, there are various schemes, steps involved in doing this one such scheme is called the
Y-Z-X transformation. It means rotate the reference axes about Y axis first, then Z axis
next and then about X axis at the last; that is called Y-Z-X. So, Y X highlights the
procedure or in fact, highlights the order or sequence of rotation to be carried out.
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Now, the reference axes system which is x, y, z will be rotated about Y axis first, then
about Z axis next and then about X axis at the last.
The amount of rotation which will happen about Y axis will be alpha degrees about Z
axis will we be beta degrees and then ultimately. We will get the psi angle. So, the
procedure is very simple, hold the orthogonal axis system that is x, y, z and rotate this
axes system about Y axis by alpha degrees.
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Look at this figure carefully, this is my reference axes system x, y, z; this is our local
axes system x m, y m, z m, we have arbitrarily placed vector V 0.
So, let V 0 be the vector placed arbitrarily what we do now is we rotate this by about Y
axis and that is a first level of rotation and the angle of rotation is alpha degrees. So,
since a rotating about Y axis; y and y alpha will be same, whereas, the x will move to x
alpha and z will move to z alpha; this is x alpha, this is x alpha, this is z alpha. So, x will
move to x alpha by alpha and by the same amount z will move to z alpha by alpha, we
have understood that how to compute this V x bar V y bar and V z bar which are nothing,
but the components of this vector which are with reference to some standard axes in my
case it is x, y, z.
So, now I want to connect V alpha x, V beta x and V beta y alpha y sorry V alpha y and
alpha z by a transformation matrix which is the direction cosine matrix and I want to
connect this to V x bar V y bar and V z bar. So, if you look at this figure from this figure
it is very easy to compute the angle sin alpha. So, if you look at this figures let us say sin
alpha will be this dimension by this dimension I can write here sin alpha is L i C z by L i
root of C x square plus C z square which essentially C z by root of C x square plus C z
square.
One can also find cos alpha from this figure which will be this dimension this dimension
which will be equal to the this dimension which is L i C x by square root of C x square
plus C x square L i which ultimately is C x by root of C x square plus z square. So, sin
alpha and curve alpha are known to me and alpha actually is amount of rotation what we
are doing with respect to the Y axis to move the x, y, z axis to get align about the Y axis
now by doing so; y and y alpha this is y alpha y and y alpha will be same whereas, x
alpha and z alpha will rotate by an angle alpha.
So, the technologies relationship of this angle sin and cos are available on the screen
now. So, using this relationship, I want to connect the projection of V x bar on x alpha
etcetera. So, I want to find out V alpha x V alpha y this is V alpha x this is V alpha x this
is V alpha y and this is b alpha z. So, I am connecting this 2 from a simple relationship,
we can very well see here is going to be cos alpha 0 and sin alpha because this will have
components of x and z; only V y will have no component from anywhere because its
rotated about the Y axis and this going to be minus sin alpha 0 cos alpha where sin alpha
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and cos alpha are available on the screen as you see here, I call this as equation number
let us say on.
Now I can substitute this and write down expression for V alpha x.
So, V alpha x V alpha y V alpha z will be C x by root of C x square plus C z square 0 C z

by root of C x square plus C z square this is 0 1 0, this is minus C z by root of C x square
plus C z square, this is C x by root of C x square plus C z square and this connects V
alpha x to V bar x V bar y and V bar z the equation number 2. So, now, I can write the
simple expression saying V alpha is actually equal to C alpha multiplied by V bar where
V bar. Already, we know this value from the previous lecture, if we see any arbitrarily
oriented vector, you can have the V bar components of other vector to any reference axes
system using a transformation matrix which we already discussed in the last lecture.
Having said this we are looking for Y-Z-X transformation we have now rotated about y;
let us now rotate this about z axis. So, step 2 rotate about.
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Z axis by beta angle; let us look at the figure . So, now, we are rotating we are attempting
to rotate about z axis. So, rotating about Z axis by an angle beta; so, x alpha which
originally, he was president; this is x alpha which was originally present has now become
x beta and this is V alpha x which we have already know from here, this is V alpha y this
is V alpha z. So, step number 2; we are rotating about Z axis when we do this z alpha and
z beta will be same axis because I am rotating about z axis.
When you do that; obviously, this axis will shift 2 x beta and this axis will now shift 2 y
beta making an angle beta and beta respectively now the components along them will be
respectively marked as V beta x V beta y and V beta z. Since I am rotated about the Z
axis V alpha z and V beta z will miss him is or not, let us say I want to now develop
relationship between V beta x V beta y and V beta z knowingly connecting this with V
alpha x V alpha y V alpha z which will be no because you see here this is known.
So, looking at the same algorithm cos sin etcetera, I want express this in terms of the
matrix connecting this 2 as you correctly guest V beta said is same as V z therefore, 0 0
1; this is going to be cos beta sin beta, I am resolving V alpha x and V alpha y about V
beta x. So, this is cos beta and that is sin beta, we can see here anything swift along the
angle is cos anything swift away from the angle is sin by that logic this is minus sin beta
plus cos beta 0.
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Now, from this figure look at the angle beta angle beta will be look at this triangle, I am
marking this triangle in different color or I am hatching this triangle in a different color;
hatching this triangle; look at this triangle. So, beta sin beta will be this value by the
diagonal is it not. So, l C y by square root of this value which is some of squares of this
which is L i essentially this is L i is it not this is L i essentially. So, let us use that and
write down sin beta will be L i C y by L i and cos beta will be L i square root of C x
square plus C z square by L i which amounts to C y this amounts to C x square plus C z
square substituting this in the previous equation.
So, substituting five we can modify 4; see equation 4 is rewritten as V beta x V beta y V
beta z is connected by root of C x square plus C z square C y 0 minus C y root of C x
square plus C z square 0 0 0 1 and connect this 2 V alpha x V alpha y and V alpha z.
So, we are doing step by step this factory already know you see here this vector is known
now this vector also be known because C x C z is are known to us is or not having said
this we can write a relationship V beta is actually equal to C beta with V alpha equation
6, equation 7; one we did this.
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Finally, let us rotate about x axis. So, what we did is we did about y, then we did it about
z, then we are doing with x when we did rotation about y only z change to z alpha x
change to x alpha.
When you did rotation about z z alpha remained z beta same whereas, x alpha change to
x beta and y alpha change to y beta in this case y remains y alpha same because I am
rotating about y axis; so, by this logic; when I rotate about z x axis. So, when I rotate
about X axis is expected that x beta now will remain same as I am rotating this by an
angle psi y. So, please note psi is angle which we want and this letter y indicates the
transformation order is Y-Z-X. So, this y is what is indicated here.
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Let us see the figure; how do we rotate this. So, I rotate about X axis that is x beta. So,
then I mark you know; x will not change the change will happen from y beta and z beta
my idea is principally to align this axis with local axis x m, y m and z m. So, I am
aligning with x m and finding the angle between y beta and y m or z beta and z m. So,
the angle psi is actually the angle between y beta and y m that is measured from y beta
towards y m. So, it is measured this way.
Similarly, it is measured this way or angle between z beta and z m measured from z beta
towards z m. So, the idea is the idea is to bring y m and y beta aligned z m and z beta
aligned and of course, x m and x beta are already aligned because I am rotating about X
axis. So, now, psi y is the angle between z beta and z m or y beta and y m therefore, I
want really find V x, V y and V z which are the values of the components along z y, n x
y, n z.
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You can see here small x small y and small z, I want to find that which will be now
connected by a matrix again and it will be connected to V beta x V beta y V beta z;
please understand, this vector is known to us see here this vector is known is it not. So,
this is known; I want to connect as you correctly observed we are rotating about X axis
therefore, it will be 1 0 0. So, no contribution from y and z look at this figure I am
interested in finding out V y; V y is this value as you mark in blue.
So, this will be essentially contributed from V beta y which is the yellow 1 cos of psi y
this angle is psi y is it not. So, V beta y psi by and V beta z and V beta y cos by and V
beta z sin y; so, simply I can say 0 cos psi y and sin psi y similarly if you look for V z
which is this value the blue one this will have a component from V beta z which will be
cos of psi y whereas, look at V beta y it will opposite. So, sin of psi y, but minus. So, 0
minus sin psi y cos psi y; so, I can express this is in a vectorial form; the equation
number could be 8 which is expressed as C psi by matrix connected to V beta by
equation 9.
Now, let us look at the all the equations V connects V beta and V beta is connected to V
alpha and V alpha is connected to V x is or not. So, ultimately, we are interested in
estimating this value in terms of V bar V bar is a component of the vector or the member
along any reference axes. So, let us establish that relationship now.
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We can now say that V is actually equal to C psi y of V beta which can be extended as C
psi y V beta is C beta of V alpha is or not let us extended this further as C psi y C beta
which is C alpha of V bar.
So, v; so, actually equal to C psi y C beta C alpha of V bar the equation number 10; so,
now, I call this as C y which is C psi y C beta C alpha 10 a.
So, let us try to find out this value C y. So, let us write down these matrices separately
again and multiply them. So, C y is actually equal to C psi y C psi y is 1 0 0 and this
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value let us enter this matrix 1 0 0 0 cos psi y, sin psi y 0 minus sin psi y cos psi y, then
what do you want is C beta; let us see C beta C beta is this; this matrix. Let us enter this
matrix multiplied by C x square plus C z square root C y 0 minus C y root of C x square
plus C z square root 0 0 0 1.
Further multiplied by I want C alpha let search for C alpha in this screen. So, this is my
C alpha matrix see here. So, let us enter that value here which is C x by root of C x
square plus C z square 0 C z by root of C x square plus z square 0 1 0 minus C z by root
of C x square C z square 0 C x by root of C x square plus C z square I will get C y. So,
multiply and my C y is ultimately going to be is C x C y C z minus C x C y cos psi y
minus C z sin psi y by root of C x square plus C z square cos psi y root of C x square
plus C z square minus C z C y cos psi by plus C x sin psi y by root of C x square plus C z
square.
The third row will be C x C y sin psi y minus C z cos psi y by root of C x square plus C y
square minus sin psi y into C x square plus C z square C y C z sin psi y plus C x cos psi y
by root of C x square plus C z square I get C by matrix like this.
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So, interestingly C y is called as the rotation matrix which is expressed in terms of

direction cosines which in fact, defines the position of x m that is the longitudinal axis of
the member in the local axes system with respect to the reference axes system and
through the psi angle.
So, friends let us look at the summary, we understood the importance of transformation
matrix of an arbitrarily oriented member we call this as rotation matrix.
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So, to explain the procedure and position of the vector in a given reference axes system
we need to issues one is a direction cosine other one is a psi angle octane the psi angle
we did Y-Z-X transformation and we obtain the rotation matrix C y C because the
rotation matrix contains direction cosines y because the transformation is of an order Y-
Z-X it means the first rotation was about Y axis.
Friends, I hope you understand slowly how we have done this transformation the idea is
to orient X, Y, Z axis to X, Y, Z m axis of the member that is the idea. So, we did this. So,
for a given member arbitrarily oriented, if we are able to explain the direction cosines
one can calculate the psi angle if we know the psi angle, I can easily estimate the C y
value for a given system. So, there is one more method by which we can obtain the psi
angle that is Z-Y-X transformation. We will discuss that in the next lecture.
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Module - 01
Lecture - 23
Z-Y-X Transformation for 3d Analysis (Part - 1)
Friends, let us continue to discuss about the transformation matrices or rotation matrix
rather to be developed for 3 d analysis. This is lecture 23 and module 1, where we have
going to talk about a new transformation process.
364
Which is Z-Y-X transformation in the last lecture, we discussed about Y-Z-X

transformation, we said that rotate about Y first, then about z and finally, about x that is
Y-Z-X to get the angle psi Y.
Now, we are going to do Z-Y-X transformation which in the same algorithms says that
rotate about X axis first, then about y axis and finally, about X axis. So, friends we will
be getting what is called phi Z here. So, this second subscript stands for the first axis
about which you are rotating the whole process the question comes why this is done in
simple terms X-Y-Z axes is aligned to x m y m z m axes that is we are doing it.
So, this Y is called rotation because we are rotating we are rotating about the 3 axes
subsequently successively therefore, it is called rotation matrix.
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So, let us do this procedure; now let us look at this figure, there is a vector oriented
arbitrarily which is marked in red colour the local axes are X m, Y m and Z m; the global
axes of reference is X-Y-Z. So, X m, Y m, Z m are local axes and X-Y-Z are global or
rather reference axes system looking in this figure we are now first going to rotate about
Z axes when you do that Z will become Z zeta because I rotate by angle of theta degrees
and X will become X theta and Y will become Y theta which will be knew, but Z and Z
theta will be same.
So, you get X theta here and y theta here that is a first step in the second step you rotate
about Y axes because it is Z-Y-X transformation by an angle alpha. So, when you do that
Y theta will be as same as Y alpha you see here and X theta will become X alpha Y theta
will become Z theta will become Z alpha. So, once you do this you know Z alpha and X
alpha you rotate this by alpha degrees.
In the third and final stage you rotate about X axis; so, by doing that by an angle psi. So,
I should say psi Z by doing that I get X alpha as same as X m that is what we get here Y
alpha will now change to Y m and Z alpha will now align with Z m. So, the angle
between these 2 that is Y alpha and Y m are Z alpha and Z m is called psi Z.
So, psi Z is measured from Y alpha to Y m or from Z alpha to Z m it is measured from

here measured from here its measured from here. So, the idea is to align the reference
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axes X-Y-Z to that of X m Y m and Z m respectively. So, that is the stages involved. So, I
must get the rotation matrix.
So, we are first rotating about Z axes by angle theta, then rotating about Y axes lambda
then finally, rotate about X axes to get psi Z.
So, now the matrix C psi Z is directly written as can look into the previous derivation of
C psi Y; I can recollect it for you from the previous lecture C psi Y is actually 1 0 0 0 cos
psi y sin psi y 0 minus sin psi y cos psi y which connects V x, V y, V z to V beta in the
same style, I can now write this as 1 0 0 0 cos psi z sin psi z 0 minus sin psi z cos psi z
stated which connects V x, V y and V z to that of V.
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So, now we also know that C z can be now said as C psi z C lambda and C theta because
this is rotation about z axes this is rotation about y axis this is rotation about x axis. So,
let us substitute this and try to find C z C z actually is given by cos theta cos lambda sin
theta cos lambda and sin lambda minus sin theta cos psi z minus cos theta sin lambda sin
psi z.
This term I am writing it here cos theta cos psi z minus sin, theta sin lambda sin psi z, the
third term is cos lambda sin psi z the last row sin theta sin psi z minus cos theta sin
lambda cos sin z, this term second column will be minus cos theta sin psi z minus sin
theta sin lambda cos psi z the last term will be cos lambda cos psi z.
Now, what would be the value of for example, these trigonometry relationships etcetera
let us look at this figure the angle theta is marked cos theta or let say sin theta will be
essentially L C y by C x square plus C z square this is actually this is actually C x, this is
C x and this value is C z; is it not and this value is C y. So, C x square plus C x z square
or the value of this will be L i this is the original vector L i therefore, from this figure.
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I can simply say sin theta will be C y by root of C x square plus C y square and cos theta
will be C x by root of C x square plus C y square sin alpha we can see the alpha as angle
is here lambda angle we are transporting transferring it through lambda angle.
So, one can always say the lambda angle sin lambda is C z and cos lambda is root of C x
square plus C y square. Now in this equation I have got cos and sins; let us substitute
them back and write here full equation for C z.
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Which is this value which can be given by C x, C y, C z minus C x, C y sin psi z minus C
y cos psi z by root of C x square plus C y square; this value will be minus C y, C z sin psi
z plus C x cos psi z by root of C x square plus C y square.
This will be sin psi z by root of C x square plus C y square the third row minus C x, C z
cos psi z plus C y sin psi z by root of C x square plus C y square minus C y, C z cos psi z
minus C x sin psi z by root of C x square plus C y square; this value will be cos psi z by
root of C x square plus C y square that is my C z matrix.
So, friends in general one can use either Y-Z-X transformation or Z-Y-X transformation
to transform the reference axes system to local axes system, but the choice of
transformation order can make the evaluation of psi angle more simple in both
transformation the rotation about the last step is about the x axes only is only the
variation between Y Z and Z Y; the last rotation is always about the x axes.
So, choice of the transformation order can make the computation of psi angle more
simple most importantly in both transformations psi angles are calculated; is it not, but
psi angle calculated from y transformation and psi angle calculated from z
transformation are completely different. So, this subscript y stands for which are the first
rotation this subscripts z stands for which is the first rotation both angles are called as
psi, but the values will be different.
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So, you have to very clear which transformation order I should follow. So, let us ask this
question for a given member which transformation order or let us rotation order is to be
followed how many orders are there; there are 2 orders one Y-Z-X; other is Z-Y-X there
are 2 types. So, interestingly if the member is positioned in the frame of reference axes
such that the longitudinal axes of the member corresponds to Y axes of the reference
system, then use Z-Y-X.
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Similarly, if a member is placed in the frame of reference axes system such that a
longitudinal ax of the member corresponds to z axes of the reference system, then use Y-
Z-X transformation. Let us talk slightly about the psi angle where that seems to be very
important actually, it is the angle between y beta and y m axes are z beta and z m axes if
it is Y-Z-X transformation; it is between y lambda and y m axes or z lambda and z m
axes if it is say y x order that is a psi angle. Let us try to explain this graphically; let us
take I have.
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Module – 01
Lecture – 23
Z-Y-X Transformation for 3d Analysis (Part – 2)
373
3 axes system, the x y and z. Let us have the local axes x m, y m and z m. Let us also
have the transformation transformed axes, y beta and z beta. This is y beta, this is z beta
and this will coincide with x. So, now let us say this is my line of sight, I see this from
here where the member is placed somewhere here, member is placed here this is my j-th
end my k-th end this is my member this is my j-th end and k-th end ok.
So, let us say this angle is actually beta and this angle is actually alpha and this is y z x
transformation. So, we did rotation first step, then rotation second step, then rotation
third step y z x transformation. So, the angle obviously, this will be beta and this
becomes my z beta as well as z alpha. So, the angle between y beta and y m is psi y, the
angle between z beta and z m is it not is also psi y. Now if you try to draw a rectangular
cross section of this member seeing from the line of sight here.
So, let us say I am trying to draw it here, let me draw the axes. So, this is going to be my
y m axes this is going to be my z m axes is not see from here, I am seeing through. So,
this becomes my x m, y m is vertical and z m is to the left correct you can see here left
and y m is to the right. Let us now mark y beta and z beta. So, this is y beta this is z beta.
So, the angle between y beta and y m or z beta and z m is called psi y.
So, now we can write the angle psi y is measured anticlockwise, when viewing the cross
section of the member towards the j-th end from the k-th end. When you see from here
you will see y m is to the left of y beta and z m is to the left of z beta that is what we are
marked here. So, the direction cosines that is C x, C y, C z actually define, the location of
x m axes psi y defines the location of minor principle axes in the transformation all
parameters are geometric dependent.
Similarly, if you try to do this for z y x transformation, let us do this for z-y-x
transformation.
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Let say the reference axes is marked in red colour, let us mark the local axes in blue
colour, z m axes. Let us also mark the transformed axes of y alpha, y lambda and z
lambda. If this is x, we know that z and z theta will be same and the angle psi z will be
measured between y lambda and y m.
Similarly, z lambda and z m if we start viewing this by marking a member with j end k
end, the angle between this is actually theta and this angle is lambda. So, let us view the
sight towards this direction. Now I draw the cross section, I mark the local axes y m
vertical because x m looking through y m is vertical y m and z m is to the my left. So, z
m is to my left and y alpha is to my right of y.
So, y alpha and z alpha, y lambda and z lambda. So, now this angle is psi z this angle is
also psi z. So, psi z is measured anticlockwise from y lambda towards y m or z lambda
towards z m as shown in the figure. So, we have equations now to compute these psi
angles which are very important we will take up a numerical in the next lecture and try to
explain how the psi angle can be computed for different set of problems.
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So, friends as a summary we have seen 2 set of transformations. In fact, they are actually
rotations 1 is y z x transformation, other is z y x transformation in both cases the last
rotation is about x axes. The principle objective is to align x-y-z axes system, along with
x-y-z axes system which is local. So we need 2 issues, one is the direction cosine which
can be computed from the angle of rotation second is the psi angle whether it will be y or
psi z depending upon whether we do y-z-x transformation or z-y-x transformation, the
equations are available figures, are clearly drawn I wish you will be able to understand
this and estimate this angles for given example problem which we will discuss in the
next lecture.
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Module – 01
Lecture – 24
Analysis of Space Frame Example – 1 (Part – 1)
Friends, welcome to the 24th lecture on module 1. We will take up couple of examples of
3 dimensional analysis and try to understand them using simple transformation in step by
step procedure. Let us rewind back slightly and understand what we did in the last couple
of lectures in 3 dimensional analysis.
377
We said that for any member which is arbitrarily oriented in space with respect to the
reference axes system, one need to estimate 2 parameters namely the direction cosines
and the psi angle.
3 direction cosines namely C x, C y, C z; actually defined the location of longitudinal

axes of the member that is x m axes with reference to the reference axes system. Please
understand C x deals with cos gamma i j C y deals also with cos gamma i j C z deals
with cos gamma i j whereas, in this case, I will be related to x m and x. In this case, y m
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and y, in this case z m and z respectively in addition the psi angle defines the location of
minor principle axes.
We should also agree that all parameters of direction cosines and psi angle are geometric
dependent that is it actually depends on position or orientation of the member with
reference to the reference axes system. Further to make a very interesting statement
direction cosines of each member can be readily computed, but psi angle need to be
carefully estimated one can do 2 types of transformation.
In fact, to be very specific, we should say types of rotation 1 is y-z-x transformation

which will give you ultimately psi y.
Another is z-y-x transformation which will give you psi z please understand the
computation of angle psi computed from both the transformations are different so;
obviously, the rotation process enables aligning or alignment of x-y-z axes to x-y-z axes
of the member that is what we are trying to do.
Let us take an example and try to understand how to compute this psi angle.
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So, we do one example as shown in the figure now. So, let us try to; so, let us mark the
global axes like this; this is my x axes, this is going to be my y axes and this is going to
be my z axes and this becomes my origin for the reference axes system and I have 3
members the third member actually is connecting this point to this point.
So, now there are 3 members fixed at both the ends here we are able to visualize it in a 3
dimensional space. Let us now mark the dimensions; let us say this dimension is 4
meters, this dimension is also 4 meters and the height is 3 meters. Let us name the
member, this member is member 1, this member is member 2, this inclined member is
member 3, let us name the joints, let us say this is joint 1, joint 2 and joint 3 and this is
just restraint and this point.
Let say 4; now the question asked is determine the psi angle for all the 3 members of the
space frame shown in the figure; let us talk about member 1.
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We know the length of the member L 1 is 4 meters length of the member is 4 meters, let
us choose the local axes of the member like this. So, this is my x m, y m and z m for in
the second member; let us say this is my x m, y m and z m for the third member along
the length is x m, y m and z m.
So, let say the member j and k and length of the member; let say the member 1, member
2 and member 3; for the member 1 j end is at 1 and k end is at 2 length of the member is
4 meters, for the member 2, j end is at 3 k end is at 2 length of the member is again 4
sorry; yeah, 4. So, if I calculate this, you know this value is going to be this dimension is
going to be 5.656 that is root 2 of 4 meters, but I want to know this length. So, this length
of the member will be it originates at 2 j end k end is at 4 where length is going to be
square root of 5.655 square plus 3 square which is 6.402 that is the length of the member
3.
So, let us go to member one this is member one whose length is 4 meters. Now x m of
member 1 is oriented towards y axes is it not; see here x m is oriented towards y axes.
Therefore, we should use z-y-x transformation; now interestingly the psi angle will be
psi z, it depends upon what it is the first transformation; we do this is actually the angle
between y m and y axes is it not; now you can see here y m and the y axes is 90 degrees.
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So, now I can say this is 90 degrees. Similarly, let us do this for member 2 length of the
member L 2 is again 4 meters. Now you see the longitudinal axes of the member that is x
m axes of the member x m axes of the member is oriented along x; is it not is oriented
along x axes. So, one can do either y-z-x or z-y-x transformation; let us consider y-z-x
transformation. So, I will now compute psi y which will be the angle between y m and y
axis let see that y m is vertical y x horizontal. So, the angle is going to be 90 degrees.
Let us go to member 3; member 3 x m axes is neither aligned towards x, y or z.
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But incline is it not; you can see here it is inclined in such situation you can do both the
transformation let us try y-z-x transformation that is complicated to understand this; let
us do some more explanation to understand this transformation; let us take a simple
examples to explain let us do that.
Let say I have a 3 axes system which is x-y-z, I do y-z-x transformation, I want to do y-
z-x transformation, I have a vector which is placed arbitrarily and this is my x m axes, it
will also be x beta axis.
So, let say this is my y m axes and z m axes; let say this is my x beta which I marking in
red color, this is my x beta, this becomes my y beta and this becomes my z beta. So, the
psi y angle will be the angle between y and y m or z and z m correct angle between y and
y m; this is my psi y or this is my psi y to understand this what we should do. Let us
consider a point p in x m, y m plane that is this plane x m y m plane in the frame of x-y-
z, but the point should be located or let say the point should not be located along the x m
axes select any point let us take this point.
Let us take this point this is my point p it is located in x y m plane, this is the plane you
can see here this is the plane, but not along x m line. Now I project this on the x m and y
m planes and then projected to z and x plane; obviously, this will be z bar p and this will
be x bar p because this is x axes this is y axes this is my jth end of the member and kth
end of the member. So, p is the point located in x x m y m plane, but not along x m axes
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having said this we need to find out the coordinates of this points coordinates of this
point will actually describe position of x p, y p and z p with respect to the reference axes
system lets do this.
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Module - 01
Lecture - 24
Analysis of Space Frame Example - 1 (Part - 2)
385
So, for y-z-x transformation, we already derived yesterday that x beta P y beta P and z
beta p; P is transfer the point P and beta is the transformation is actually given by C x
square plus C z square root C y 0 minus C y C x square plus C z square root 0 0 0 1
multiplied by C x by root of C x square z square 0 C z by root of C x square plus C z
square 0 1 0 minus C z by root of C x square C z square 0 C x by root of C x square C z
square.
We derive this matrix yesterday multiplied by x bar P y bar P z bar P when you do this
multiplication, I will find a relationship between x beta P y beta P z beta P as C x, C y, C
z minus C x, C y by root of C x square plus C z square root of C x square plus C z square
minus C y, C z by root of C x square plus C z square minus C z by root of C x square C z
square 0 C x y root of C x square plus C z square multiplied by x bar P y bar P z bar p.
So, if we expand this, I can straight away write x beta P C x x bar P plus C y y bar P plus
C z z bar P and so on y beta P and z beta P can be written; simply I can write this.
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Now, very interestingly looking at this figure coordinates of the point P on x m y m plane
is now given by y beta P and z beta P is it not; how can I say that? Let us say I view this
from here and draw a section; let us say my y m is vertical and my z m is to the left of
that and my y beta is to the right of y m, so this y beta and z beta. Obviously, will be the
left of z m is it not z beta.
And if you take this point P somewhere on y m this is y m; is it not; this is y m; let us say
I rub this arrow, this is y m, if you take this point P and I call this is point P; now this
distance and this distance will be simply known to us and this value is what we call as
psi y is also equal to this. So, now, the coordinates of this point will be given.
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Coordinates of point P on the x m, y m plane is now given by y beta P and z beta P; is it

not; look at this figure.
Y beta P and z beta P correct. So, I can now find sin psi y as simply z beta P by root of z
beta P square plus y beta P square. Similarly cos psi y can be simply y beta P by root of z
beta P square plus y beta P square, I will use this relationship now. So, the coordinates of
point P with reference to the reference axes system; let us see; what is that coordinates of
point P with reference to reference system should be of the point P; let us say this figure
of the point P.
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Now, I call this as my point P, I am choosing this point on x y m plane, I call this as my
point P for the problem. So, the coordinates of this point with the reference axes system
will be 4 comma, I can write it here 4 comma 4 comma 0 with reference to j-th end, it
will be 0 comma 0 comma minus 3, correct; this end will be I write down that here
coordinates of point P will be 4 comma 4 comma 0.
Similarly, the coordinates of point P with reference to the j-th end of the member 3 that is
measured from the j-th end will be 0 comma 0 comma minus 3, you can see here with
reference to j-th end, this is j-th end of this member, this is the j-th end of this member.
So, 0 comma 0 comma minus 3 because z is positive; so, thus the position vectors is
given by x p, y p and z p, simply 0 0 and minus 3.
Now, what are the coordinates of the j-th end with respect to x-y-z axes system; we can
see here coordinates of the j-th end with respect to this will be 4 comma 4 comma 3; 4
comma 4 comma 3. Similarly coordinates of the j-th end with respect to x-y-z system,
you can see here; this will be the origin. So, it is 0; is it not; this is the j-th end. So, it is 0,
now the length of the member which is 3 is also known to us which is 6.402 meters; we
already computed that we can see here we already computed that.
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Now, let us compute C x, C y and C z; the direction cosines which will be simply x k
minus x j by L i y k y j L i z k z j L i; let us do that 0 comma minus 4 by 6.402, 0 minus 4
by 6.402, 0 minus 3 by 6.402 which will give me minus 0.625 minus 0.625 minus 0.469;
these are my directions cosines; once I get this, I can use this relationship X B P will be
equal to this C x, C y, C z by this Y B P will be equal to this row by column and Z B P
will be this row multiplied by the column.
So, let us do this relationship. So, I say x beta P which is given by C x x bar P plus C y y
bar P plus C z z bar p.
390
So, C x and C y are anyway 0 because the x P and y P bar are 0 plus C z is 0.469 into 3.
So, that gives me this values as 1.407 y beta P; if you look at the equation, this will be
minus C x, C y by root of C x square plus C z square of x bar P plus root of C x square
plus C z square of y bar P minus C y C root of C x square C z square of z bar p.
We know these values are 0. Therefore, this term will not be there let us substitute
directly for the last term which will be minus of minus 0.625 minus 0.469 minus 3
divided by root of 0.625 square plus 0.469 square which will be plus 1.125 z beta P is
given by minus C z of C x square plus C z square of x bar of P plus C x by root of square
of C x and C z of z power of P.
We know that this value is further 0; let us substitute only for this value which will be
minus 0.625 into minus 3 divided by root of 0.625 square plus 0.469 square which gives
me this value as plus 2.4.
391
Let us now compute sin psi y which is given by Z beta P by root of z beta P square plus
Y beta P square we already derive this expression.
Let us substitute that now 2.40 by square root of 2.40 square plus 1.125 square which
becomes 0.905 cos psi y which has been also derived as y beta P by z beta P square plus
y beta P square which will be 1.125 by 2.4 square plus 1.125 square which gives me
0.424.
So, now psi y can be said as tan inverse of 0.905 by 0.424, because sin by cos will give
you tan and the angle is tan inverse of that which gives me 64.897 degrees, but let us
carefully mark psi y depending upon the figure. Let us take the member.
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Module – 01
Lecture – 24
Analysis of space frame: Example – 1 (Part - 3)
393
Is presented like this; so, this is another member. So, my axes are marked this way which
is X axes, this is Z axes and this is Y axes, we are worried about this member; let us look
at the view from here because this is my X m end of this member and this is my Y m end
of this member; is it not.
So, I look towards the X m end in the negative direction that is the view when I draw the
view. So, this is my cross section let say this is my Y m X m of course, here dot Y m is
vertical and Z m is to my left this is my Y m right. So, let us mark the other 2 angles; the
z beta P and y beta P; let us take any point P on the plane; let say this is my point P you
know the psi way angle is actually is angle between Y m and Y beta is it not.
So, what I should do is whatever value I got I should add 180 degree to this 180 degree is
to be added to this; is it not. So, I am actually getting this angle, but I am adding 180 to
that if I do that it becomes 244.897 degrees which is my psi Y angle for doing Y, Z, X
transformation. So, by this form; friends one can easily find out the directions cosines
and sin angle psi angle which is inclination of the local axes with that of the reference set
of axes.
394
Let us do quickly one more problem and understand this further in detail. So, I have a
structure system like this. So, I should now say example 2 one member this way one
member this way another member vertical I have frame like this let us mark the reference
axes this is my extension of this is my X axes, this is my Y axes, Z axes.
So, this becomes my origin from my reference axes system now got 3 members let us say
member number one member number 2 and member number 3 let us mark the
dimensions of these members let say; let us complete this. So, let say dimension is 3
meters this dimension is also 3 meters and this dimension is also 3 meters.
One is interested to compute the direction cosines and psi angle of all the 3 members that
is the requirement to do that let us mark the local axes of each member the global axes is
known to us the local axes I am marking this as X m Y m is anticlockwise ninety to that.
So, this is Y m and Z m is going to be this way if we look at this carefully this is X m and
this is Y m 90 anticlockwise, then clockwise to the right Z m, this is the 90 again that is
how for member one it is marked.
For member 2, I take this as my origin for member 2. So, this is my X m. So, the left Y m
to the right, Z m of the member for the third member I take this as my jth node; this is
my kth node. So, in that case this becomes my X m anticlockwise; this becomes my Y m
and to the right this becomes my Z m correct that is how they are marked let us make a
395
simple table to understand; this let say the joint what are the global X, Y, Z coordinates
of the joint let us name the joints.
This is A, this is B, this is C and this is D, then let us say joint A, joint B and joint C and
joint D with reference to the global axes joint A, you know A is exactly matching with
the reference axes origin. So, it 0 0 0; if we look at the point B, you know you have
travelled 3 meters in X, but along y and z you are not travelled anything. So, 3 0 0 0 if
you look at C that is this joint you have travelled 3 meters along X along; we now travel,
but along Z it is minus 3 meters is it not; if you look at D you have travelled 3 meters
along X you have travelled 3 along Y, then you are travelled minus 3 along Y and you are
travelled minus 3 along Z as well.
So, now the coordinates X, Y, Z are been established for all the joints A, B, C, D; let us
now try to estimate the psi angle of that.
Let us make another table let say member the length of the member L i, but say in meters
let say the joint system what is the ordinate of jth joint and k joint let us now mark the
directions cosines which are C x, C y and C z, then let us decide about the type of
transformation we want.
Then we take about the psi angle let us see what are the members let say A B, B C and C
D there are 3 members lets mark them here A B, B C and C D let see the length of all the
396
members A B is 3 meter B C is again 3 meters C D is also 3 meters let us say 3.0, 3.0 and
3.0; let see what is the j end k end of A B this is j and this is k that is origin here.
So, its j is at A; is it not and k is at B, similarly for this, this is at B and this at T C where
as for C D origin is here. So, it is D and C correct let us talk about direction cosines.
Let us ask a question how a direction cosine is define now direction cosine is cos gamma
i j that is what is called direction cosine where if I say gamma 1 1, it is actually the first
one is the X m axes the second one is the global axes. So, I want to know for the member
one what would be the C x values that is inclination of X m axes with X axes, Y axes, Z
axes and that angle I have derive the cos of that angle.
Let us see this figure now what is inclination of X m axes with x. So, it 0; is it not
because X m are aligned in that case this is the angle; this is the angle is 0; what is
inclination of Y m axes, X m axes with Y 90 degree; X m axes with Z 90 degree. So, this
is 90, this is 90 therefore, I should say C x, C y, C z will be C x, C y and C z; in this case
will be cos of this cos 0 1 0 and 0 let us do this for member 2. So, I want to now find
inclination of X m member X m of that member with x y and z let us see; what are these
angles.
X m is align along with Z therefore; the angle of inclination of X m with x global is 90 is

it not. Similarly Y m sorry X m with y is again 90, is it not; whereas, X m with z is
397
aligned, but minus. So, I should say minus 1. So, the C x, C y and C z for member 2 will
be 0, 0 and minus 1. Similarly for member 3 let us see, what is inclination of X m axes
with X, Y and Z global; let see the angles X m of this member is vertical. So, X m
inclination with X is 90 degree; 90 degrees X m inclination with y is aligned. So, 0
degrees is it not. So, 0 degrees.
X m inclination with z is 90 degree again. So, my C x, C y, C z for member 3 will be

actually 0 because cos 90 is 0 1 and 0; let us enter that value here is going to be 1 0 0 0 0
minus 1 and 0 1 0 is it not; that is what we have found it we can see 1 0 0 0 0 minus 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 minus 1 0 1 0; let us decide the type of transformation.
You know if we look at the X m axes it is inclined with x. So, one can go for any kind of
transformation we can try Y-Z-X transformation for the member B C X m is aligned with
Z. So, no issue X m is aligned with Z. So, no issue, one can go for Y-Z-X transformation
if we look at third X m is aligned with Y. So, I cannot go for Y-Z-X, I should go for Z-Y-
Z transformation. So, my angle will be psi Y, psi Y and psi Z, I would like to see this.
The moment you say psi Y, it is angle between the Y m and Z m and Y m and Y, is it not
that is the angle, let see what is happening here Y m and Y. So, that is 0, similarly for the
second member Y m and Y again 0 for the second member for the third member Y m is
horizontal whereas, Y is vertical. So, 90 degree 90.
398
So, by this logic one can easily workout the psi angle by inspection. So, friends let us
look at the summary of this lecture in this lecture we picked up 2 examples problems of
phase frame V 4 out the direction cosines, we also found out the psi angle after deciding
the type of transformation correct, we extend this algorithm to analyse 3 dimensional
phase structure in the next class.
399
Module – 01
Lecture – 25
Analysis of Space Frame Structures
Friends, welcome to the 25th lecture in module 1. In the previous lecture, some 3 d
analysis, we discussed about how to evaluate transformation matrix, rotation matrix, how
to estimate the direction cosines and the psi angle which are very important for analyzing
beam elements or stress elements oriented in space at its arbitrary location with reference
to the X, Y, Z axis, let us apply this logic and extend our knowledge of 2 dimensional
analysis into 3 dimensional frame structures in the same style.
400
So, the primary objective is to extend the knowledge of 2 dimensional analysis to 3 d

analysis. So, we have to follow the same set of expressions and equations with the small
modification which will make us to understand very easily and much faster how to use
those transformation in a simpler form to do analysis of 3 dimensional space frame
structures.
As usual, we will consider a fixed beam for our analysis as a beam element and we all
agree that there are 2 nodes for the ith member namely j node and k node each node.
Now will have 3 translations and 3 rotation of degrees of freedom making it 6 in each
node. So, the beam element now will have 12 degrees of freedom which makes the
stiffness matrices size 12 by 12 that is a first difference.
In 2 d analysis, we had seen that the member matrices can be of size 4 by 4, if we neglect
excel deformation or 6 by 6, if you include axial deformation for non orthogonal
members, in this case, it will be 12 by 12.
401
Let us take a simple member arbitrarily oriented arbitrarily oriented with 2 nodes; 2
nodes. Let us mark the nodes as j and k is an ith member that is a member designation.
So, as usual this figure is going to mark the local axes system and this figure is going to
represent the reference axis system. So, if this is the member orientation we all know that
this is going to be my xm 90 degree anticlockwise to that is our ym and this is zm this of
course, is true in both the cases let us mark the axes for marking the degrees of freedom
in both joints.
Now, let us mark the translations at the jth end first along x axis. So, let us first mark the
axes. So, let us mark the displacement along x, I call this as delta t that is a suffix we are
using and along y which is delta r and along z which is delta v, then rotation about this.
So, put your thumb towards delta t direction remaining 4 fingers will point the rotation.
So, let us mark it this way as theta l or one can mark with double arrows also l then theta
n and of course, theta p. Now let us come to the kth n displacement along x, delta h,
along y, delta s and along z, delta w. This what we have used earlier in a derivation also
rotation about h 36 axes. So, we call this as theta m and this as theta o and this as theta q
this; what we have used in the earlier lecture also, now this is marked as per the local
axes system.
402
I want to mark them for global axes in the similar manner, let me mark the axes first, let
say this is my x axis, this is my y axis, this is my z axis, the reference axis system, let us
mark the corresponding displacements. So, this is going to be along x which is going to
be delta t, but with the bar indicating, it is reference axes system delta t, then delta r, then
delta v, then rotations theta l bar theta n bar and theta p bar.
Similarly, here delta h bar, delta s bar and delta w bar, theta m bar, theta o bar and theta q
bar. So, we have now 2 sets of degrees of freedom; one expressed in local axes system
other expressed in global axes or reference axes system.
Having said this, it is assumed now that orientation of the local axes system with respect
to the reference axes system can be described in terms of the direction cosines C x, C y
and C z and the so called psi angle. We also know C x, C y and C z are given by xk
minus xj by L i yk minus yj by L i zk minus zj by L i where L i is root of sum of squares
of these.
403
Now, the set of translations at jth end measured in local axes system can be connected to
the reference axes system as below, let say the displacements are delta t delta r and delta
v for the ith member at the jth node; is it not. So, this can be now connected to C 11, C 1
2, C 1 3, C 2 1, 2 2, 2 3, 3 1, 3 2 and 3 3 of that of delta bar t delta bar r and delta bar v of
the ith member.
So, now one can see very clearly here this equation connects the translation at jth end, is
it not call this equation number one similarly
404
One can also write down for rotations that is theta l, theta n, theta p is now again
connected to the global rotations where as these are connected which are nothing, but
rotations at jth end equation 2.
I can also do the same thing for the kth end let us do that quickly delta h, delta s, delta w,
is connected to that of the global displacements by this matrix where as these are
connecting translations at kth end equation 3. Similarly I can also connect rotations at the
kth end which will be theta m, theta o, theta q, theta m bar, theta o bar, theta q bar by a
matrix C 1 1, 1 2, 1 3, 2 1, 2 2, 2 3, 3 1, 3 2, 3 3; equation 4.
So, now I can combine all these 4 equations and write in one form. It will be all the 12
displacements.
405
Which will be delta t, delta r, delta v that is translation at jth node theta l, theta n, theta p,
rotations at jth node h, s, w, translation at kth node rotations at kth node can be now
connected by a transformation matrix to the global which can be delta t bar, delta r bar,
delta v bar, theta l bar, theta n bar, theta p bar, delta h bar, s bar, w bar, theta m bar, theta
o bar, theta q bar.
Now, each one is a 3 by 3 matrix, here just now we saw that let us divide this also into 3
by 3. So, this is 12 by 1, this is also 12 by 1. So, this has got to be 12 by 12; is it not. So,
this is C 1 1, C 1 2, 1 3, 2 1, 2 2, 2 3, 3 1, 3 2, 3 3 and remaining all are 0s. Similarly 1 1,
1 2, 1 3, 2 2, 2 1, 2 2, 2 3, 3 1, 3 2, 3 3, this is the second set which we just now derived,
I am just combining all of them.
The third one; 1 2, 1 3, 2 1, 2 2, 2 , 3 1, 3 2, 3 3 remaining all are again 0; the fourth one
is the last one; 1 1, 1 2, 1 3, 2 1, 2 2, 2 3, 3 1, 3 2, 3 3 can combine that.
406
So, now I can write a single expression saying the displacement of the ith member of this
space frame is connected to the displacement of the member of the space frame in
reference axes system by a transformation matrix which is derived for the space frame
for ith member, I call it as question number 5 where ti in simple terms can be expressed
as C i 0, 0, 0, 0, C i 0, 0, 0, 0, C i 0 and remaining all are 0s C i.
So, only the diagonal members only the diagonal or C i which are all exactly 3 by 3 that
makes 12 by 12 that is the transformation matrix in 3 d space having understood this the
transformation matrix has special properties as applied to conventional 2 d analysis.
407
The transformation matrix in space of the ith member transpose will be exactly
transformation matrix in space of the ith member with inverse and hence the elements of
the transformation matrix whose transpose is also applicable to the same algorithm.
Therefore delta bar I can now be simply said as t transpose of delta i where the C matrix
is called the rotation matrix whose elements are the direction cosines. So, C y can be
used for Y-Z-X transformation and C z can be used for Z-Y-X transformation which
contains the direction cosine and the psi angle correct. So, friends one can also say the
equations which are done for 2 d analysis are also valid for 3 d analysis.
408
Like the member end reactions will be given by T i of global reactions, if you want to
find the global stiffness matrix, I can say it is T transpose k local of T of space this valid
similarly if you want to find k unrestrained into delta u unrestrained will give me the
joint load unrestrained. So, then end moment of the ith will be k of ith transformation
matrix of delta bar plus FEM of the ith member all these relationships are valid which I
have been actually derived and applied for a 2 d analysis.
409
Let us look at the summary; now friends, we are extending the process of understanding
2 d analysis to 3 d analysis, we derive the transformation matrix which connects xm ym
zm responses to X-Y-Z system which can be established for any member which is
arbitrarily oriented the transformation matrix contains direction cosines and properties of
psi angle which need to be estimated for each member in this space frame, we will take
of an example in the next lecture and try to solve this problem and apply the concept
using computer program.
410
Module - 01
Lecture – 26
3d Analysis of Space Frame Example -1 (Part -1)
Friends, welcome to the 26h lecture in module 1. We are now going to apply the
concepts what we studied for 3d analysis on to a 3 dimensional space frame problem. We
will also discuss the computer program in parallel and then get the outputs by running
this program; then finally, assigning the values at the end reactions and checking for its
accuracy from the analysis. So, let us now watch how we do a 3d analysis by taking a
simple example.
So, let us have a structural system as shown in the figure. Now, this is my structural
system; let us mark the dimensions of this; this is 3 meters, let say this is also 3 meters
and this height is also 3 meters; let us mark the nodes as A, B, C and D, let us say; it is
subjected to some uniform distributed load as shown in the screen now the load intensity
is 20 kilo Newton per meter.
The problem has certain constants let us write down them EI z value is as same as EI y
value which is simply EI, GI x that is the torsion constant is taken as one forth of EI and
411
the axial rigidity constant is taken as again one forth of EI the first job is to mark the
local axes and global 1axes of the system and the coordinates.
Let us mark the local axes and the global axes let us say the global axes is marked, now
which is x, this as y and this as z. Let us now mark the local axes of each say this my xm
ym; this 90 degree anticlockwise. So, ym and zm for the member A B for the member B
C, let us mark this as xm 90 degree anticlockwise ym and 90 degree clockwise zm.
For the member D C; let say this is xm 90 degree anticlockwise ym and 90 degree
clockwise zm, let us mark the values in simple terms; for these from the table let us say
joint; let us mark the x-y-z coordinates of all the joints there are 4 joints 1, 2, 3, 4. Let us
say a, b, C and d; if you look at a joint it is exactly at the origin of the reference axes. So,
x-y-z is 0.
If you look at the b joint we have travelled 3 meters along x. So, plus 3 meters and y and
z are exactly same if you look at the joint C we have travelled 3 meters along x and no
travel along y, but minus 3 along z if you look at the joint d, we have travelled 3 meters
along x and along y, we travelled minus 3 and minus 3 along z. So, this coordinate
system which is going to be the input matrix for the analysis can be established easily no
difficulty on that.
412
Having said this, let us now mark the members and make a table for the transformation
input let say member the length of the member the joint designation of j and k and then
the direction cosines which are Cx, Cy, Cz, then let us also decide the type of
transformation then let us find the psi angle by simple inspection.
The members are A B, B C and I should say D C or C D; the length of all the 3 members
in meters are 3, 3.0, 3.0 and 3.0; for the member A B the j and k joints are A and B
respectively, this is B and C and as per this is concerned; this is D and C because the
origin of the D C member is at D.
Now, let us talk about directional cosine what is directional cosine we already said that it
is actually the angle between xm with x here let us look at this member with x; xm with y
and xm with z; xm with x is 0. So, cos 0 is going to be 1.0 plus as far as Cy and C Z are
concerned the angles are 90 therefore, they going to be 0 let us look at the member B C
xm angle with x 90. So, the cos 90 going to be 0 ym sorry xm with y is again 90. So, that
is again going to be 0. Xm and z are opposites, so minus 1. So, 0 0 and minus 1; let us
talk about the member C D or let say rather D C xm with x global x 90 degrees xm with
global y exactly same. So, it is going to be 0 degree and xm with global z 90 degrees
therefore, I should say here 0 plus 1 and 0. So, there is no difficulty in establishing the
direction cosine matrix for all the members this can be obtained.
Now, let us look at the member A B x is oriented along the x no problem we should say I
am going to practice y-z-x transformation. So, we are going to get psi y angle and for the
member B C xm is oriented along z therefore, I should do y-z-x transformations and
again I will get psi y angle as for the member D C is concerned xm is oriented with y I
cannot do y-z-x. So, I should do z-y-x transformation, I will get psi z by inspection.
Let us try to find out what is the angle of psi the angle of node psi, y will be angle
between ym and y, let us say ym and y say it is 0. So, psi y is going to be ; so, psi y is
going to be 0 degrees similarly the angle between ym and y of the member B C the
member B C ym is here and y is here again the angle is going to be 0; let us mark 0
degrees.
For the member D C, I am looking for angle between ym and y ym is horizontal where as
y is vertical. So, the angle is going to be 90 degrees. So, I can easily estimate the psi y
values for input like this as a vector in my computer program you can also input the type
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of transformation because the psi angle actually depends on what transformation you are
actually working at correct.
Now, let us mark unrestrained and restrained degrees of freedom for this given problem.
So, what I do is I draw the frame; let us mark the degrees of freedom unrestrained. So,
along x along y and along z, let us mark the reference axis system, this is actually my y
axis, this is actually my x axis and this is my z axis, correct.
So, let us mark displacements along x-y-z first. So, I should say this as delta bar 1, then
delta bar 2, then delta bar 3, then I should also mark rotations about this theta bar 4, theta
bar 5 and theta bar 6 at the jth end, then let us mark here at this joint also unrestrained
along x 7, along y 8 and along z 9, then rotation 10, then rotation 11, then rotation 12.
So, there are unrestrained degrees of freedom are 12 in number. Let us talk about
restrained degrees which is again along x 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, then here 19, 20, 21, 22,
23 and 24. So, totally it is the freedom are 24 out of which 12 are unrestrained degrees
and remaining 12 are restrained degrees. I do not think there is any confusion in marking
this which is exactly same as that of the 2 d analysis.
Now, let us try to see; how we can work out the direction cosine matrix and then how to
get the transformation matrix. So, let us do that here itself; if I want to really do the C
matrix, the C matrix; actually C 1 1, C 1 2, C 1 3, 2 1, 2 2, 2 3; similarly 3 1, 3 2, 3 3,
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what is it mean C ij is actually the direction cosine of the angle between xm and the
reference axes.
So, what is the angle this is the member 1, this is the member 2, this is the member 3. So,
let us do it for C 1 only for translation let us say. So, the angle between xm; let us also
mark the local degrees xm, ym and zm for all the 3 members mark xm, ym, zm, I am
marking it here; xm, ym and let us say zm; I do not have space there, mark it here for this
member xm, ym and zm origin, here for this member xm anticlockwise. So, ym and zm
for this member.
Now, let us write down C 1 matrix for this the angle between xm of the member and x of
the member 0. So, cos 0 is going to be 1, the angle between xm of the member and y
which is 90 degree cos 90 is 0 angle between xm of the member and z which is 90 again
0; similarly angle between ym and x is 90 ym and y 0 thats cos 0 is 1 ym and z 90
become 0. Similarly zm and x 90 0 zm and y 90 0 zm and z 1, so that becomes my C 1
for translation; this is true at the jth end kth end for rotation also it is true.
Similarly, let us do it for C 2 angle between xm and x is 90 cos 90 is 0 xm and y is again

90. So, cos 90 is 0 xm and z is minus 1; similarly ym and x 90 0 ym and y is 0 1 ym and
z 90 0 zm and x is one zm and y is 0 zm and z is again 0. So, that becomes my C 2.
Let us do for C 3 matrix xm of C 3 with x 90. So, 0 xm with y 1 xm with z 0 ym with x

90 ym with y 90 ym with z 1 zm with x 1 zm with y 90 zm with z 90. So, now, I have the
direction cosine matrices for all the 3 members namely 1, 2, 3.
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So, we all know that the transformation matrix t is simply given by cs of the member I,
then 0 0 and 0. Similarly 0 cs 0 0 0 0 which we derived at is it not and 0 0 0 0 and cs
which is 12 by 12.
So, one can easily find out this matrix; let us then write down the global labels for each
member. So, let us write down the global labels for each member, I can do it here the
global labels for the member 1, I will write down here for the member A B the global
labels looking at the jth and kth end. I should start with x-y-z translation at the jth end
rotation at x-y-z at the jth end, then translation x-y-z at kth end and rotation at x-y-z kth
end.
So, let us talk about the; so, easily you know translation x 13, then translation y 14
translation z 15 at the jth end rotation, about x 16 rotation, about y 17 rotation m about z
18, that is along the jth end, then continuously I am writing it here if you look at this
phase it is going to be 1; is it not; 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 that is going to the label for member A
B.
Similarly, one can do for member B C and C D simply; for example, if you fill up for B
C for your convenience starting from jth end, one can see here along x. So, I should say
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, then kth end along x. So, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12; similarly for C D, we can
write down jth end is here; therefore, it is going to be simply 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 and 24.
Similarly for the kth end is going to be 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12; these are the labels. So, there is
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no problem at defining the labels for these degrees of freedom. Let us now look at the
computer program to solve this.
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Module - 01
Lecture – 26
3d Analysis of Space Frame Example – 1 (Part – 2)
418
So, the program says it is for 3 dimensional analysis input will be the number of
members 3 EI is taken as one for the time being we said, EI y and EI z are EI we also
said the torsional constant GI x is one fourth of EI; EA x is also one forth of EI length of
the member is 3, we have input number of joints will be number of members plus 1. Let
us also work out the coordinate matrix of all the member; we already have it here.
You can see here 0, 0, 0, 3, 0, 0, 3, 0, 3 minus 3 and 3 minus 3, 3 we input that here.
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We can see; here we can input this, then direction cosines; we just now worked out; we
already have it here; see here 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0 minus 1, 0, 1, 0, let us look at here 1, 0,
0, 0, 0 minus 1 and 0, 1, 0. So, no issue; then let us try to find out the type of
transformation one correspond to in this; one corresponds to y-z-x transformation and 2
corresponds to z-y-x transformation.
We know for members 1 and 2; it is y-z-x for the member 3 it z-y-x. So, we said 1, 1, 2
psi angle we computed 0, 0, 1, 90, you can see here 0, 0 and 90, we input that 0 0 and 90.
Now we know from the C matrix for member 1, 2 and 3; just now we derived this, I will
show you for C 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1; you can see that here just now we did that C 1.
Similarly, C 2 and C 3 the input that here C 1, C 2, C 3.
Number of unrestrained degrees are 12; restrained degrees are again 12, the global label
for unrestrained degree you can see here, it varies from unrestrained degrees 1 to 12
restrained degrees; 30 into 24; sorry. So, 30 in to 24; I am going to 12. Now the global
labels for member 1; 13, 14, 13 to 18, then 1 to 6, see here global labels 30 to 18, then 1
to 6, we did the same thing exactly here, then for member 2 1 to 12 continuous the
member 2; 1 to 12 continuous, then for member 3; 19 to 24, then 7 to 12 for member 3;
19 to 24, then 7 to 12.
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We enter that then we form the degrees of freedom, then we found out the fixed end
moments you know the fixed end moments are going to be computed based on the
loading the loading on the member is only on the member A B. So, the member A B will
have moments and the fixed end moments can be simply said as only at the member A B
member A B the member has 13 to 6 as the degrees of freedom. So, I can write down
here is there fixed end moments of the member A B on labels 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, then
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
The 13 is along x. So, now, force. So, now, force 14 is along y, there will be reaction the
total load applied is 20 into 3; 60. So, 30 this way and 30 up way. So, plus 30 along z no
force about x, no force about y no force, but about z; there is going to be reaction
moment n, moment w l square by 12. So, w l square by 12 which will be 20 into 3 square
by 12 which amounts to 15. So, plus 15 along 1 along x, 0 along y, again plus 30 along z,
0 about x, 0 about y, 0 and this is going to be minus 15.
The members B C and C D; see there are no loads in B C and C D; therefore, the fixed
end moments along B C and C D will be 0. Now I assemble this and get the joint load
vector. So, we have entered 0, 30, 0, 0, 0, you can check here 0, 30, 0, then 3 0s have to
30, then plus 15 1 0 plus 30, 2 0s, 3 are the 3 0s and minus 15 remaining other members
are 0 and 0, then continue with the coding we then form the transformation matrix.
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Then we find the stiffness coefficients which we derived in the previous lecture for the
entire matrix, we get now the stiffness coefficients and stiffness matrix for the member A
B, for the member B C, for the member C D, then we find K global of the member A B
which can be T transpose K T of the member.
K bar B C, then K bar C D. Now can be computed we assemble this to get K total in that
we partition unrestrained degrees and restrained degrees separately and I can get K u u
that is what we have doing here.
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So, K local stiffness matrix, then B said K global that is T transpose K T, then global
stiffness matrix for all the 3 members, then compete stiffness matrix.
Then from that unrestrained stiffness matrix and inverse of that; so, we get K u u and K u
u inverse from these 2 steps.
After that we create the joint load vector joint load vector is nothing, but reversal of FEM
vector, we crate that vector then we found solved for del u del u is nothing, but K u u
inverse of J L u or are in reference axes system I get delta u bar once I get that I get the
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member forces in global displacements let us look at the 3 members, then ultimately the
joint forces you check for this that is the program.
Let us look at the output member 1; y-z-x and psi angle 0 we can see here member 1.
424
We are going for y z axis psi angle 0.
Similarly, member 2 and member 3; so, that is my local stiffness matrix for member 1
and K bar for member 1, you know the stiffness the rotation matrix for member 1 is
identity; therefore, you get exactly K local and K global for the member one as same. So,
I get K bar A B now.
Then I find K local for the member 2 and K global for the member 2. So, I get K bar B C
now, then I get K local for the member 3, I get K global for the member 3.
425
So, I get K bar C D, now we have EI multiplier in all the cases.
I have in EI multiplier in all the cases please understand that EI is taken as unity in this
case EI multiplier, then we find the full stiffness matrix.
The full stiffness matrix which is going to be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12 and 24 by 24

full stiffness matrix; we got out of which at 12 first, second, third, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12.
So, I have to will be partition here is or not to get s u u and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,
12; another partition here correct.
426
So, this me unrestrained degree this may restrained degree is may unretired degree this
may restrained degree. So, K u u will be actually this block the left corner I get K u u.
I get K u u which is exactly same what you have here we can check that starting from
0.5278 ends with 1.4167; 1.4167, 0.5278 which is going to be 12 by 12; you can see that
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 ok.
I take the inverse of this. So, I will get the multiplier K u u inverse I get 1 by EI, here
there will be EI out, this is K u u I get inverse, once I get this, I have a joint load vector.
427
I get my delta u bar as this value, then I substitute run the program get the global values
of member 1, member 2 and the end redactions in the entire structure by assembling
these 3 which I want to plot and show you. So, let us do it for member wise first member
second member and let say third member.
If you look at the first member this is the first member minus 0 point 0 four. So, you can
see here very clearly this is along this 3; these 3 will be translational along x-y-z at jth
joint this is next 3 will be rotation about x-y-z at jth. So, this is about j th and this is
about K th and this 3 will be translation, this 3 will be rotation along x y z respectively
let us mark them. So, minus 0.051 means negative let us mark it here, let us mark that
here 0.0451.
And along y you can see here along y 55.7251. So, 55.7271 and along z. So, negative see
here along z is negative minus 1.543. So, 1.543; let us about the translation; let us mark
the rotations. So, the first 3 values are now done and next 3 values will be done then the
next 3 then the next 3. So, this is for th j the end and this is for the K th end correct. So,
minus 2.82. So, minus how do get that put your thumb towards this arrow the remaining
4 fingers we will give you the rotation minus means it is opposite; it should be opposite.
So, it should be clockwise 2.82; similarly, 73.23; similarly 4.356 look at this joint. Now,
this is going to be 0.045 and this is going to be 1.543 and this is going to be 4.275 and
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then the rotations clockwise is anticlockwise 2.82, 0.284, 0.284 and this is 3.943 for the
member A B.
Let us do for the member B C this is 1.543 and this is down 4.275 and this is this way 0
0.045 and then the moments, this is 2.82, this is 0.285 and this is 3.943 and for this joint
it is going to be 0 0.045, 4.275, 1.543, then 10.004, 0.42, 3.943.
Let us come to this 0 0.045, 4.275 and 1.543, then 5.374, 0.423, 0.807, 4.275, 0.045, then
1.543, 0.42, 10, 0.004, 3.943 one can see here there is a perfect joint compatibility 4.275
4.275.
0 4 5; this way 0 4 5, this way 0.284, 0.285, 9 4 3 9 4 is a perfect joint compatibility in

all the joints see here let us also try to plot the end reaction of the whole system which
comes like this. So, we get the n values as 55.725 and 4.275, 0.045 and 0.045 which are
exactly taken from here, then 1.543 which is here and 1.543 which is here, then 73.23
which is here.
4.356 which is here, then 2.82 which is here, similarly as for this comes in 0.425, 0.374
and 3.807; the total load applied is actually 20 kilo Newton per meter end for 3 meter 60.
So, you can see here 55 and 4 makes it 60. So, reaction is balanced and the moments are
balanced that is the final n reactions and moments these are members reactions and
moments.
So, friends we have discussed in this lecture and interesting space frame problem of 3 D
analysis.
429
We also discuss the computer code to solve the problem we have understood; how the 3
D dimensional analysis becomes an extension of the concepts the 2 D analysis, we are
able to arrive at the transformation matrix we are able to arrive at the rotation matrix we
are able to arrive at the psi value easily for a given problem for any transformation
chosen for the given problem friends, I want you to do more problems using this
computer program and try to compare the results in enjoy how a 3 dimensional analysis
using computer course and hand calculations can be very very simple and extended
concept of 2 D analysis.
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Module - 01
Lecture - 27
3d Analysis Example - 2 (Part - 1)
Let us discuss one more example on 3d space frame structure. In lecture 27 modules 1 of
Computer Methods of Structural Analysis Applied to Offshore Structures. In this
example we will take a slightly a different problem and try to solve this using computer
codes again. I will also give you the computer code and parallel and show you the results
as obtained from the output of the computer program directly than compare the results at
the end moments on the frame and check for its equilibrium conditions for the applied
loads.
431
This is my structural system which I am marking. Now subjected to a load; on this

member which is about 20 kilo Newton per meter; let us marked the dimension of these
say this is 4 meters, and this is 3 meters and this is 6 meters. Let us say EI y is same as EI
z is same as simply EI. And the torsional constant GI x is one-fourth of EI. And the axial
rigidity constant EA x is one-fourth of EI. So, let us say these constants are available to
us in this form.
We want to analyze this, let us mark first the local axis and global axis of this frame. Let
us mark the nodal points A, B, C, D, E and F. So, for the member AB the local axis are x
m, y m, y m and z m. For the member BC: x m, y m and z m. For the member DE: x m, y
m and z m. For the member EF: x m, y m and z m. For the member EB: x m
anticlockwise y m and z m ok. Then the global axis is taken the origin here X axis, Y
axis and Z axis.
Having said this we can quickly make a table of coordinate systems to understand the
joints. Let us make a table, joint and what are the X Y Z coordinates of the joint. Let us
say AB C D and E and F. The dimensions are available in the screen now this may origin
therefore, A will have X as 0, Y as plus 6 and Z as 0. B will have A as plus 4 meters plus
6 meters and 0. C will have X as plus 7 meters plus 6 meters and 0. D of course, is
located at the origin of X Y Z. E will have plus 4 meters and Y and Z will be 0. And F
will have plus 7 meters find 0.
432
So, this is the very interesting input which I require from a computer program. So, I am
saving this as it is.
Let us now prepare a table of direction cosines and the psi by angle. This table 2: let us
say for the member each member, we need to know the length of the member. We need
know where the j and k joints are the member are placed and the direction cosines
namely C x, C y and C z, then what is the kind of transformation we are recommending,
then what is my psi angle. Let us make a table.
So, there are members AB, BC, DE, EF and EB there are 5 members; AB, BC, DE, EF,
AB 5 members are there length of each member is no. So, let us enter these length 4 3 4
3 and 6 meters j and k ends of the members are now marked. So, AB this is BC, this is
DE, this is EF, this is EB. Now, what is the direction cosine? It is the angle of x m with x,
x m with x x m with x.
You know this is going to be 0 say for cos 0 this one and; obviously, with y and z it will
make 90 degree. So, this is going to be 0 this is true for all the remaining 4 members as
well, but for the fifth member, if you look at the x m; x m is making 90 degree with x.
So, cost 90. So, I should say this is 0 and x m is making 0 degree with y, therefore cos 0
should be 1 and 0. Now if you look at the member AB or BC, DE or EF x m is align with
x global, I can recommend any transformation let us recommend y z x transformation for
all these 4 members.
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So, I will get psi y and for the fifth member you know x is oriented with y therefore, I
cannot make y z x I should recommend z y x transformation I will get psi z by
inspection. Now what is the angle of psi y? It is actually y m with y. Let us say what is y
m with y it is 0 degree, because y m and y are align therefore, this is going to be 0 for all
these 4 members. In this case it is y z with y let us say. So, let us talk about y m with y
for the fifth member. So, for the fifth member y m is vertical and y is this space so 90
degree.
So, I should say this value is going to be 90 degree. So, there is not difficulty and we
need to say this information for the computer program; having said this let us now
estimate the C matrix for each member.
So, C matrix actually we will have c i j, i j; i will represent the inclination or

representation of x m axis and this will represent inclination of respective X Y and Z axis
with x m. So, let us go for C AB. So, it is going to be 3 by 3 matrix; we know that.
Let us see; what is the inclination of x m with X. So, it 0 so therefore, and y m with Y
and z m, so, x m with X 0, x m with Y is 90 x m with Z is 90 therefore, is going to be 1 0
0; similarly y m with X is 0. So, 90 y m with Y is 0 and y m with Z is 90. So, the cosine
angles of them respectively will be 0 1 0; similarly if you look at the z m axis; z m axis
makes 90 degree with X and Y global, but z m makes 0 with Z therefore, the cosine
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values of them will be 0 0 1; and; obviously, if I inspection you know the C matrix for
the member AB, BC, DE an EF all will be same.
So, I can write this as E equal to. So, C matrix of AB will be as same as BC, DE and EF.
Let us do it for C EB that is the fifth member. So, what is the fifth member is located
here this may fifth member x m makes 90 degree with X; x m makes plus 0 degree with
Y and x m makes 90 degree with Z therefore, I should get 0 plus 1 0 is or not. Similarly
let us see y m; y m is makes 90 degree with X 90 degree with Y, but it is plus with Z. So,
I should get cos of these angle should be this one.
Similarly, if you look at the z m axis it makes plus with Z and with Y and Z 90 therefore,
I should say plus 1 0. Now, I want the C matrix for all members 5 members here. So, this
will be also your require input for my problem. So, then based on transformation applied
and based upon the members stiffness matrix I can always find the local member
stiffness matrix and global member stiffness matrix by following the same procedure,
what we had in the last lecture.
For the last example one let us now quickly worked the load vector.
So, this is my beam member, that is; EB. So, apply by a uniform distributed load of 20
kilo Newton per meter for a span of 6 meters is or not. So, I can see here for a span of 6
meters the load is applied. So, I want to work out the joint load. So, let us try to work out
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the joint load for this. So, I would like to see, what would be the effect of these loads; so
marking the axes global axes.
So, you know the global axes are X, Y and Z. So, this is X global, Z global and this is
going to be Y is or not X Y and Z. So, if I apply a moment; I will get this value is going
to be 20 into w l square by 12 which will make it as 60 kilo Newton meter. And in this
way, this will be 60 clockwise. Now the reactions this will be 20 into 6 by 2; which is
again 60, and this reaction is also going to be 60; this may positive X, positive Z and
positive Y, positive Z, positive Y and positive X ok.
I can now make the joint load vector for the member EB local which will be along X 0,
along Y 0, along Z I am making an fixed end moment value, this is the fixed end moment
of the local of the member EB. So, this is going to be plus 60. Similarly, the next case 0 0
then minus 60 plus 60 0 0 and so on, so let us now mark the degrees of freedom for this
problem.
So, the let us have the labels of this. Let us mark the unrestrained degrees of freedom.
So, at this joint along Z delta 1 is delta bar 1, delta bar 2 that is; this X, Y, Z this is my
capital X, this is my capital Y, this is my capital Z. So, I have to mark the degrees of
freedom according to this type. So, delta bar 1 along Y and along Z then the moments.
So, I should say theta bar 4, theta bar 5 and theta bar 6; so 6 degrees of freedom here.
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Then let us come to this joint delta 7, delta 8 and delta 9, I am putting bar, because they
are global displacements. Then rotation 11 and 12, let us now mark the unrestrained
degrees of freedom; let us say 13, 14 and 15, 16, 17, 18 then 19, 20, 22, 23, 24 then 25,
26, 27, 28, 29, 30 then 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36. So, there are unrestrained degree of
freedom which is varying from labels of 1 to 12 and restrained degrees the labels are
varying from 13 till 36. There are 6 joints total 36 degree of freedom out of which 12 or
unrestrained; remaining all are restrained degrees of freedom. Now, having understood
this let us marked the labels.
The labels of the member EB, because this is A, this is B, this is C, D, E and F. So, we
are looking for this member, because this member is actually loaded is or not. So, that is
what we have here. So, now, let us enter the labels of this very easily; I know we will
able to relate these labels very easily with respect to what we have here in the member E
and member B with respect to global axis. So, the joint load vector is just reversal of this.
The joint load vector if you want to make the joint load vector which will have 36 into 1
which will be let us see for example, the global degrees of freedom.
You know along 1 there is no force, along 2 there is no force. Along 3 there is a force
which you get from here, but that is reversed, because these degrees of freedom can be
marked very easily; these degrees of freedom can be easily marked. So, along 3 you
know there is an upward force, but joint load vector will have reverse. So, let us reverse
that. So, by this logic 0 0 minus 60 plus 60; 0 0 0 0; then minus 60 minus 60 0 0
remaining all will be 0. So, it is going to be 36 by 1, I have entered the unrestrained
degree loads remaining all there are no loads here, that is the matrix we have. Let us
solve this problem.
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Module - 01
Lecture - 27
3d Analysis Example – 2 (Part – 2)
438
You can see here, there are 5 members in the problem. Flexural rigidity is taken as 1, E I
y and E I z as a same as E I. G I as Torsional constant as 0.25 of E I, E A is again 0.25 of
E I, the length of the member you see here we already said that 4 3 4 3 6 we have the
same thing here 4 3 4 3 6 ok.
Number of joints will be; obviously, 6 there are 5 members, then we also enter the
coordinates of this matrix, that is; 0 6 0 you can see here 0 6 0; 4 6 0 etcetera, we enter
this here.
So, 0 6 0; then the direction cosine matrix for each member there are 5 members. So, let
us enter this direction cosine matrix, we already have it here 1 0 0; 1 0 0 and so on. Let
us enter that here 1 0 0; 1 0 0 and so on; you can see that here the direction cosines. Then
we also ensure the type of transformation; one here represents Y Z X transformation, and
two represents Z Y X transformation. So, all are one four members fifth member is 2,
then the psi angle is entered, you see here the psi angle is when calculated - 0 0 0 0 and
90 degree.
So, we entered that here 0 0 0 0 90 degree; then the direction cosine matrix C; C matrices
for all the members. You know is three by three matrixes. So, we know that we already
computed the matrix here.
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1 0 0; 0 1 0; 0 0 1; diagonal once so we entered that here 1 0 0; 0 1 0; for c 1, c 2, c 3, c 4

for c 5 it is different for c 5 it is 0 1 0; 0 0 1; 1 0 0; so 0 1 0; 0 0 1; 1 0 0.
There are 12 unrestrained degrees, and there are remaining 24 is restrained degree, then
the labels are unrestrained degree 1 to 12, then 13 to 36, for each member we introduce
the labels. I think this is the same procedure, what we have in the previous example; you
can easily follow these labels, then we worked out the total stiffness matrix.
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Then found the transformation matrix for each member.
Then entered the type of transformation then found out the stiffness coefficients.
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Then found the stiffness matrix for each member the local stiffness matrix ok.
Then we found the global stiffness as K bar is T transpose k T we did that K global. We
assemble this get the total stiffness matrix, then from that we plugged out, the
unrestrained stiffness matrix; the unrestrained stiffness matrix alone we plugged out K u
u then we found out K u u inverse, then we get the joint load vector we can see is 0; 0;
minus 60 which is corresponding to what we have here 0; 0; minus 60 and so on we
exactly have that here.
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So, is entered, then we found out del u. So, in this line we got unrestrained
displacements. Of course, E I multiplied by is there in all the entire case. We found del u.
Then we found the member end forces by each member for member 1; member 2;
member 3; member 4 and member 5. So, there is a line here; the program continuous
from here it goes here member 5, then we found the entire joint forces.
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So, the results are like this; type one: member 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, we have entered we got
the psi angles. We also got the type of transformation and now for each member we have
got the local stiffness matrix; there is a multiply E I here.
Then the global stiffness matrix and the labels of course, entered as per the order what
we already have for each member the member 1 for member 2 you can see here it is 12
by 12.
And this is K global, which will be actually K global is T transpose k local T. We obtain
this is for member 3 and this is K global for member 3 there is an E I multiplayer here K
global for member 4 K local for member 5 and K global for member 5. So, now, we have
got the global stiffness matrices of the 5 members.
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We assemble them and get the total stiffness matrix which is 36 by 36.
This is from column 1 to 12, then this is from 13 to 24 and this is from 25 to 36 the total
matrix ok.
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Of course in all these cases there is an E I multiplier, which I want you to understand;
there is an E I multiplier ok.
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There is an E I multiplier. So now, I have the total K global of the entire which is 36 by
36. Now we know very clearly that this K global will have unrestrained degrees of this is
unrestrained, this is restrained, unrestrained and restrained this is 12 by 12, this is 36 by
36 the remaining.
So, this can be now inverted. So, I got the invert of this.
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Now, this is unrestrained stiffness matrix which has been taken out. There is an E I
multiplier. There is an inverse of this, where 1 by E I will be there, then the joint load
vector is displayed here which was an input for the problem, then we have the del u. So,
del u will have 1 by E I as a multiplier. Once we get del u, we use a standard equation.
Find the global end moments of member 1, member 2, member 3, member 4 and then
member 5 ok.
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Once we get this we find the end joint forcers of whole structural system from degrees of
freedom starting from 1 to 36 ok.
You can see 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23,
24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, and 36. So, we have a vector of 36. I want
to plot this ensure the result. Let us do it for member wise; though this from this member
separately and this member separately.
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So, now degree of freedom once starts from here, you can see a degree of freedom starts
from here. So, along X along Y and along Z, that is; how we have going to label this, we
are going to interpret the results like that. So, along X along Y is 0; I am not marking the
zero values, I am only marking the known values. So, let us say; all this member it is
going to be 21.028 and this is going to be 16.364 and for this it is going to be 39.90 for
this member it is going to be downward 21.028 and this is going to be 16.364 and this is
going to be 44.215 for the member.
Next member for this it is going to be 36.412 and here it is 36.412 and this is going to be
21.818 and this is going to be 21.818 and this value is going to be 51.739 and this is
57.496. Let us do for this member this value is going to be 57.44, 38.18 and 7.524.
Similarly, at this joint it is 62.56 and 38.18 and 7.835, so for this member, 22.978, 22.978
and 16.16, 16.36, 43.56, 48.348. And for the last member 39.58, 39.58, 21.818, 21.818,
62.562, 56.183 that’s a final end moments. So, now, interestingly the total reaction makes
the total downward load and you can see the compatibility for example, take this joint 44
anticlockwise, 7 anticlockwise, that is; about y axis right which makes 51 clockwise and
so on. So, one can see the compatibility this is the final end moments we are final
reactions.
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So, friends we have solved a 3d space frame problem using computer code. We are able
to use the input data properly to run the program and obtain the results understood, the
sign convention of the results and they are plotted and check for compatibility.
So, friends I would argue that you should try to do some more problems on your own.
Derive the input data as required from the problem from the local axis alignments and try
to solve uses computer program and see how you can solve them very easily and
conveniently. So, friends you will realize now that, what all program we have given use
in input data, the algorithm the pattern of analysis using stiffness method as never
changed for 2d orthogonal frames, 2d non orthogonal, 2d truss members and non
orthogonal truss members 3d we have the same algorithm continuing and therefore, there
is a complete iterative scheme available. So, that the program can be easily done using
MATLAB and you can solve the problems by hand as well as by computer coding.
I hope you enjoy this and you will try this program as a input data for variety of
problems which are available in tutorial sheets, in the coming days and weekends for you
to solve the problem. We are also giving with the solutions of the problem; I hope you
will try to have a new facet of understanding 3d analysis using this lectures.
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Module – 01
Lecture – 28
3d Truss Analysis
Friends, welcome to the lecture number 28 on module 1. We are going to discuss about
3d truss analysis in this lecture. We will extend the same logic, what we had for 2d
analysis of truss members and make the analysis as simple as that to understand 3d
analysis concepts. Of course, what are we learnt in the analysis of 3d space frames will
be also used in 3d analysis concept of truss members.
Generally, we are having some valid assumptions what we made in the 2d analysis of
truss structures.
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That is; joints are assumed to be pinned connections, which is one of the basic
assumption what we made in analysis of planar frames is also valid for 3d truss system;
more interestingly we have developed a beam element is it not we have developed a
beam element. We will use that element with a small modification; we say that the beam
element has spherical hinges at both the ends.
What is the consequence of this assumption? The consequence of the assumption is it can
freely rotate about any axes that are the consequence. So, the end rotations will be
actually 0 ok.
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Therefore; what would be the degrees of freedom now we have; earlier for a beam
element, if we look carefully we had 12 by 12 matrix that is each end had 6 degrees of
freedom, 3 translations is it not along X, along Y and along Z and 3 rotations about X
about Y and about Z we had six since we have made a spherical hinges at both the ends
the degrees of freedom now are restrained with 3 displacement components.
In each end of the member and most important fact truss members can resist only axial
deformation and axial forces so no moments. So, that makes the stiffness matrix of the
member as order 6 by 6.
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Let us draw a typical truss member arbitrarily oriented with hinges at both the ends.
So, one is local; other is global; I call this as a reference axis system. For the local axis
let us mark the axis as x m anticlockwise direction, we know it is y m and we have z m
marked here for the member whose j and k ends are marked and the member is i. So, let
us have three axes in all the places ok.
Let us now mark the global axes of the system. Let us say this is my X, Y axis and let us
say Z axis. Similarly all the three axes at this joint. Let us now mark the degrees of
freedom. Let us say along x m I called this as displacement t and this as displacement r
and this as displacement v, we are using the same notation if we carefully look at the
notations of 2d planar truss analysis except for Z axis displacements all notations are
same ok
Similarly, this will be called delta h, this is delta t sorry; delta s and this has delta w
which has same as the beam element, what we used in the earlier derivation. So, let us
also mark the corresponding force for our understanding axial forces I can call this as P t
this as P r, this is as P v, this as P s, this as P h and this as P w.
Let us now correspondingly mark the global displacement degrees of freedom we call
this as delta t bar, this is going to be delta r bar and this is delta v bar and as simple as
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that delta h bar delta s bar and delta w bar let us also mark the corresponding forces. So,
P t bar, P v bar, P r bar, P h bar, P w bar and P s bar.
So, P indicates the axial forces in the respected degrees of freedom at j and k ends. And
the degrees of freedom are marked which are similar to exactly the beam element except
that the ends of the members are spherical hinges which can rotate about any axis freely
therefore, there are no moments about any of these axis so; obviously, we now we realize
that a stiffness matrix will have size 6 by 6.
So, now let us say I want to connect my displacement or the forces P t, P r, P v that is at
the jth end P h, P s and P w this is displacement; this is displacement sorry forces at jth
end along x y and z and this is forces at kth end along x y and z which will be equal to
the stiffness matrix connecting the displacements delta t, delta r, delta v, delta h, delta s
delta w. So, these are displacements at jth end at x y and z these are displacements at kth
end at x y and z connecting will be a stiffness matrix this is 6 by 1; this is 6 by 1.
So, this has got to be 6 by 6 the labels could be t r v h s and w. So, you know this will be
at jth end displacements is it not and this will be at kth end placements along x y and z
along x y and z so; obviously, for a truss member you know this value will be k t t and r
and v contribution will be 0, then you will have k h t and these two will be 0 similarly for
the column h you will have kth this will be 0 and k h h this will be 0 remaining all
member for a truss element will be 0 in this stiffness matrix. So, that is my stiffness I can
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now say the force local of the truss member of ith member is given by stiffness matrix of
the truss member of the ith member multiplied by the displacement local of the truss
member of the ith member only equation number 1 ok.
Now, I want to find out the forces; which will connect the global forces. So, let us say P
at jth end along x, P at the jth end along y, P at the jth end along z. Similarly P at the kth
end along x, P kth end along y, P at the kth end along z which will be now connected by
some matrix which will connect the local to the global. So, P bar j x, P bar j y, P bar j z, P
bar k x, P bar k y, and P bar k z ok.
So, now this is again 6 by 1, this is 6 by 1 this has got to be 6 by 6, but interestingly I can
now divide this at 4 quarters. So, this will be C 1 1 C 1 2 C 1 3 2 1 2 2 2 3 3 1 3 2 and 3 3
remaining this particular part will be 0 and by symmetry this will also be 0 and this will
repeat as 1 1, 1 2, 1 3 2 1 2 3 3 1 3 2 and 3 3 which is the order of same style as that of
beam element in a 3d analysis except that in a beam element it was 12 by 12 where as
truss element it is 6 by 6.
So, now I can write now this as P of the truss element local will be given by t of the truss
element transpose matrix of i and by connecting all the truss element ith member
equation number 2.
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I can also expand this matrix as T of the truss member of every member simply can be
said as C T i 0 0 and C T of the ith member is it not.
So, now with this algorithm we can always say the displacement of the truss member
simply is T of the truss member with the displacement bar of the ith member, K
transpose of the truss member can be also said as T transpose. This is K bar the truss
member the T transpose K of the truss member with the T on the truss member this is for
every member. So, I can call this equation number 3, 4 ok.
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Further we can always say the force in the ith member is K multiplied by the
displacement of the ith member plus any joint load applied on the ith member equation 5.
If you want to find the forces in the global degrees of freedom, this can be simply said as
K bar of the truss member of the ith member multiplied by displacements of the truss
member in the global degrees of freedom plus transformation of the loads in the global
degrees of freedom. So, friends; very interestingly for a truss member which is arbitrarily
oriented in space one can either use Y Z X transformation or Z Y X transformation .
So, therefore, all equations for Y Z X transformation and Z Y X transformations, which

we derive are applicable as it is; without any change no change is required straight away
you can apply. So, using Y Z X will enable you to compute the psi by angle using Z Y X
will enable you to compute the psi Z angle. So, the equations derived for 3d beam
element for obtaining the psi angle is for truss members also there is only one important
catch.
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If truss member are loaded only at their joints which is usually a common phenomenon;
only joint loads are considered no member loads. So, usually a common phenomenon in
that case orientation of the local axes of the member with respect to the reference axis of
the system is not important that is a very great relaxation we have that is a very great
relaxation.
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We have we do not have to bother about the orientation of the local axes, with the global
axes provided; if the loads are only appeared at the joints. In that case the x m, y m axis
can be positioned. So, that the psi angle is practically 0.
So, if you agree upon this statement, then C y which was derived earlier can be now
modified for the truss member very easily by taking psi angle as 0. So, C y is given by C
x C y C z minus C x C y by root of C x square plus C z square root of C x square C z
square minus C y C z by root of C x square C z square minus C z by root of C x square C
z square 0 C x by root of C x square C z square that is C y.
You can also write C z for Z Y X transformation as C x C y C z. We derived this equation

earlier; except that we are substituting psi angle as 0 in the whole equation minus C y by
C x square plus Cy square C x by C x square C y square 0 minus C x C z by C x square
Cy square minus C y C z by C x square Cy square root of C x square plus C y square.
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So, friends we can make use of the existing derivations and try to solve a simple 3d truss
problem. So, we have learnt how a 3d truss analysis is different from 3d space frame
analysis. In the problem formulation we have assumed that ends are containing spherical
hinges, that is the first assumption we made, second is if loads are applied at the nodes,
that is at the joints we do not have to bother about the psi angle keep this as 0 directly do
the transformation matrix.
So, analysis is simpler. I believe that you will able to understand and use the same
program with a small modification of a 3d element and solve a truss problem and try to
understand the application of this programming for the truss problem easily. So, friends
we will have another one more lecture in module 1, where we are going to talk about the
special elements that is non prismatic members. How they can be handled using what is
called as sub structure technique which we will discuss in the successive lectures.
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Module - 01
Lecture – 29
Special Elements
Friends we have been discussing about the stiffness method of structural analysis
applicable to 2 dimensional members; orthogonal, non orthogonal beam elements and
truss elements. We extended same logic to understand the response behavior of finding
end reactions and displacements of 3d structural members, space frames and space truss
members using the transformation matrix and the transformation procedures; however, in
certain situation, we may also encounter structural members with varying cross section
with non uniform moment of inertia etcetera. We can call them as special elements.
Now, special elements are treated by different techniques by different authors in various
text books, but I would take you in a different path; we would also treat the special
elements in the same style as we have been treating the conventional beam elements or
truss elements.
So, how do we handle them? So, this lecture 29 is going to discuss about the formation
of stiffness matrix for special elements. Let us take for example; I have an element with
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one end fixed and other end hinged. So, for my standard beam element my standard
beam element has both ends fixed; we have also discussed the beginning of this module,
how to handle special elements with varying moment of inertia and cross section.
But here the support conditions are different. So, what do we are going to do is? We are
going to convert this special member to a conventional member with the procedure what
we have followed so far.
Interestingly, my problem now becomes, a fixed beam with hinge introduced whose
length modes of elasticity, moment of inertia and area of cross section are uniform, but I
would call this as unrestrained degrees of freedom remaining all or restrained degrees of
freedom.
So, I am following the same logic as we did for the beam element and marking the
degrees of freedom as we have been doing for a conventional beam element. So, I have
got the j and k end of the member. So, now, the beam has got one unrestrained degree,
which is theta 1 and 5 restrained degrees, which is theta 2 onwards till delta 6. So,
therefore, this analysis will be conventionally dealt in the same style as we have been
doing for a beam element.
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We know for a beam element the stiffness matrix can be written as 6 by 6 with degrees of
freedom as you see here which is going to be one rotation and the jth end, kth end.
Vertical displacement jth end kth end axial deformation jth end kth end ok.
This is rotation this is delta v, this is delta h and this is for jth end this is for kth ends so
on. Similarly; so we all know we remember this derivation from the first lecture this is
simply 4 E I by l this is 2 E I by l this is 6 E I by l square this is minus 6 E I by l square
and these two are 0. Similarly this is 4 E I by l 2 E I by l 6 E I by l square minus 6 E I by
l square and again 0. This will be 6 E I by l square 6 E I by l square 12 E I by l cube
minus 12 E I by l cube and 0, this will be minus 6 E I by l square minus 6 E I by l square
minus 12 E I by l cube and 12 E I by l cube again 0.
These elements of the stiffness matrix are 0 whereas; this is A E by l minus A E by l

minus A E by l and A E by l. This is a standard stiffness matrix for a fixed beam which
we have already have with us, but applying this to this problem, one of the degrees of
freedom is unrestrained, so let me partition this. I have partition at one, now I can say
this matrix is equivalent to a stiffness matrix which is partition causing the sub matrix.
So, this is unrestrained degree, this restrained degree; similarly unrestrained and
restrained.
So, this becomes K unrestrained row unrestrained column, this becomes K unrestrained
row restrained column, this becomes K restrained row unrestrained column and this
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becomes K restrained row restrained column. All are individually sub matrices. So, I am
going to pick up these matrixes separately and write down in the next slide. So, for
example, K u u will be equal to 4 A E by l and so on. So, K u u is going to be 4 E I by l.
So, I can always find K u u inverse as l by 4 E I I also need K r r, K u u is actually 1 by 1
k r r is this matrix which is 5 by 5 this matrix ok.
Let us enter that 4 E I by l 6 E I by l square minus 6 E I by l square and so on. So, 4 E I

by l 6 E I by l square minus 6 E I by l square 0 0. Similarly the next column will be
starting from 6 E I by l square 12 E I by l cube minus 12 E I by l cube 0 0. Next column
is minus 6 E I by l square minus 12 E I by l cube 12 E I by l cube 0 0. Next column is
about three zeros and A E by l. So, I have simply plugged out the K r r matrix from the K
matrix which is 5 by 5 matrix ok.
I also now require K r u; K r u is this matrix which I am looking into this column which
is actually this vector which is 5 by 1. Let us pick up that vector which is 2 E I by l 6 E I
by l square minus 6 E I by l square 0 and 0 which is 5 by 1. Let us also have K u r;
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K u r is unrestrained row restrained column which is going to be this particular matrix;

this matrix which I am writing here 2 E I by l 6 E I by l square minus 6 E I by l square 0
and 0 which is going to be 1 row into 5 columns. Now I have K u u K u u inverse K r r K
r u and K u r I have all of them.
These are all sub matrices which I have estimated and evaluated from the original
stiffness matrix which is available here correct which is a standard procedure. We are not
doing any derivation new we have already derived this matrix for a simple fixed beam.
What I have done is? I have considered this as my unrestrained degree of freedom in the
whole derivation; that is all I have done. So, a partition the matrix and got these sub
matrices. Once I get this I want to now know, what is my k matrix of the special
element? That is the bother issue.
K at a special element can be easily given by K r r minus K r u K u u inverse and K u r

we can see here r r r u and u u and u and r and r I will get K r r look at the size K r r is 5
by 5 K r u is 5 by 1 this is 1 by 1 and this is 1 by 5 I get again 5 by 5. So, let us do this.
So, I have all these matrices with me. Let us substitute in this equation one and try to
find K of the special element. So, let us first do this operation K r u into K u u inverse.
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So, K r u into K u u inverse let us do that K r u is 2 E I by l 6 E I by l square minus 6 E I

by l square 0 0 which is actually 5 by 1 K u u inverse is l by 4 E I which already we have
with us is 1 by 1. So, now, I will get a vector when I multiply these two which will be 5
by 1, so which is going to be 0.5 1.5 l minus 1.5 l 0 0.
The next step is I want to multiplied this answer with K u r. I multiply this with K u r,
where K u r actually is a size of 1 by 5. So, I will ultimately get 5 by 5. So, let us do that.
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So, this is going to be 0.5 1.5 l minus 1.5 l 0 0 multiplied by 1 by 5 which is K u r which
is 2 E I by l 6 E I by l square minus 6 E I by l square 0 0. So, this is 5 by 1 is 1 by 5 I will
ultimately get a 5 by 5 matrix; let us find out this first, then we will do the other one
which is going to be so, this value is going to be E I by l 3 E I by l square minus 3 E I by
l square 0 0 3 E I by l square 9 E I by l square minus this is l cube minus 9 E I by l cube
0 0 minus 3 E I by l square minus 9 E I by l cube 9 E I by l cube 0 0 and this will be all
zeros. Now my K special element is actually equal to K r r minus this product which this
value.
So, let us write down that. So, K special element is going to be K r r minus this matrix.
So, K r r is 4 E I by l 6 E I by l square minus 6 E I by l square 0 0 6 E I by l square 12 E I
by l cube minus 12 E I by l cube 0 0 minus 6 E I by l square minus 12 E I by l cube 12 E
I by l cube 0 0.
These elements are 0 whereas; this is A E by l minus A E by l minus A E by l and A E by

l. I subtract from this; this value which I am writing here as E I by l 3 E I by l square
minus 3 E I by l square 0 0 3 E I by l square 9 E I by l cube minus 9 E I by l cube 0 0
minus 3 E I by l square minus 9 E I by l cube 9 E I by l cube 0 0 and these are zeros as
you see. Now the result is going to be the matrix which we want which I write here.
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So, K special element is actually 3 E I by l 3 E I by l square minus 3 E I by l square 0 0 3

E I by square 3 E I by l cube minus 3 E I by l cube 0 0 minus 3 E I by l square minus 3 E
I by l cube plus 3 E I by l cube 0 0. And these elements are 0 whereas; this is A E by l
minus A E by l minus A E by l A E by l.
So, that is my 5 by 5 matrix which now resembles a beam of this style. We have just got
the degrees of freedom which are restrained like this. So, let us mark 1 is absent. So, I
will call as 1, this as 2, this as 3, this as 4 and 5 is as 5 I mark the labels here this is going
to be 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 which is my special element. So, friends please understand, I can
always use a modification in the stiffness method to derive the stiffness matrix of any
element of my choice with where I boundary conditions or support conditions given in
the problem. So, that is very interesting; we are using the same procedure as developed
for a conventional beam element to derive stiffness matrix of a special element.
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The method is very simple; partition the matrix of the conventional beam element, and
derive the stiffness matrix of the special element following the same procedure as we
have discussed. So, stiffness method of structural analysis is highly versatile, and I
should say very easy and computer aided and not problem specific. It is highly a generic
method; I believe that you have enjoyed the lectures of module 1. We will now do one
more lecture on explaining how this special element can be solved using the
conventional stiffness method procedure. And also give you the computer program for
that so, that that completes entire discussion on module 1. So, friends we will have left
only one more lecture and module 1 where I am going to solve and example problem
using special element for given beam element.
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Module - 01
Lecture - 30
Non - Prismatic Members (Part - 1)
Friends; let us discuss one last example problem using non prismatic members which is
the very common application of structures. Depending upon the top side requirement
there may be a possibility; that the beam moment of inertia can vary depending upon the
span length. Therefore, let us see how we can handle this kind of problem using
substructure technique.
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What is a substructure technique? The one which we discuss the last lecture that is a
problem with special boundary condition or special support conditions can be handled as
a conventional problem by partitioning the matrices.
So, what we call as sub structure technique; let us take an example problem and solve
this using the computer code; let us say I have problem with moment of inertia and cross
section area varying as seen here.
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Let us say this is my end A, this is B and this is C and this has 4 meter long and this is 2
meter long, this has 1.5 times of moment of inertia; whereas, this section as I whereas, E
in both cases is same and A is 1.25 A, whereas this is A. So, E is standard section maybe
steel or concrete moment of inertia is 0.0031 meter the power 4 and area is about 0.150
meter square; this is subjected to a load only on the span A B which is 20 kilo Newton
per meter. We will analyze this problem using sub structure technique. So, now, as far as
I M is concerned, we will handle this problem as if there are 2 members A B and B C
separately. So, let us now mark the degrees of freedom let us say at this joint we assume
a structural hinge therefore.
There will be free rotation there will be free displacements along y and along x axis. So,
this is my x m and this is my y of the member these are understand degrees of freedom.
Now the restrained degrees of freedom are theta 4, theta 5 and delta 6, delta 7, delta 8
and delta 9. Now, we understand that unrestraint degrees of freedom or 3 in number that
is theta 1, delta 2 and delta 3 restraint degrees of freedom or 6 in number starting from
theta 4 till delta 9 which are marked in red color these are marked in green color.
Similarly the delta vector the displacement vector will also have 9 by 1 which will be
theta 1, delta 2, delta 3, then theta 4, theta 5, delta 6, delta 7, delta 8 and 9 where there
will be a partition here. So, I can now say this vector can be portioned as delta u sub
vector and delta r because these are unrestraint degrees of freedom.
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Is it not and these are restraint degrees of freedom, we have assumed an internal hinge
internal hinge at the point of change in cross section or moment of inertia.
So, we are dividing the structure into sub structures as you have seen in figure 2; this is
figure 2; this is the original figure which is the original problem. Now we will handle this
problem as if there are 2 members and we will write down the stiffness matrix; let us say
K AB will have E constant out.
475
So, let us mark the degrees of freedom rotation 4 1, then displacement about y 6 and 2
then displacement along x 8 and 3 that is the standard stiffness matrix; let us say 4, 1, 6,
2, 8 and 3, 4, 1, 6, 2, 8 and 3; so 4, 1, 6, 2, 8 and 3. We know this value is actually 4 E I
by l substitute for E I x etcetera and try to find the values which we substitute this will
become 0.0047 and this will become 0.0023 and this will become 0.0018 minus 0.0018
and this will be 0 and this will be 0.0023, 0.0047, 0018, 0018, 01018, 0.0018; again
0.0009, 0009, 000018 negative; negative again triple 09; triple 0 9 positive 00 and this
coefficient of stiffness matrix will be 0 and this will be actually A E by l E is anyway
common substitute I will get 0.0469.
So, this is my K AB matrix which is a conventional stiffness matrix of 6 by 6; we are not

done a special element here. Similarly I can do for K B C. Again E multiplayer common
out and see the degrees of freedom for k B C. So, 1 5 2 7 3 9 that is rotation about x and
y, I mean j and k; then displacement along y 2 1 7 displacement along x 3 and 9.
So, 1, 5, 2, 7, 3, 9; this is a E by l and so on. So, now, we can assemble these 2 and get
the total stiffness matrix K total. So, the K total will be 9 by 9 with all the 9 labels. We
can assemble them; then get the partition of this. Let us do this exercise using the
computer program.
476
Module - 01
Lecture - 30
Non - Prismatic Members (Part – 2)
You see here number of elements 2.
477
I value is 0.0031 and 0.15 this is what we have in the problem; 0031 and 0.15. 1.5 I and I
length is 4 into A is 1.25 A and A. Number of unrestrained degrees 3; you can see here
unrestrained degrees 3 mark in green restrained degrees 6 is it not. So, we enter that then
the labels are 1, 2, 3 and 4 to 9.
Then the labels for the member 1, 4, 1, 6, 2, 8, 3 you can see here 4, 1, 6, 2, 8, 3, then
member 2 1 5 2 7 3 9; 1 5 2 7 3 9 we need this for mapping done this.
478
Then we want to calculate the fixed end moments. Let us know the beam is loaded with
this; let us marked that figure here. The beam is loaded with a load of 20 kilo Newton per
meter is it not for a span of 4 meters. So, now, we know this value is w l square by 12
this is w l square by 12 which will become 20 into 16 by 12; which will be 26.67 is it not
and this is also 26.67 and this loading is going to be 20 into 480.
So, this is 40 and 40 and these values are going to be 0 and 0. So, if you look at the
degrees of freedom this is 4, 1, 6, 2 and 8, 3. So, this is actually M 4 this is actually M 1
this is V 6 this is V 2 and this is H 8 and H 9 and H 3 is it not. So, I can write the fixed
end moments of the member AB as plus 26.67 that is the anticlockwise minus 26.67 plus
40 plus 40, 0 and 0 in the labels will be obviously, 4, 1, 6, 2, 8 and 3 ok.
If you look at span BC, there is no load therefore; fixed end moment of span BC will be
a null vector. Such what entered here 26.67 minus 26.67, 40, 40, 0, 0 and f e m to is 0 ok.
Then we compute the rotational coefficients, then we found the stiffness matrix the local
stiffness matrix, then the complete stiffness matrix we assembling the member and get
the complete K.
So, that is what I trying to get. So, in this we get K local of AB, K local of BC in this step
we get K total which will be of 9 by 9 matrixes. Once we get that you separate K uu.
479
You get K rr, you get K ur and K ru plugs it out and then finds K modified. So, we get K
uu; we also get K uu inverse we can see that here; we also get K rr. We also get k ur we
also get K ru, then using this manipulation from the equation, we get completely K
modified which is printed here ok.
Once I get that we create a joint load vector. Joint load vector is a reversal of fixed end
moments. So, joint load vector will be again A 9 by 1 is or not, that is; a joint load vector
which will be reversal of this, which will be plus 26.67 minus 40, 0 minus 26.67, 0
480
minus 40, then remaining 0s. So, this will correspond to label 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9
you can check that; for example, in label 1 the fixed end moment was plus sorry minus
26.67.
So, here it becomes plus 26.67. Similar label 2; for label 2 it was plus 40 here it is minus
40. So, joint load vector is reversal of fixed end moments at 3 it was 0 there is no a 3 it
was 0 at 4 plus. So, at 4 this is minus at 5 it is 0 at 6 it is plus 40. So, 6 it is minus 40 and
similarly 7, 8 and 9, 8, 0, 7 and 9 or 0 you get 7890.
So, joint load vector has been obtained here. From this, we plug out J Lu and J Lr. So,
this is going to be joint load unrestrained, and this is joint load restrained and this is
going to be 3, because unrestrained degrees of freedom are 3 in this problem. So, we
have got J Lu and J Lr. So, we have got these two sub matrices from this vector. Then we
found the del u matrix or del u vector, then we find the unrestrained displacements, then
we found M bar of both the members. So, we get now the final end moments of both
member AB and member BC ok.
Then, we ultimately find the R r vector which is the final result of the problem. So, we
get R r vector the restrained vector at both the supports will see that now.
Let us see the output now member 1; 0.0046 of course, this is the multiplier E here this
studies exactly with the matrix what we have here. 472318 you can see that 472318
481
etcetera. Similarly member 2 again 6 by 6 with E multiplier so, what I do here we find
assembling this a complete stiffness matrix which is 9 by 9.
So, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 so we have a partition at 3 is it not. We make a partition

here. So, if you compare this matrix with the partition this is the unrestrained, restrained,
unrestrained, restrained this is 3 by 3. And this is going to be 6; 3 rows and 6 columns
this is going to be 6 rows and 3 columns and this is going to be 6 by 6; 6 rows and 6
columns. So, this can be entertain now from this we plugged out K uu you can see here
we have plugged out this matrix, the sub matrix which is here then found the inverse of
that.
So, this will have E multiplier. So, this will have 1 by E, then we found out K rr which is
this matrix which is here is or not within E multiplier here. We also found out K ur which
will be this matrix that is; this matrix which will be here right within E multiplier and we
also found K ru r-th row and u-th column this one which is this 1 which is here. Then we
found out the modified stiffness matrix from a simple expression. Modified stiffness
matrix is given by K rr minus K ru, K ur inverse K ur. So, I have all the matrices K rr I
have ok.
K ru I have K uu inverse I have and K ur I have to the manipulation and get this matrix
which is my modified stiffness matrix for the special element. The problem does not stop
here; I want to solve the problem. So, I got the stiffness matrix is modified, then the
modified stiffness matrix obtained here.
482
Then the joint load vector is taken out which we already have; we have already
unrestrained displacements. Then the R r vector is actually given R r vector is given by K
ru, K uu inverse multiplied by J Lu this is the matrix of 6 by 3 this is 3 by 3 and this is
the vector of 3 by 1 minus J Lr which is 6 by 1.
So, compatibility 3 and 3, 3 and 3, 6 by 1, 6 by 1, 6 by 1 which is this vector ok.
Then we found out the member values for member 1, this is the global end reaction for
member 2 let us plot this. Let us take this member 1 and member 2; there is a hinge here
483
internal hinge here and fixed. So, you know for member 1 theta 1 is 59.9053 plus
anticlockwise 55.9053 and here it is again positive.
So, there is an internal hinge rotation 14.4698. Then this reaction is 57.5938 then this
reaction is 22.4062. These reactions are actually 0; then let us come here. So, this had
anticlockwise. So, this is going to be clockwise of 14.4698 and; this is going to be again
clockwise of 30.3426 and this reaction is negative 22.4062 and this is positive 22.4062
ok.
You can see a very good that there is a perfect compatibility at the internal hinge. Now
ultimately the end reactions R r are given by this vector which I am copying back here I
am copying this vector here there are 5 values 6 values let us do that. So, ultimately if
you look at the problem I want theta 4, theta 5, delta 6, delta 7 delta 8 delta 9 let us mark
them here. So, I want for this member s so I should say M 1 and instead of theta 1 I call
this M moment M 1 or M 4 it should be M 4.
Then, M 5; then I should have V 6 and V 7, then I should have H 8 and H 9 correct; H 8
and H 9. Let us copy this vector back again and write down that. So, let us copy this
vector. So, I am copying the R r vector from here 55.9053 minus 30.3426 57.5938
22.4062. So, as per the labels this should be M 4 this should be M 5 this should be V 6 V
7 H 8 and H 9 let us mark them here.
So, this is anticlockwise 55. So, let us mark that let us draw the figure 55.9053 and this is
30.3426 and this value is 59.5938 and this reaction is 22.4062 and remaining towards
zero let us check this is going to be exactly same you can see here 55 and 55 this is 57
57. So, this is actually 57 this is 57. So, 57 57, then clockwise 30.34 clockwise 30,.34
upward 22, 22 ok.
Let us take a sectional see what is the moment here let us say M x. M x should be
actually equal to plus 30.3426 minus 24.4062 into 2 meters, because this distance is 2
meters which gives me exactly 14.4698 which is same as this.
484
So, there is a perfect compatibility of the solution what we have got we have also solve
the problem using sub structured technique. So, friends sub structure technique is easy
and comfortable to handle special elements and stiffness problems of larger size I should
say that.
We have also seen the computer code used for solving problem with special elements.
We have not modified the method; we have use the conventional beam element to solve
this, that is; A beauty about the whole experiment. So, we have used effectively the
computer methods for solving various types of problems varying from 2-dimensional
beam element, orthogonal frames, then 2-dimensional truss element, then 2-dimensional
beam element with non orthogonal frames.
485
Then 3-dimensional beam element space frame, then 3-dimensional truss element which
we call as space truss then also 2d special elements. We have also seen the computer
codes for solving the above problems. And we have seen the advantages of using
stiffness method and solving them.
So, friends with these we conclude the lectures on first module; hope you have
understood all the 30 set of lectures and first module. There are lot of tutorials available
to solve these problems in parallel computer programs are also given on the screen.
Please play them near MATLAB and try to solve different verities of problems and any
doubt arises please post it to us. I will try to help you more in detail. So, the second
module and third module are more interesting. Will have sub more codes on solving
problems dynamic analysis and fatigue analysis in different models.
So, the whole course is going to be very interesting and more and more practically;
experience on writing computer codes for solving complicated problems and offshore
structures.
486
Module – 02
Application to Offshore Structures
Lecture – 01
Offshore Structures – 1 (Part – 1)
Welcome to the set of lectures in second module. In second module of the course titled
computer methods of structural analysis of offshore structures. We are going to focus on
application of computer methods of structural analysis with examples taken from
offshore structures, before we do detailed analysis on offshore structures. Let us find few
lectures on understanding different structural forms of offshore structures, their function
and importance of the structural action under the given environmental loads.
So, lecture 1 in module 2 is going to focus on varieties of offshore structures part 1.

Friends; offshore structures are actually you constructed off the coast, far away from the
land, they have no direct access to land, sometime this platforms can even be subjected
to unmanned operation. Now offshore structures have some special characteristics. First
of all I should say they are unique in design.
487
Secondly, they have special geometric form which needs to be understood before we do a
detailed analysis. Further, they are also complex, because the environmental loads act on
them.
Now, I should say an important point the structural form of offshore structures are very
innovative. Friends; when you talk about the system which is usually designed to resist
loads, a structural system which is an assembly of members in a chosen geometric form.
I can give an example let us take truss systems. So, I have a truss system. It will have
some support condition; let us say a simply supported truss subjected to some loading at
the nodes. Now, I could say this as a structural system, because of simple reason if I start
naming the joints as A, B, C, D, E, F and G by using what we call as Bows notation, each
member for example, A B, B C, C D and so on.
There all each members which are assembled in a specific form to form a system. So,
structural system usually, is an assembly of members in a chosen geometric form which
is meant to resist the applied load, essentially by its strength. So, I insist the word
essentially it resists the load by its strength, but friends when you talk about assembly of
members in a geometric form in offshore structures.
488
Offshore structures are slightly different from that of conventional structures, because the
innovativeness arises, from the geometric form itself. So, I should say a single word
which is the captive word in offshore structural design, it is actually form dominated
design. It is not a function dominated design.
Essentially loads are resisted: partly by strength, partly by the geometric form itself that
is very interesting. So, this particular character makes offshore structures different from
the other conventional structures. So, we need to understand, how a form dominance
essentially resists the loads? To now understand the statement we need to understand
different types of offshore structures, before we proceed with the analysis of these
structural systems. In addition, they have a variety of functions to perform to name a few
oil, exploration, production, storage, even transportation, inspection of wells, etcetera.
489
There are varieties of functions which an offshore structure generally perform, so one
can now say; offshore structural analysis is an interest of multidisciplinary in nature. This
will attract listeners from civil engineering background, structural engineering
background, naval architecture, mechanical engineering, applied mechanics, engineering
design, aerospace engineering, production engineering, manufacturing engineering,
etcetera. So, we cannot really address multidisciplinary terminologies which are common
to so many interdisciplinary subjects and focus of interest.
So, we will try to orient, the lecture in such a manner that simple terms used in analysis
can be understood by engineers of the following background as just now mentioned. So,
offshore structural systems are essentially deployed, at various water depths, because
friends as you go away from the coast towards the mid-sea the water depth in ocean
keeps on varying. As you correctly guessed, water depth near the coast will be very
shallow as you move far away from the coast towards the mid-sea it will become deeper
and deeper.
So, offshore structural systems are deployed at shallow waters, medium waters or
medium water depth, deep water and ultra deep water. So, now, I throw a question to you
for your understanding.
490
If a structural system which is to be installed in sea, the primary source of loading act on
this will be wave loads; will also add with the current present in ocean. Further it will
also attract lot of wind loads; in addition it may attract of course, live loads, dead loads
impact loads etcetera.
Let us take a system which will have some topside data in which will have may be a
crane, may be a flare boom. So, crane, flare boom and some drilling derrick, which will
pass through the platform to have some drilling operation, let us say this is my sea bed.
Now this platform will have some portion of draft immersed in water and I call now this
as water depth; indicated by small d, because capital D will indicate diameter of the
members that is the common nomenclature people use. Now as the water depth keeps on
increasing from shallow to deep to ultra deep, you will realize that the same support
system which you have planned for this will not hold good for a deeper system.
So, on the other hand the structural system or the geometry of the system strongly
depends on the water depth and sea state of operation.
491
Generally, in analysis and design of offshore structures; the input conditions for loading
especially for wave load are given in terms of sea states. Sea state will include the wave
height, the period of the wave, then the wind direction, wind velocity; in addition to the
geographic locations etcetera. So, depending upon the sea state, where you want to
commission the platform the geometric form will be different.
So, now let us see what are the various geometric forms or configurations which are used
in offshore structures for oil exploration. One important statement which will make you
interesting is that; the structural systems deployed at different water depths are not
similar. They vary widely depending upon the water depth essentially fundamentally
water depth will make the structural system to vary.
492
Now to understand how a geometric form can be conceived, because to do a structural

analysis, we need to have the following information, we need to have the following
input.
You need to have essentially; a geometric form which shows arrangement of members,
you should also know the preliminary dimensions of these members, one should also
have an idea about the material properties, one should of course, have an idea about the
environmental loads like wave load, wind load, etcetera which we will discuss in detail
in this module. So, let us pick up one by one slowly. To do an analysis, I need to know
the geometric form and the preliminary dimension. Let us take for example, the most
commonly used material is steel, concrete. And now in the recent times people also use
composites. Wood has being used is also being used, but a rare application; generally
offshore structures are primarily constructed with steel as the material. We do have
concrete platforms as well. So, material is not a serious botheration for the analysis
perspective; loads will be defined by the sea state. So, we should know how to estimate
these loads for the analysis.
The main problem starts with what geometric form I have to assume for the analysis. As
you essentially said offshore structures are innovative, do not follow a conventional
structural form; hence we should have an idea about the geometric form of platforms
which also varies with depth.
493
Module – 02
Lecture – 01
Offshore structures - 1
494
So, let us see that first; most of the common structural forms consist of deck, supporting
system, a foundation etcetera. If you talk about deck; usually it is combination of truss
elements essentially; they offer more primitive type of support system, because the
support system, what you need is essentially for drilling operations. So, we need only
that primitive support system which can offer some resistance during drilling operation.
One may wonder how this structural forms where originally conceived? How or let us
say when these structural forms for offshore platforms are conceived? When they started
coming into play?
If you look at the picture here which is available on the screen it is a black and white
photograph. We can see the drilling ricks what you see along the coast line essentially
depict a very common form.
One observation what you make from this figure is that; the drilling platforms which are
otherwise in Layman’s language they are essentially of a truss type. You can see here the
second observation we can make is most of them were located very close to the beach or
I should say to the land you can see people are on the coastal side and they are located
very close; obviously, one can expect that oil exploration was actually taken or done at
very shallow depth.
495
One can also see a trapezoidal configuration, where the top side is lesser than the bottom.
We can see in almost all the cases it is true. So, they are very tall wind transparent what
you mean by wind transparent? It means the surfaces what you see here these surfaces
they enable passage of wind; wind passes through them the moment you have a system
which is wind transparent it is sure that they do not or they attract very less wind load ok.
So, that was the original idea for drilling platforms which are essentially meant at
shallow depths by the way this photograph shows Huntington beach in California where
oil exploration started about approximately 100 years back. So, a common configuration
which was found to be effective for shallow water oil and gas exploration was a truss
based system essentially material is steel or sometimes even wood. The geometric form
is a very simple that is why I said they have primitive support systems ok.
So, that is what I am writing here they have very primitive support system that was the
original idea.
When offshore drilling platforms are actually originally conceived about 100 years back.
Similar to this similar to these forms, drilling platforms were constructed in
Summerland, California all along the beach side. So, there are some important
characteristics of these structural forms. Let us see what are they. One they are very stiff
and rigid; it means initially they were designed to resist the load by strength.
496
Not by deformation or displacement, that is the original idea, why? Because it is believed
that stiff systems will be insensitive to loads. They can disperse the loads easily that is
the original idea you can see in the design. Of course, the statement was verified by
many researchers as an example William et al in 2011, 1984 stated that stiff systems will
generally attract loads and disperse them easily making them insensitive for load
dispersion.
So, initially people thought offshore systems will have stiff geometry with high level of
rigidity and they will resist the loads essentially by strength and not by displacement.
If you look at the photograph shown on the picture now this is the typical offshore
drilling derrick which is in summerland California; this is essentially retail of the
production platform in summerland and this is again an offshore drilling platform
constructed in lake Maracaibo Venezuela.
So, now we can do some common observations of all these kinds of platforms. One the
truss form of geometry is the common choice you can see that here. Secondly, they are
wind transparent. third they are very high that is tall, the H by D that is if it take this
dimension the base dimension as D and it take this dimension as H; H by D is very very
high. So, initially we all agree that if H by the base dimension is more than 5 they are
considered to be wind insensitive. So, offshore platforms essentially had wave loads at
the substructure or I should say wave loads act on the supporting structure.
497
For example; you see here these legs will attract wave loads whereas, wind loads are
predominant on the superstructure. Superstructure is one above water and sub structure is
one which is below water. So, two combination of loads start acting together in offshore
platforms essentially they were considered to be stiff and rigid and people believe that
stiff and rigid systems are insensitive to disperse loads acting on them they were made
essentially wind transparent, they have very high H by D ratio and the geometric form
essentially of a truss type, which consists of members both diagonal and axial; which is
the very common form in trusses having said this.
We can how make a statement; the truss system needs multi-tier deck for different
purpose of operation. So, offshore platforms are essentially required to be required to
have multi deck. Initially they were constructed with two decks, one is what we called
the cellar deck and the main deck, which are need to look after the functional values, like
power supply, maintenance equipments, etcetera.
One can also see in these figures, that they were lot of cantilever structures are extended
out of the deck for various purposes. One such important arrangement was the flare
boom.
The second could be a lifting crane; the third of course, which letter on developed is heli
deck etcetera. So, now, we have a combination of a truss type system which is rigid and
498
stiff which has cantilever members extending and this form was found to be common for
structures where shallow water exploration used to happen about 100 years back.
So, as we all agree as structural engineers with the increase in depth, with the increasing
in water depth of commissioning; what would be the effect? What would be the influence
of this? Parameter in design, because we would like to know this the height of the
drilling derrick, number 2 because the drilling derrick height will be keep on increasing.
The second could be the cross sectional member sizes, they will become larger in both
size and weight one can also use of course, composite materials to reduce the weight
etcetera.
Thirdly, you see the top side members are more susceptible or more vulnerable to fire; an
explosion, because they house lot of production, equipments, which we drew exploration
at high temperature and high pressure. So, this can also land up in vulnerability to fire
and explosion. So, these members should be also having to be designed for fire rating,
that is a requirement now which is gradually coming up as you proceed this for greater
water depths with large size of oil and gas production. So, we have a basic inference
what we obtain now.
499
Which is also going to be summary now of this lecture? We understood that offshore
structures are constructed away from the land.
So, the term off indicates away from the land; essentially the geometric form vary with
water depth. Initially, people thought stiff and rigid systems are they are design to resist
loads by strength only I should say; as the water depth increased people realize that it
influences the member dimensions weight of the platform etcetera. Please understand
friends; cost was no issue in the design of offshore platforms, but when you pay more
were innovative geometry cost naturally used be high. Therefore, in simple terms we can
say offshore structures are unique. To do an analysis of these kinds of structural systems
we need to understand different structural forms, different loads acting on the structural
forms. Then will talk about methods of analysis. Then we will apply them on example
problems and learn the analysis that is the idea which we will see in the next lecture.
500
Module - 02
Lecture - 02
Friends, let us continue the discussion on module 2. We are focusing on understanding

different structural forms in Offshore Structures. So, lecture 2 is going to focus again as a
continuation of different types of offshore structures, what we had discussed in lecture 1
of module 2.
501
We had a basic inference: that stiff structures are preferred to encounter the loads. We
also understand that water depth; influences the structural form, member dimensions to a
larger extent.
If you look at this figure; which shows me the sketch of one type of platform, this is a
typical jacket platform; we call this as a typical jacket structure. This is supported by
additional skirt piles to enhance lateral resistance. So, they need a strong pile foundation.
So, for the entire water depth members are provided.
502
So, as the water depth increases this structural form will be very expensive; plus it can
attract forces, I am talking about wave forces. Three if you understand the material a
steel, then corrosion may be a serious problem of this kind of structures, because all
structural members extend for the entire water depth.
So, fixed platforms which are jacket platforms; they are primitive type of offshore
platforms. They are of fixed type in sense the base of the platform is fixed to the sea.
They are relatively stiff.
And therefore, they proved to be insensitive to waves. So, most importantly they undergo
very nice displacements. And practically no rotations under lateral loads they resist
lateral loads by strength.
503
So, strength based design is the focus. These structures have special problems related to
their construction, installation, erection. of course problems with decommissioning as
well; they need special kind of crane arrangements, they also need special fabrication
yards; to erect such kind of platforms, which all include complexities during construction
process.
So, I should say they have; increase in complexities, during construction and installation.
504
Two, since they are stiff and rigid, they tend to attract more forces, due to increased
stiffness. So, this will result in larger member cross sections, and it makes the system,
more expensive. It is due to these reasons fixed structures are not preferred for higher
water depths, then what is alternative people in parallel also studied concrete platforms.
Gravity based structures briefly called as GBS platforms; essentially material of

construction was concrete.
The basic difference between the jacket platform and the GBS is arising from the
foundation. One difference is from the foundation, in the earlier case this the pile
foundation whereas, in this case it is series of caissons being constructed which will be
set to the ground and rest on the sea bed by its self weight.
505
So, this geometric configuration, there are some issues; one cost of construction, two
when you increase the water depth, two downtime for commissioning the platform; that
is such platforms like GBS takes many years to construct. So, it takes lot of time to
complete the construction and make the platform ready for oil exploration and, thirdly
reusability of the platform after completion of oil source. So, this is an issue.
Of course, people also studied and constructed platforms for greater water depths, which
are essentially fixed type. I can give some examples one is Bullwinkle constructed in at a
depth of 412 meters. Second could be Pompano constructed at the depth of 393 meters.
And third could be Harmony constructed at the depth of 365 meters.
506
Module - 02
Lecture - 02
Offshore Structures - 2 (Part - 2)
507
The picture what you see here is the Bullwinkle Platform. We can make some
observations: one the substructure system is again a truss type. The superstructure has
essentially material in steel. It also has elements or members with large H by D more
than 5 make it wind sensitive. Fourth, there are lots of cantilever systems which imposes
moment at the base due to wind load.
There are some advantages of this platform. They have high lateral stability, because of
increased weight. They remain insensitive to lateral load. And the crux of the problem is
they resist loads by strength and not by displacement.
Hibernia platform is what you see on the screen. Similar to Hibernia we have Pompano;
essentially a 393 meter water depth commissioned the year 1994, supported by pile
structures. So, essentially the first generation platforms; offshore platforms were bottom
supported. Stiff and rigid, resisted lateral loads essentially by strength, had very high
downtime for commissioning. Material used were essentially steel and concrete and that
are the idea what they had in the beginning of offshore structures they of course, had
good lateral stability.
Hibernia platform had concrete as a construction material; concrete is good corrosion

resistant. It is in fact, superior to steel in corrosive environment. So, subsequently other
platforms like troll A, troll B were all constructed; which were again in concrete which
were of similar structural geometry what you saw in Pompano, Hibernia etcetera.
508
Common type of fixed structures fixed offshore structure, were jacket platforms
essentially steel is the construction material used. The substructure is fabricated using
steel, tubular members and the connections are welded, they are pinned to the sea floor
using steel piles.
So, as we understand as steel is vulnerable to corrosion, they used a very common

method of maintenance to avoid corrosion is cathodic protection. It is been seen that
these platforms are suitable for a depth of 150 to about 250 meter water depth. And it
also depends on the wave climate, where you want to install this platform, they are
insensitive to lateral loads, and it is strength based design.
509
Whereas gravity based platforms, they are actually meant for production of oil from the
reservoirs. They have a large reinforced cement concrete bottom mounted on the seabed.
They do not have pile foundation. They essentially rest on the self weight. They are
seemed to be suitable for water depth up to about 350 meters. The base has lot of void
space which can be used as this is to initiate natural buoyancy to the geometry.
These bases with void space are called caissons. There are many references available in
the literature read more from Dawson 1983, Hove and Foss 1974 etcetera.
510
Void spaces are useful as storage compartments of oil. One classical example of GBS as
we saw is Hibernia.
So, friends in this lecture; we learnt two types of offshore structural systems which is
jacket type, other is gravity based structure; both are fixed type platforms, they resist the
load by strength, they are insensitive to wave loads, they have very less displacement and
no rotations, they take high down time to construct they are susceptible to corrosion;
essentially when it is steel. So, primitive structural forms were essentially jacket and
GBS, which are fixed type. As the functionality of the platform changed the structural
form was also changed, which will see in the next lecture.
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Module - 02
Lecture - 03
Friends, let us discuss the details of offshore structures as lecture 3, where we will also
try to recollect some information what we studied in the last two lectures? And add more
information to this lecture in terms of understanding response behavior of offshore
structures.
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We said that; jacket platforms are stiff by design, they resist loads by strength. The
downtime taken to construct is higher and the cost will increase; with increase in water
depths. As far as gravity based platforms are concerned; they also have increase in cost
with increase in water depth. They have a very high colossal weight; this has a demerit it
can result in settlement of foundation.
It can also cause special Geo-technical problems.
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One important issue; which is caused by gravity based structure could be problems from
sliding, problems due to bearing capacity failure; problems may arise due to rocking and
due to liquefaction. So, this can be very special geo-technical problems which can be
associated with gravity based structures. Of course, sliding can be addressed; with the
help of skirt piles to a larger extent by providing skirt piles sliding can be controlled to a
larger extent, but the high colossal weight of the platform can result in sea floor souring.
It can also cause bearing capacity failure; this is because due to high stress concentration
at the foundation level.
Friends structural systems which resist environmental loads by their strength has some
serious limitations; it means the structural form or the geometric form of structural
systems meant for offshore structures needed some innovative approach.
So, that is what we now understand. Jack-up platforms were constructed.
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They are conventionally called as jack up rigs a typical jack up rig is what you see in the
figure which is shown here. It essentially consist of a deck which you see here, it consist
of legs; essentially truss type annular systems which is seen here they are essentially
steel lattice towers, the top side detail of a jacket or jack up rig is actually similar to that
of a GBS or a jacket.
It contains a flare boom, it contains crane, it contains living quarters, helideck, it contains
machine floor, it also contains the drilling derrick which are also common to the top side
facilities which a conventional platform has. Then the question comes, what is the
difference in this geometric form compared to the earlier fixed type platforms? The most
important difference is they remain afloat they remain afloat, when legs are lifted up.
Hull actually will be facing the sea. So, it acts actually as a floating vessel.
Now, friends; interestingly from a fixed type the analogy of geometric form moved to a
partial floating type. Now, we agree to a common statement saying the structures which
are meant for floating should be anyway position restrained, they should be position
restrained for performing any operations. For example; oil exploration, drilling
production, for performing any such operation they need to be position restrained. So,
interestingly they are position restrained by driving the legs into sea floor. So, why they
are portable or transported from one site to another site, legs are pulled up and the hull
floats, that is why the name jack-up comes into play.
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So, they are actually conventional rigs, which are used for land based drilling except that
the legs will be pulled up and the hull will remain afloat. Now, interestingly when the
legs are down driven into the sea floor they should be connected to the sea bed.
So that, they are firmly resistant in the sea bed; while operation is going on. So, the
degree of fixity of jack up rigs is lesser in comparison to gravity based structure or jacket
platform. So, degree of fixity is lesser that is true, but the main advantage is its mobility.
So, they are not fixed to any specific, they are highly mobile they can be installed and
commissioned in any geographic location where exploration has to take place.
Therefore, the geometric design has a significant change compared to GBS and jacket.
There is a significant change in the geometric design, because the other platforms are
completely fixed whereas, this remains afloat when it is not under operation. A typical
jack up rig is what is shown in the figure here which you already saw.
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These are the parts which are really important. Jack-up rigs have few demerits; their
operational convenience is governed by the weather window; that is first demerit. Second
it is limited only to shallow water depths. So, we can say they are essentially meant for
exploration drilling and not for a production drilling. So, onsite installation hull is raised
by driving the legs into sea floor, that is; why it is called jack-up rigs.
A sufficient air gap is provided, so that the deck is not interfered during high tides.
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Let us quickly see various steps involved in commissioning a jack-up rig. The first figure
shows the jack-up rigs arise at the location we can see here the hull is floating and the
legs are lifted up, the moment it reaches the site. So, first is towing to the location, the
second could be once it reaches the location the legs are lowered. In fact, I would put it
the other way the hull is lifted; that is why I call this as jack up rig.
So, then an air gap is maintained, sufficient air gap is maintained. Then it is preloaded
with operational equipments; once it is done a full design air gap is achieved.
And now, it is ready for drilling. Foundation of jack up rigs cannot be as permanent as a
jacket platform, because in jacket platforms you remember; they are actually pile driven.
They are permanently positioned whereas, jack up rigs are highly mobile, they need not
be permanently positioned, but they need to be installed onsite to do the operation. So,
these legs are supported by a spud can; which is a conical underside footing of each leg.
Now, what are the motions? What are the motion characteristics of a jack up rig? As you
now understand; the hull contains lot of aerodynamic attractive features therefore, it
causes movement that is; pitch, roll to the vessel. This is more severe when actually it is
towing. So, there are instances where jack up rigs failed while towing, because the
moments are very high as result of which they fail under wind loads.
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Module - 02
Lecture - 03
Offshore Structures - 3 (Part – 2)
The next type of platform which comes into play is compliant type platform.
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Compliancy is a term related to flexibility, movement. So, friends the design concept of
offshore structures moved from strength based to compliant based, that is instead of
paying attention to stiffness, people paid attention to flexibility. They made the system
design compliant, freely responding to the loads.
So, now the loads are encountered not by the strength, but by displacement. Now
displacements can be of two types.
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Which happens at the member level, which happens at the structure level? So, this is
global, this is local, this is otherwise called deformation; this is otherwise called rigid
body motion. So, compliant structures are designed to have large rigid body motion. So,
the strength is replaced by deformation characteristics.
So, compliancy induces flexibility to the platform. So, this is verified by various studies
available in the literature Chakravarthy 1990; 1994 etcetera. Now as they become
flexible, response to counteract environmental forces by undergoing large displacements.
So, they undergo large displacements; the moment I say they undergo large
displacements, then it happens in different degrees of freedom. Let us take three axes X,
Y and Z for any body in space it has free displacement in all the three axis surge, sway
and heave. These are displacement degrees of freedom along X Y Z axis respectively.
Now put your thumb towards the arrow of your right hand remaining four fingers of right
hand will show you an arrow direction. You mark that direction that is called roll about X
axis, pitch about Y axis and yaw about Z axis.
So, there are 6 degrees of freedom, 3 translational, 3 rotational; all are rigid body motion.
The whole system displaces in this type. So, amongst the 3 translational surge and sway
are kept to be highly flexible; it means they will have large periods, they will undergo
large displacements in surge and sway, but heave is restricted. Similarly in 3 rotational;
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when surge and sway are free rotation about surge axis and rotation about sway axis that
is pitch and roll are restrained.
Since heave is restricted rotation about heave that is yaw is free is flexible.
So, the platform has permitted of large displacement in surge, sway and yaw. They have
restricted displacements and rotation; I should say motion, large motion and rotation in
heave, roll and pitch. So, friend’s compliant structures restrict or restrain loads by
displacements, but please note not on all degrees of freedom. So, systems which have
two bands of degrees of freedom, that is stiff and flexible. Stiff will have very small
periods, flexible will have very large periods.
For example, surge, sway and yaw; small periods will have roll, pitch and heave or
combined in single platform, such platforms are called hybrid platforms. Hybrid because
two bands of frequencies or periods, which are either very large or very small or
combined on the same design and such designs are called hybrid platforms. So,
compliant structures restrain loads by displacements not essentially by restrains, but the
flexibility which refers to compliancy does not happen in all degrees of freedom certain
degrees of freedom are restrained in motion by certain degrees of freedom are highly
compliant and flexible in motion.
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So, such a unique combination gave rise to new type of structures, they are called
compliant structures.
So, compliancy refers to flexibility, they have flexibility in rigid body motion, but please
note not on all degrees of freedom, only on few degrees of freedom. Now, the question
comes; when such compliant structures are to be installed for oil exploration they should
be position restrained, how it is achieved. So, let us take a simple floating body of three
the floating body has the water level up to this. The floating body has a weight which
will act through the C g of the body. The displaced volume of the body will also give an
opposing force to the top weight which is called buoyancy force.
So, now weight and buoyancy force are opposite each other. They will be concurrent
about C g coplanar, but the design is the design of compliant structures is buoyancy will
exceed the weight; it means the tendency is always to push the body out of water or
above the water level. So, what is the use of such kind of design philosophy? It is
interesting if you have a system whose buoyancy is much larger than the weight the body
will freely float. Once the body freely floats it is easy install the body. You do not need
not required special type of cranes etcetera. The body will freely float.
523
Now how to restrain this motion you have got to connect this body to the sea bed, but not
restrain the body on the sea bed.
So, to connect this body to sea bed one can use cables, wires, ropes they are all called as
tethers or tendons. There are varieties of compliant platforms which are constructed;
concepting what we just now discussed.
So, let us see them in the next lecture; let us see what the summary we have learned in
this lecture is? We understood that the gravity based platforms; jacket platforms which
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are essentially fixated type platforms resist loads by their strength. They have certain
merits and certain demerits which makes them non suitable for larger water depth.
As we go towards increase in water depths people prefer semi compliant structures jack
up bricks came into play, but they are not meant for deep waters they are meant for
shallow waters. Now to perform oil exploration and drilling in deep waters; researchers
started using compliant structures resist loads by displacement by enlarge and not by
their strength. So, interesting friends’ strength is not considered as a design parameter;
whereas, displacements are considered.
So, in next lecture we will talk about different types of compliant structures and the
merits and demerits and the response behavior under wave loads. And then we will come
to a better understanding, how offshore platforms are conceived from the fixed type to a
completely a floating type as of presence today.
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Module - 02
Lecture - 04
Offshore Complaint Structures - 1 (Part - 1)
Friends, we are talking about compliant offshore platforms. We said that compliancy
refers to flexibility. We also said by design, the platform need not remain flexible in all
degrees of freedom.
526
So, compliancy induces flexibility and platform resist loads by displacement and not by
strength; having said this there are varieties of complaint platforms which are
commissioned from shallow water, deep water and ultra deep waters.
So, what would be the essential source of strength of these platforms? These platforms,
very strongly rely on the restoring buoyancy force, this is required to maintain stability
and to ensure recentering capability. Now one may ask me a question why recentering
capability is required in compliant structures; the answer is very interesting re centering
is required, because the system is permitted to undergo large displacements.
So, we must check these displacements to be within the permissible limits. More
interestingly these platforms avoid resonance.
527
Or I should say resonating response by operating at a frequency well below the wave
frequency. On the other hand, let us say the typical wave periods at which offshore
platforms are commissioned for different sea states or typically; let us say 6 meter 6
seconds, 8 meter 8 seconds, 8 meter 10 seconds, 10 meter 10 seconds, 12 meter 10
seconds, 12 meter 15 seconds and 15 meter 15 seconds. These are some set of
combination of the periods and wave heights, which are operable in different sea states
where offshore platforms are generally commissioned.
So, I must select the system whose natural period should not lie in the band of 6 seconds
to 15 seconds, so that I can avoid a near resonating response. So, typically compliant
structures have two set of periods: one is for the flexible degrees namely; surge, sway
and yaw. Other is stiff degrees namely; roll, pitch and heave. So, the typical periods of
surge, sway and yaw vary anywhere from 60 seconds to as high as 120 seconds, which is
much beyond the bandwidth. The typical periods of stiff degrees anywhere vary from 2
seconds to 5 seconds, which are also beyond the bandwidth of operational waves.
So, the platform by design does not resonate, that is the first advantage we have. The
second advantage in response behavior is these platforms disperse loads by displacement
or rigid body motion and not by strength so; obviously, friends to be very specific in
terms of computer methods of structural analysis of compliant platforms we need not
bother about the axial force, bending moment, shear force etcetera, but we should bother
528
about the displacements in x y and z direction. We are going to bother about the
displacement control, but not the strength or the stress control design at all.
So, this is considered as one of the great advantage, this is one of the important shifts in
design philosophy of offshore platforms. So, that is very important to realize at this
stage. So, therefore; these structures are highly suitable for deep waters. So, how are they
position restrained is an issue? This still an issue which varies with different types of
compliant platforms, which we will now discuss; therefore, the structural form of
compliant platforms in general are different from fixed type. Within compliant platforms,
there are different geometries which all have same design philosophy, but variation in
geometric forms which will.
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Now, see a typical compliant platform is shown in the figure. You can see the top side of
platform and the platform is rested on the seabed; neither by fixed support nor by piles,
but a lattice type truss type design tower. So, the platform can rest on the seabed by what
we call as towers. Towers are essentially wave transparent, but; obviously, when towers
are supporting the deck or the tall towers need to extend for the entire water depth; for
example, you see here towers are extending for the entire depth therefore; any tower
supported system cannot be useful for increased water depth, because the tower has to go
for the entire water depth.
So, we must think of a compliant platform which should not be supported by the tower
by some other mechanism. Before, we discuss that let us take a simple example of a
compliant platform which is a guyed tower platform the one, what you see here its guyed
tower platform, which is a compliant platform, compliant type platform which is useful
for both drilling and exploration activities. They can operate in water depths anywhere
from 160 meter to as deep as 600 meter, the top deck is supported by a steel truss type
tower as you see in the figure, but the foundation is resting on the spud can which is
similar to that of a jack up rig.
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So, simple foundation supported by tower. Now to enable restoration they are connected
by guy wires will be connecting the platform. This point where the guy wire connects the
tower is called the fairlead. This point where the guyed tower connects the seabed is
called the touchdown point; lot of counterweights are added at the touch down points.
These are counterweights, to hold down the guy wire. So, this is the guy wire, that is;
why this platform is called guyed tower. So, interestingly the platform enables a
pendulum motion which is spud can at the bottom, which is more or less hinged
boundary condition which takes no moment, but offers resistance to both horizontal and
vertical, but no moment.
So, the system actually oscillates; when it oscillates to the left the Guy wire try to pull
this back, when it oscillates to the right this guy was there to pull it back. So, this
operation is what we call as re centering capability. So, the platform oscillates about the
spectrum point and that moment that compliancy that displacement actually resists the
loads encountered in this platform. So, loads are resisted by moment which we say
compliancy. This compliancy induces flexibility and the platform is not a stiff or a rigid
type.
531
The second type of platform which is compliant platform is articulated towers.
So, articulated towers briefly called as A T. A typical articulated tower looks like this,
unlike guyed towers, articulated towers has a central core or a central column which is
attached with a buoyancy chambers and ballast chambers, which is connected to the
seabed you seeing universal joint. So, the connection the tower is connected to the
seabed using universal joint. Universal joint is a joint, which is similar to that of a ball
joint which offers rotation, but restraints lateral and vertical motion. So, theta at the joint
532
is practically desired to be infinity, but delta and del at the joint practically is 0, that is
ideology of this joint. So, this now acts as an inverted pendulum, because this is a point
where and the pendulum is prevented and the platform will oscillate about this. So,
again; when load is encountered, platform oscillates, that causes compliancy, because it
is displaced the degree of freedom here displacement is rotation about the base.
So, this implies the fact the moment about the base is 0. So, this has an advantage this
initiates a simple foundation. So, the foundation not complex is very simple; re centering
of the platform is ensured by I should say inverted pendulum action. In addition; to that
when you look at this platform, the buoyancy chamber and the ballast chamber which are
filled with water or oil also offers variable buoyancy effect which also adds to the
restoration.
This kind a platform has one important observation. The observation is the platform will
undergo rotation continuously which may cause a fatigue failure at the universal joint.
So, that is one in important issue as far as these towers are concerned. So, what is the
advantage of having compliancy?
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Module – 02
Lecture – 04
Offshore compliant structures - 1
534
In this kind of towers advantages of compliancy in ATs and GTs that is guyed tower and
articulated tower are, Compliancy avoids concentration of high moments at the bottom
that is one major advantage we have therefore, high stress concentration are shifted from
the bottom, maybe in ATs it is shifted to the central tower, in GTs it is shifted to again the
tower at one third height.
The third issue is the buoyancy chamber in particular in articulated towers ensures
additional capacity of re centering. So, by compliancy towers regain original position by
displacements. In fact, I should say by undergoing large displacement. So, it is not a
strength based resistance. But your displacement based resistance what we call as
compliancy in addition.
Compliancy causes change in dynamic water plane area. So, therefore, these towers
again have periods, natural periods varying from about 30 to 45 seconds in compliant
degrees especially the compliant degree of freedom for an AT is rotation at the base.
In addition as we just now saw ATs have deliberately a single point failure, can you guess
where the failure would happen? Yeah, it will happen at the universal joint. So, universal
joints are vulnerable to fatigue failure. Some designs of AT also have periods extending
till 45 to 75 seconds as well. So, as a result these structures have low dynamic
amplification under waves.
535
They also have less weight, so installation is simple. The next variety what we can have
in compliant structures is tension leg platform TLP. TLPs are designed where the weight
is much lower than the buoyancy or buoyancy exceeds the weight by design. Now
weight is acting downward, buoyancy will act upward and buoyancy exceeds the weight.
The difference between the buoyancy and weight is to be compromised by the axial pull
or axial force in tethers, they are also called as tendons.
536
So, the figure shows the typical tension leg platform whose top side is similar to any
drilling or production platform. So, now, these are the legs which are called otherwise
tendons or tethers. They will be under axial tension, so tethers otherwise called as
tendons will be subjected to high axial tension, they are called initial pretension indicated
as T 0. So, now, W will have downward, F B will act upward, T 0 will act downward, so
W plus T 0 will be F B that is equation of static equilibrium of tension leg platform
where T 0 is initial pretension offered.
So, it is very simple a system has excessive buoyancy it will be pushed up to hold it
down tethers will pull them down. So, all legs will be always intention that is why these
platforms are called tension leg platforms that is the reason why they are call tension leg
platforms very interestingly the concept of TLP can be also read at different papers two
2007 a and b by Zeng et al and other literature which he referred in the NPTEL website.
Now, TLPs have uniqueness in design there are two sets of frequencies of periods which
are connected in TLP therefore, TLPs are hybrid systems which I explained you already.
So, surge, sway and yaw which are flexible degrees will have periods varying from 70 to
125 seconds where as heave, roll and pitch will have periods they are stiff degrees will
have periods 2 to 5 seconds.
So, the waves which will act on this platform will be in between, which will cause no
resonance on the platform at all. So, I should say TLPs are flexible in horizontal plane
537
and stiff in vertical plane because surge sway are displacements along X and Y which is
horizontal plane and yaw is rotation about Z axis which is also will happen on the
horizontal plane. Similarly, heave is displacement along vertical plane that is Z axis and
roll and pitch are rotations about X and Y axis which also happen about the vertical
plane. So, for low periods they are stiff therefore, it is stiff in vertical plane for larger
periods they are flexible therefore, they are flexible in horizontal plane and put together
this is call a hybrid design concept in offshore platforms.
So, interestingly when a TLP is subjected to a wave action TLPs will undergo
displacements since tethers are inextensible this displacement along X is called as offset,
this displacement along heave is called set down. So, one can now notice that offset
which happens along X axis and set down which happens along Y axis sorry Z axis are
strongly coupled.
What do you mean by coupling? When I give a X displacement display along Z

automatically happens any displacement along Z will change the buoyancy will change T
0 and therefore, the problem is dynamic in nature that is why this T 0s otherwise called
dynamic tension variation. So, we have advantages of alleviating the environmental
loads by this kind of structural action.
So, one can very clearly understand here that complain structures resist loads by
displacement or you can say a rotation it does not matter in general by a compliancy in
538
nature. This compliancy offers many advantages, but in case of ATs and GTs there are
towers we need to extend for the entire water depth therefore, they are limited only up to
a depth of 600 meters whereas, tension leg platforms has no such tower they are only
tethers. Therefore, they are insensitive in terms of cost with respect to increase in water
depth. So, therefore, TLPs are preferred for deep and ultra deep waters.
Further we also saw when TLP is subjected to a lateral push the change in tension the
horizontal component will offer resistance to the load the vertical component will add
stability. So, T 0 horizontal component will resist the load where as vertical component
will adds weight which improves a stability. So, TLP has good re-centering capability
restoration concept simple in design insensitive in cost with respect to water depth and
simple advantage, so this is what we call as TLP mechanics.
So, in the next lecture we will also see some more offshore platforms which are meant
for ultra deep waters and new generation platforms which are recently conceived we will
talk about their structural action very quickly and understand how these kinds of
platforms are useful for deep and ultra deep water oil exploration and production.
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Module - 02
Lecture - 05
Offshore Compliant Structures - 2 (Part - 1)
Friends, welcome to the fifth lecture in module 2. In this lecture we will continue to
discuss about the compliant structures more in detail.
540
As a summary, we said that tension leg platforms which is one of the most successful
compliant platform is designed, in such a manner that it is natural period are far away
from the wave period. It has got 2 distinct bands of frequencies, one is highly flexible
which is compliant degrees of freedom they are essentially surge, sway and yaw, out of
which these 2 are displacements, degrees of freedom and this is rotational degree of
freedom.
On the other band of frequencies is very stiff, which is very rigid, they are heave, roll and
pitch. Heave is a displacement degree of freedom and roll and pitch are rotational
degrees of freedom, a typical periods that we discussed in the last lecture varies
anywhere from 80 to 120 seconds. In flexible degrees of freedom and this vary anywhere
from 2 to 5 seconds in stiff degrees of freedom.
Since, platform has got an extreme combination of both flexible and stiff groups of
degrees of freedom this platform is also called as hybrid platform.
541
And extending the discussion further, the lateral forces acted upon by the waves or wind
essentially, displaces the platform along x and y axis, as a case maybe it also causes
rotational displacement about x or y axis respectively as the case may be. So, due to the
coupling effect this induces heave motion. It is very interesting friends to realize that
force are applied across x or y, but displacement happens along heave this is actually a
strong coupling effect.
So, when we do an analysis of offshore platforms of this nature we must take care of this
concept in the analysis that, there is an interdependency of degrees of freedom in the
analysis we must remember this when we do the analysis for tension leg platforms. So,
set down causes change in water plane area, which in turn effects or influences the
buoyancy forces. Now, as a result the initial pre tension t0 will now change that is why, it
is called dynamic tension variation.
542
So, now the platform will move on the displaced position so when, I have a platform
which is initially tethered to the sea bed, with initial pre tension of a very high value
when the platform displaces to the right as the tethers are inextensible, the horizontal
component of the tether and the vertical component of the tether, the horizontal
components of the tether will counteract waves.
The vertical component of tether will add weight and it will improve stability. So, this is
what we call as TLP Mechanics, and this offset this displacement is call offset and this
displacement is called set down which is explained in this figure very clearly, that how
the offset and set down induces horizontal and vertical component of the forces and these
forces are very large, because t0 initially is very high, t0 value is very high. Therefore,
the horizontal and vertical component will counteract the waves and this will impose
weight and improves stability.
543
Having said this, TLPs are seen as one of the most successful compliant platforms, one
can very easily see here loads are resisted by displacements and essentially not only by
the strength. So, strength may not govern the design of such platforms, so we call this as
form dominated design. So, the structural form or the geometric form of the platform is
very important. It is conceived in such a manner that the displaced position forces
counteract the lateral forces and induce the stability and recentering capability in the
given system.
Adding to one more point installing TLP, at increased water depth is more challenging it
needs a high technical expertise, it is due to this reason one can say the TLPs are
expensive when you go for higher or greater water depths, that is the reason why they are
expensive. Because construction or installation of TLP at higher water depths needs high
technical expertise which is expensive this was reinforced by Chandrasekaran et al., in
2008, 2011, 2016, 2006, further it is also enforced used by Donley and Spanos, in 1991.
544
The most advantageous feature of TLP can be seen as, unlike other platforms or platform
configurations TLPs do not collapse, like in case of jack up rigs which capsize TLPs do
not capsize.
Then what happens to them they remain afloat, they may not remain functional under
extreme cases, but they will remain afloat. Because buoyancy exceeds the weight by
design so that is why we said it is form dominated design. One demerit it has got it has
got a very high complicated maintenance of subsea systems which also makes it
expensive.
545
So, there are many TLPs built across the world in different locations for completion sake
this is one picture of Neptune TLP the other picture, so many TLPs are constructed
successfully. So, TLPs have shown advantages in terms of restricting or dispersing the
lateral loads by large displacements.
Alternatively, the next structural form which was chosen as an alternative to TLPs are
SPAR platform, it consists of a single large diameter cylinder, this cylinder actually
supports the deck. So the deck is there and it is supported by a single large diameter
546
cylinder, the cylinder is having a deep draft. It has deeper draft may be about close to 60
percent of it is height is in water. Let us say this is h this is about approximately 0.6 h.
Of course, this is governed by the design and type of the hull support system etcetera. So,
essentially it is a deep draft system. The bottom chamber of the cylinder, the bottom
chamber is filled with denser material; this is essentially done to lower the centre of
gravity of the system. Because topside hull, has got lot of superimposed load to
compromise and compensate that the bottom part of the chamber is filled with denser
material, so that the C g is lowered to improve stability.
So, this was a concept which was verified by various studies conducted by Zhang et al.,
2017, Ran et al., 1996, Agarwal and Jain 2002 and others.
So, that is the typical structural form of a spar platform. Generally, spar platforms are
connected to the sea bed by spread mooring system. These are, actually not taut moored
unlike TLPs.
So there is no initial pre tension in this tethers they are slack moored. There are 3 types
of structural forms of spar platform essentially classical spar, truss spar and a cell spar.
So, again one can say this is form dominated design because the top weight is balanced
by buoyancy caused by the cylinder draft.
547
Many spar platforms are constructed all over the world in the recent past the water depth
where they are installed varies from 800 meters to as deep as 2337 meters, 2377 meter is
the Perdido spar commissioned in US waters. Alternatively, you have Devils Tower
which is at the depth of 1710 meter. You have Horn Mountain which is the depth of 1653
meters. Again both of them are commissioned in USA.
548
Module – 02
Lecture – 05
Offshore Compliant Structures – 2 (Part – 2)
The next structural form which was also useful for offshore drilling purposes was
semisubmersibles and drill ships, essentially they are completely floating structures.
So, friends please realize that the structural form of offshore platform begin with fixed
type and landed up in completely floating type. So, one can see here, there is an extreme
novelty in the structural form of offshore platforms which makes its analysis and design
highly unique. So, the important key factor which was remembered is the geometric form
dominates the design it is unlike, conventional structures, offshore structures do not have
a standard symmetric form they have a very novel geometric form which can dominate
the design, so it is form dominated which we reinsist again. Essentially they may not be
strength governed, but I am not saying strength is not important, it is essentially not a
strength governed design.
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The moment you have compliant structures or floating structures, you will see that the
displacements are much larger, which enables them to counteract the forces acting on
them which is the concept in the design of these kinds of platforms. So,
semisubmersibles have large vertical columns which are connected to large pontoons,
columns actually support the deck structure.
More details can be seen in researchers like, Witz et al., 1986, Alexander 1985, they can
operate as shallow as 30 meters; essentially it is a floating platform. But when drilling is
carried out, it is position restrained by dynamic positioning systems, one important point
we must remember in this context is that high initial cost and high operational
expenditure makes these kinds of platforms as an elusive choice, when no other platform
is possible that is one issue.
The second issue is there are only limiting dry dock facilities available in the world,
which can attend to these repairs. So this also leaves a very lean choice of using them for
continuous exploration, production, drilling. Just for a statistics about 52
semisubmersibles or so far commissioned in the world. Brazil tops the maximum number
of semi submersibles commissioned in Brazil waters in North America.
The next kind of platform which is also important for offshore drilling production is
FPSOs, which abbreviates for floating, production, storage and offloading platforms
FPSOs. Essentially FPSOs are actually converted form of large vessels, ships they are
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completely floating type so the structural forms of these vessels of large vessels are
modified.
What modification you do is, you modify them from bottom supported system to
completely floating system, most of them are self propelled. Therefore, this has got a
very great advantage; the great advantage is they have high versatility that is mobility.
Two they have decrease the downtime for commissioning and of course for de
installation as well, if necessary. So that is a major advantage you have with FPSOs.
Refer Slide Time: 07:45)
Essentially FPSOs or FPS are similar to conventional barge or a tanker. They are of
course modified to house various drilling and production equipments. Generally, Hull of
an FPSO is typically a ship-shaped, geometry, usually with the mono-hull structure.
Typical dimensions of an FPSO could be about 200 to 400 meter long and breadth can
vary anywhere from 30 to 60 and the height can varies anywhere from 20 to 30 meter,
which imposes a very large water plane area which actually enables them to float.
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So, FPSOs are governed by choice of various parameters those parameters could be the
ship size, size and availability of off tanks, projected downtime and Cargo destination. I
mean these can be some of the factors which can govern what FPSOs geometric form
will you choose for oil exploration? Essentially, large FPSOs have been deployed at
various water depths in Australia and New Zealand they vary anywhere from as deep as
102 meters to that of 825 meters.o
For example, at 102 meter we have an FPSO which is Raroa which is in New Zealand
and 825 meter we have an FPSO which is, Stybarrow Venture which is in Australia. You
also have FPSOs in Nigeria at greater depths of 1030 meters. For example, Bonga you
also have something at 1200 meters which is Erha and so on. More details can be seen in
the reference books which we have listed in the NPTEL website.
The deepest FPSO, as a set is commissioned in Brazil at 2149 meters which is Cidade de
Angra closer one is about 2000 meters in Angola which is PSVM. Of course, you will
see FPSOs are also commissioned at shallow waters. For example, just in 13 meter in
Nigerian Coast we have Armade Perkasa commissioned as an FPSO in Nigeria.
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So as we all agree, now if you are deploying a floating system one needs to plan for its
station keeping during, drilling and production. Majority of FPSOs, depend on fixed
mooring system, they have anchor lines, which holds them down to the seabed
permanently during operation.
Alternatively, you have dynamic positioning systems which can also be useful, which
employees actually series of thrusters and positioning technologies. More details can be
seen in the references, what we are discussing in the NPTEL website. There are parallel
courses which also throw more light on types of offshore platforms, the focus of this
course actually analysis. So we need to know the structural forms we are discussing at
brief various structural forms which can be useful for oil and gas exploration.
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So friends, in this lecture we have overview the TLP mechanics and understood the form
dominance characteristics of TLP, we realize that TLP motion is strongly coupled and it
resists lateral load by geometric form. So, we say it is Form-dominant design. Further,
we also discussed about spar platforms which has got a deep-draft cylindrical system
which supports the hull it is positioned restrained by slack moored tethers.
We also understood that the offshore platform design move to completely floating
systems which are actually modified forms of sea going vessels like, FPSOs, Drill ships,
semi-submersibles etcetera. So, in the next lecture we will talk about new generation
platforms which are further modified structural forms of geometry which are more useful
and I have got induced novelty and uniqueness in the structural form.
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Module – 02
Lecture – 06
New Generation Platform (Part – 01)
Friends, welcome to the sixth lecture in module 2. Where, we will talk about some
innovative structural forms which are addressed as new generation platforms.
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Let us quickly understand that offshore structural design moved from fixed type to a
floating type. Once we agree that this transformation is advantageous, as we know there
are some difficulties in this. The foremost difficulty is the system is permitted to undergo
large displacements. Now this can be a demerit in sense when the platform undergoes
large displacement, in flexible degrees of freedom. This may cause inconvenience to
operate. Sometimes it may even challenge a safety or I should say safe operability.
So, then what we should do to address this problem. So, the issue is very simple.
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Deck or the Hull is connected to supporting system which ensures a rigid body motion.
In parallel we also understand the taut moored tethers of TLP, and deep draft cylinders of
spar are good designs. We agree that, because we saw the advantages of these points. So
now, I want to capture this advantage into a new structural form.
I want to maintain the structural form to remain flexible on certain degrees and remain
rigid on certain degrees of freedom. At the same time I want to control the large
displacements. So, that is the motive now. New generation platforms address this
problem, let see how.
So, deep and ultra deep waters exploration, demand, various types of structures such as:
tension leg platform, spar, semisubmersible FPSOs. In addition a new concept was
initiated in 2005 based on something called buoyant leg structures [FL]. A new concept
was introduced by Charles et al in 2005 which is based on buoyant leg structures. So,
that becomes the basis of the design of the geometric form.
Now what are buoyant leg structures? Buoyant leg structures in simple terms are actually
deep draft cylinders which resemble spar cylinder or spar buoy, which are not taut
moored because we know spar is not a taut moor system, but slack moored. They can be
useful to sustain wave loads.
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Having said this, a new system by name triceratops is conceptualized which consist of a
deck 3 buoyant legs.
Now, the deck and buoyant legs need to be connected. We connect these deck and
buoyant leg using ball joints. So, this is my deck, this is multi tire; this is one tire middle
tire and upper tire supported by a truss system. And it will have all topside detail like a
flare boom, like a drilling derrick, like an helipad, like a living quarters.
Now, the buoyant legs which have a deep draft this is my water level should be now
connected further to the sea bed. So, the sea bed is connected to the tether of to the
buoyant legs with initial three tension tethers. These are either called tendons or tethers
which has very high initial pretension.
Now friends, let us recollect some important facts what we studied about TLP and spar.
A deep draft cylinder like a spar is advantageous. A tension leg taut moored system like a
TLP is advantageous. These two advantages are combined to form a triceratops. So,
triceratops is conceptualized by supporting a deck by a buoyant leg which is further
anchored to the sea bed using tethers. Now the buoyant legs and deck are connected by
ball joints. Now these ball joints is an innovative element in triceratops.
What exactly it does, very interestingly. These ball joints have a special function; let us
see, what is a special function? We already know large displacements are not desirable,
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they are not desirable. Now let me ask you a question; where these large displacements
will occur, where they will occur. It is expected they will occur on the deck. So, large
displacement on the deck is not desirable.
So, what we should do with the ball joints is the ball joint should be able to restrain large
displacements. The moment you say large displacements what kind of displacements are
harmful; usually rotations, they are undesirable.
So friends, ball joints are designed to restrain transfer of rotations from buoyant legs to
the deck, but transfers translational degrees or displacements. So, I should say now deck
is partially isolated from the buoyant legs. So, that is the very important advantage which
makes this platform as a new generation platform.
So, when we do analysis we must account for these degrees of freedom. So, let us say
what would be the degrees of freedoms we will have for the system. Let us take the
system. The buoyant legs will undergo all 6 degrees of freedom which will be, surge,
sway, heave, roll, pitch, and yaw. Out of which roll, pitch and yaw will not be transferred
to the deck. So, the deck will have only 3 degrees of freedom namely; surge, sway, and
heave. So, 3 rotational degrees of freedom will not be transferred to the deck. So, in total
system will have 9 degrees of freedom: 6 for the buoyant legs and 3 for the deck.
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So, the system will have different degrees of freedom for the deck and the buoyant legs
which we must account in our analysis. So, conceptually Charles et al 2005 stated that
triceratops are advantageous and adaptable to ultra-deep waters.
So, that is the conceptual figure which was a new geometry tried and attempted.
We can see here this is the deck, which contains all details as that of a conventional
platform. All these three are buoyant legs, these are tethers which have very high initial
pretension, and these are the ball joints which connect the tether sorry; the buoyant legs
to that of the deck.
So, what are the characteristic advantages we have in this structural form? We can say it
has got better motion characteristics, because the deck or the hull is partially isolated
from the buoyant legs; that is an advantage. Secondly, it is a simple geometry. Thirdly, it
requires a very simple station keeping, it does not require a complicated dynamic
positioning system etcetera; does not require.
You can see from the concept itself it is easy to install and commission. It can be easily
reusable and relocated. It has call a simple restraining system because, studies show that
the T 0 value of that of a triceratops is far lesser than T 0 of a tension leg platform.
Because, by design TLP has buoyancy exceeds the weight, whereas in triceratops this is
partially taken care of by the connection.
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So, the initial pretensions in tethers are far lesser compare to that of a TLP, so that is an
advantage. And therefore, all this will make triceratops as cost effective for ultra deep
waters.
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Module – 02
Lecture – 06
New generation platforms
So, few studies have been also conducted by Shaver et al in 2001 and Capanoglu et al in
2002.
Based on which Chandrashekaran and Madhuri in 2012, 15, 16 etcetera as

conceptualized as a preliminary research and studies very clearly showed for various
degrees of freedom in surge and sway, Shaver et al showed a period of 300.52 seconds.
Shaver et al also did experimental study and that showed 290.76 seconds and
Chandrashekar and Madhuri showed results which came to be 300.0 seconds. In heave
degree of freedom this value was 7.97, this value was 9.64 and this came to 9.15. In roll
degree of freedom this was 44.01 seconds, this was 53.46 seconds where as this was 53.6
seconds.
In pitch degree of freedom this value was found to be 44.01 and 54.11 and this again
showed to be 53.60. In yaw degree of freedom which is a flexible degree, this was
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214.13 seconds Shaver showed 186.77 experimentally and of course, they did not report
anything of this order.
Similarly, when we compare this with Capanoglu, they showed this value as 148 and this
158 and based on the same model Madhuri showed it is 148, because the model taken by
Capanoglu and that of Shaver et al are different it is a group of buoyant leg where as
Capanoglu they were only single buoyant leg. In heave degree this was 1.7 and no
experimental value by Capanoglu and this value became 1.65.
In role degree of freedom this value was 35.2, this is 29.5 and Chandrashekar et al
showed 28.61. So, one can see very clearly here the conceptual model of triceratops
generated experimentally and analytically tested by Chandrashekhar and et al compares
well with Shaver et al and Capanoglu et al in the preliminary studies where as please
note Shaver et al and Capanoglu studied this only on buoyant legs whereas, study of this
was extended further to form a new generation platform which triceratops.
So, your full model was developed you can see here the details of the model. And an
experimental and model testing were done on both free floating and tethered triceratops
by Chandrashekhar et al for a pay load of 4059 tons on a scale of 1 is to 150. So, this was
the triangular deck plan, which was proposed with two deck plates upper and lower deck
plates. Ball joints isolated the deck partially, buoyant legs they are ballasted to maintain
stability and floatation characteristics desired for a buoyant leg.
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They were all initially tethered with pre tension, similar to that of a tlp using 0.3 mm
diameter steel tether in an experimental set up. So, for this the structural details in terms
of pre tension, displacement, ball joint and appurtenances low etcetera are available on
the screen now for your reference.
Your further studies then extended to a water depth of 600 meters for a scale of 1 is to
150 and experimental studies were performed to understand the response behavior.
So, for a water depth of this, we are designed draft was established and dimensions and
initial pre tension values and all structural characteristics of the platform for a scaled
model comparative prototype in terms of tethered triceratops and free floating are
available on the screen now for our discussion. The free floatation characteristics showed
that the free floating triceratops had heaved degree roll and pitch degree of freedom
frequencies as 20.3 seconds in terms of period with 0.7 percent damping.
In roll it was 98.5 with 6.1 percent damping. The tether triceratops showed better vertical
stiffness, therefore; heaved area freedom it showed 5.8 seconds with 2.7 percent
structural damping of course, in surge and sway it showed 146 seconds with about 10.4
percent structural damping. So, details of the model are shown on the screen now; and
these are the natural periods and damping of the platform, concede for free floating and
tethered triceratops under installed conditions.
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More details of this study can be also seen from the reference papers of Chandrashekhar
et al which has been given in the NPTEL website of this particular course. Interestingly,
we understood that partial isolation controls displacement to a larger extent; especially in
roll and pitch. To verify this statement, I request you to please go through the
experimental and numerical papers published by Chandrashekhar and et al which
reference are given in the NPTEL website of this course; you will verify this statement
by reading those papers.
But I have a different observation. The observation is though the deck response is
partially isolated, but still buoyant leg showed large displacement around a rotation. Can
we control that? Can we integrate the motion of all the buoyant legs together? So, that
was also examined by interconnecting the buoyant legs with three legs together and each
leg has got three groups of buoyant legs and each one of them are connected; however,
each buoyant leg remain independent.
So, the structural characteristics of this model at the scale of 1 is to 72.41 to be very
specific is given on the screen. So, the structural characteristics and geometric
characteristics of the platform, which are attempted new, are also shown in the screen at
this moment. And this study showed a very interesting phenomenon of advantageous
features.
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So, this is the plan of the triceratops model installed in the wave maker, in the wave
basin. This is the instrumentation plan and this is the photograph of the experimental
study for which now I will show you video. Please observe the video on the screen at this
moment.
So, triangular deck with the legs buoyant legs are connected to the deck using a ball
joint, wave is hitting the legs; legs are rotating about this pivotal point.
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But you can see here the deck remains almost horizontal. It means the role and pitch
motion of the buoyant leg are isolated to get transferred to the deck which is the
advantage of the whole system design. So, deck is partially isolated legs are strengthened
by intermediate stiffeners, this showed better response characteristics.
So, if you compare the tether triceratops in heave motion surge and sway motion you see
that the periods have come to 88.4 with 8.2 percent zeta, in heave its come to 1.8 seconds
it is become more stiff with 1.1 percent structural damping. When you compare these
values with a earlier periods what I gave you for an independent buoyant leg triceratops,
they showed more stiffening in vertical plane and reduced frequency or time period in
sense more stiffness in horizontal plane as well; which is a great advantage as for the
structural form is concerned.
So, friends let us quickly write down the summary what we have learnt in this lecture.
This lecture focused on new generation platform, the concept was concede from an idea
called buoyant legs, which was assembled to form a triceratops which is suitable for deep
and ultra deep waters. The structural geometry showed advantageous behavior. Now the
deck can be isolated to control its response.
So, friends offshore structures have got form dominance in it are design, which shows
advantages, which should be taken care of when we do the analysis. Unlike,
conventional structures offshore structures should have a form uniqueness to do the
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analysis, this is the important concept what we wanted to establish from these set of
lectures what we so far discussed in module 2. Next lecture we will move on to
environmental loads will discuss about the programming how to work out environmental
loads etcetera.
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Module – 02
Lecture – 07
Environmental Loads – 1 (Part – 01)
Friends, let us continue with the discussions on module 2. Where, we will talk about
some computer coding to estimate environmental forces on offshore structures. Before
we understand how to write a coding to estimate forces and loads on offshore structures
let us have a general understanding of various environmental loads the act on offshore
structures.
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We have an idea of making a statement that offshore structures depict a complex

behavior under various environmental loads.
This is mainly due to integration of geometric form with the response. In fact, if you
really see behavior of compliant structures one can realize that the structural form is
made adaptable to encounter the lateral loads: number one.
Number two: if you take a floating body, in fact a floating structure or a compliant
structure say a TLP. TLP undergoes displacement and deformation which has offset and
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set down. This induces a significant change in water plane area, and that changes the
buoyancy force. And therefore, it can change the dynamic tension variation in the tethers.
On the other hand, the response nature of the structural system actually encounters or
opposes the encountered load: the horizontal component and the vertical component of
the tether tension variation takes care of the lateral load and adds to the weight in turn
which improves stability. So, it is very important to understand the statement that
structural form is made adaptable to encounter the environmental loads.
So this induces, this behavior induces complexity in understanding the response. Please
note the complexity is not due to the mathematical models which cannot predict the
behavior. So, loads can be defined with the higher accuracy, but the complexities
essentially arise from the interconnecting nature of the geometric form with the load. So,
that is the problem here.
Having said this, it is therefore important to quantify the loads that act on the structure
during the service life. Now, there are variety of environmental loads which are been
quantified by various theories and empirical relationships. So, we will discuss one by one
and try to understand how to quantify these loads based on various theories.
Environmental loads which act on offshore structure can be classified as permanent load
or dead loads. They are called as P class loads. The other form is operating loads, they
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are also called as live loads, they are called as L class, other is environmental loads
including earthquake loads. So, that is very important in ordinary class of structures
earthquake loads are considered to be special loads, whereas in offshore structure
analysis earthquake loads are part of environmental loads E class loads. Fourthly,
construction and installation loads, and lastly accidental loads.
Details of these can be seen also in Srinivasan Chandrasekaran in 2015 Advance Marine
Structures CRC press.
So, let us realize that environmental loads and other loads they arise at various stages of
construction installation of offshore structures. Therefore, they dominate the design. For
example, earthquakes are considered to be accidental loads in general. But it is a part of
environmental load in offshore structures. We can see this at Amar et al 2013, API-RP-
WSD 2005, API-RP 2T 1997 etcetera.
Then the question comes what are all included in environmental loads. Environmental
loads include wind load, wave load, load from currents and tides, earthquakes,
temperature loads, ice loads, sea bed movement, and loads caused by marine growth. So,
it is a large subset.
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If you look at the typical let us say an offshore platform with multitier deck. Let us say
seabed, here the loading will be occurring because of seismic, it can also be because of
mudslide. In this range let say, this is my water level. So, this can be subjected to maybe
this an installation jacket and these are all, I can have loads of installation type in these
members. Loads from wave and wind may act in this region. Wave and current may act
in this region. Loads from ice can also act in this region.
Of course dead weight which we call gravity loads will act here. It may be subjected to
some installation let say- I have a barge; the barge has an installation platform. Then I
have erection loads here, I have wind loads which essentially come from the derrick
members, living quarters. So, in this region I may have wind loads, and when there is a
barge I may have impact loads.
So, this slide gives you a combination of various kinds of environmental loads that are
typically acting on an offshore structure.
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Having said this, we now agree that environmental loads have actually two components:
one, vary with space other varies with time; sometimes they may vary both.
So, interestingly physical phenomenon causing these loads and uncertainty in

quantifying these loads: are two major issues. Of course, to some extent this issue is
handled by using something called load factor in the design. It is also important to know
most of the environmental loads vary with time and this variation can be a macro scale
variation, which do not affect the structural response. Two, it can be a micro scale
variation which will affect the structural response significantly.
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Module – 02
Lecture – 07
Environmental Loads - 1 (Part – 2)
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Let us take an example of a macro scale variation. One example can be an average wind
velocity over a period of time; usually this period is taken as 10 minutes, second
variation of a tidal current, they will not cause any major effect in the response. Three,
significant wave height and zero crossing or let us say peak periods of the wave
spectrum; fourth can be peak ground acceleration PGA of the earthquake motion. These
are some examples of macro scale variation. Coming to micro scale variation in this case
the variation is so, minimum it causes sufficient impact on the response.
So, interestingly friends micro scale variation actually gives rise to dynamic effects.
Having said this let us talk about one important variety today which is wave loads; also
called as hydrodynamic loads the reason is they vary both in space and in time that is
why it is dynamic, it varies because of variations caused by water particle body
therefore, they are called hydro. So, hydrodynamic loads generally friends waves are
generated by wind. So, wind generated sea surface, need to be represented it is generally
represented by combination of regular waves. For example, if I have a typical sea surface
elevation which looks this is time and this is let us say amplitude variation, if it varies
typically like this this can be equal to series of regular waves with different period and
even with different phase. So, sea surface elevation generated by wind can be represent
by combination of these kinds of regular waves.
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So, regular waves of different amplitudes, different wave lengths, different directions and
phase lag or combined to form the input load.
How are they expressed in theory they are expressed using water particle movements,
water particle velocity and acceleration in both horizontal and vertical directions of
propagation. On the other hand imagine a ball, throw it on a surface of the sea the ball
will roll it means the ball moves ahead horizontally, the ball moves also vertical it has an
velocity and acceleration this ball is nothing, but the water particle, how does this ball
move? This ball is moved because of wind generated waves, actually wind pushes, blows
this ball or this water particle at different directions. So, they are expressed by wave
elevation and amplitude.
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There are many theories available in the literature; the basic theory which confirms to
estimation of water particle kinematics is Airy’s wave theory. This is commonly used
because it assumes linear relationship between kinematic quantities and wave height
usually it assumes a sinusoidal form. So, if you draw a specific wave, the difference
between the crest and the trough is called wave height, the average of this is called mean
sea level and if this is my sea bed this is called my water depth indicated as small d and
from 1 0 to next 0 is called as a wave period and so on.
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The sea surface profile is expressed by eta x t, were eta x t is called sea surface elevation
which is given by H by 2 cos k x minus omega t, where eta x of t is called sea surface
elevation, H is the wave height, omega is a wave frequency which is 2 pi by T where T is
a wave period usually expressed in seconds, k is called wave number which is given by 2
pi by lambda, where lambda is called wave length which is approximately equal to 1.56
T square C p is called phase speed which is omega by k.
Which I will transform to lambda by T, because omega is 2 pi by T and k is 2 pi by

lambda which gives me this.
So, once the sea surface elevation from equation one is known then I can find the water
particle kinematics which are nothing, but velocity and acceleration in horizontal and
vertical direction. Horizontal means the direction of wave propagation, vertical means
the direction of water depth. So, horizontal water particle velocity U x dot t is given by
omega H by 2 cos hyperbolic k y by sin hyperbolic k d of cos k x minus omega t
equation 2. The vertical water particle velocity is given by omega H by 2 sin hyperbolic
k y by sin hyperbolic k d of sin k x minus omega t equation 3. Friends in this equation
there are variables of x t and y if you really see omega h k d or know x and t are
variables then what is y.
If you have a typical sea surface elevation if this is my mean sea level, as I said it will
vary in space. So, y is measured from here and this is my sea bed, this is my water depth
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d which is indicated here. So, friends water particle velocity in horizontal and vertical
directions vary along time, along direction of propagation and along depth as well you
see all three variables are there, if I differentiate once I get the acceleration.
So, I say u double dot x t which nothing, but the derivative of u x dot equation 2, I will
get omega square H by 2, cos hyperbolic k y by sin hyperbolic k d, sin k x minus omega
t. Similarly derivative of the vertical will be minus omega square H by 2 sin hyperbolic k
y by sin hyperbolic k d of cos k x minus omega t, I call this is as equation number 4 and
equation number 5.
So, friends Airy’s theory describes the sea surface elevation and enables us to compute
the water bodily kinematics in the direction of propagation, in time variation and along
depth as well. Now only limitation with this theory is, this theory is valid only till the
mean sea level. If you want to stretch and include the variations above and below the
mean sea level, then I should apply different stretching modifications suggested by
various researchers like Wheeler in 1970, Chakravarthy in 1971 and Hogbor. Details of
these extensions can be seen in the literature recommended for studies in the website of
NPTEL of this course. So, let us quickly see the summary of today’s lecture.
The summary says this lecture started with discussions on environmental loads, we have
understood what are the types of environmental loads, what include environmental loads
what are included like wind load wave load etcetera we have also learnt that the
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earthquake loads are part of environmental loads, environmental loads can cause macro
scale variation and micro scale variation, they can influence dynamic response of the
system.
We have also said that wave loads start propagating the direction variation of x t and
along the depth, Airy’s theory is one of the simplest theory which gives me the water
particle velocity in horizontal and vertical direction and of course, the water particle
acceleration in horizontal vertical direction whose equation are presented in this lecture.
So, we should try to understand how these loads can be quantified for analysis purpose
we will try to do this in the next lecture.
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Module – 02
Lecture – 08
Wave Spectra (Part - 1)
So, friends, let us continue to discuss more on wave spectra, which are used as an input
for environmental loads in offshore structures.
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We already said that wave loads are most important of all environmental loads acting on
offshore structures. So, determining these wave forces has got two separate steps for
determining these forces. This was verified interestingly by Boaghe Etal 1998 Bas and
Tim 2007, Ertas and Lee 1989 what are these two steps? The first step is computation of
sea state which is generally idealized from the sea surface profile; sea surface profile
needs eta x of t and water particle kinematics which can be taken from appropriate wave
theories. There are various number of wave theories available in the literature, I have
discussed only Airy’s wave theory.
I request the readers to read parallely other theories available from the reference
literature given in the website of NPTEL of this specific course, the second one is
computation of wave forces on individual members and on total structure. So, there are
two structures involved in this.
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One can look into two different analyses, one could be single design wave analysis other
could be random wave analysis. In single design wave analysis a regular wave is
considered, this wave is termed as a design wave whose wave height and wave period
are known. In fact, they are given as input return period of this wave, the design wave is
generally chosen to be 100 years. We already know return period we already understood
this concept. So, forces induced by the design wave are computed using higher order
wave theory, just for our understanding one of the higher order wave theories is stokes
fifth order wave theory.
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It is very important to note dynamic response behavior of the structure is not addressed
in this design methodology, references can be seen at Bea et al 1999, Ertas and Lee 1989.
Usually static analysis is considered to be appropriate for design wave approach, for
single design wave analysis.
This is due to the simple reason that the dominant wave which is considered as a single
design wave has wave periods above all other waves in the ensemble and this period is
well apart from period of the structure. Generally this is applicable this method is
applicable in case of extreme waves, which can be a storm wave on shallow water
structures this can be verified by papers published Bas and Tim, Boyunguo et al etcetera.
The other approach is random wave analysis, in this approach a statistical analysis is
applied the basis is wave scatter diagram this is of course, site specific. So, one has to
choose an appropriate wave scatter diagram for a specific offshore installed site and do
statistical analysis on that.
So, an appropriate wave spectra are defined to perform the analysis, the analysis is
usually carried out in frequency domain. So, the frequency content will be focused not
the time content. Once you do this by choosing an appropriate wave spectra, then by
employing statistical tools, one can get the most probable maximum force during the life
time of the structure. This can be verified by Fjeld 1997 and Furnes 1977. So, it is
important to choose appropriate wave spectra.
585
So, different wave theories will give different water particle kinematics just to name
them common theories are Airys linear wave theory, stokes fifth order wave theory,
Solitary wave theory, Cnoidal wave theory, deans stream function theory.
So, in general Airy’s theory is useful for preliminary force estimates as we all know
Airy’s wave theory does not address the submerged length which changes continuously
with passage of waves whereas, Airy’s theory stops at MSL itself. So, this variable
submergence effect is generally addressed by stretching modifications which we briefed
in the last lecture.
586
But; however, literature show even with stretching modification, linear theory is not
adequate to describe the water particle kinematics completely.
Therefore many non-linear wave theories are employed in the analysis, now the theory is
also related to different classifications depending upon the water depth, there are various
ratios d by L, k d and let us say tan hyperbolic k d. If this value is between half to infinity
and if this is between pi to infinity and this is approximately one we call this as a deep
water condition if this is between 1 by 20 to half and this is pi by 10 to pi and this is
simply tan hyperbolic k d itself then we call this as transitional water depth, if this
anywhere from 0 to 1 by 20 and 0 to pi by 10 and this is minus approximately k d itself
we call this as shallow water, as per the definition in the literature. Once we agree that
linear theory cannot express the forces satisfactorily then wave spectra are being
employed for calculating forces in offshore structures.
587
The first one is a very common form being used this is called modified Pierson
Moskowitz spectrum, this says the spectral density is 5 by 16 H s omega 0 to the power 4
by omega 5 exponential minus 1.25 omega by omega 0 to the power minus 4 where
omega 0 is given by 2 g by 3 u w, where u w is the mean wind speed for the specific site
h s is significant wave height in meters.
588
Module – 02
Lecture – 08
Wave Spectra (Part – 2)
589
The second spectrum which is commonly used is Bretschneider spectrum, it says the
spectral density is given by 0.1687 H s omega s by omega 5, above 4 exponential minus
0.675 omega by omega 5 omega s raise to the power minus 4. Where omega s is
significant wave frequency, the third spectrum commonly used is developed for ship
structures which is international ship structure congress, which is ISSC spectrum which
says the spectral density is given by 0.1107 H s omega bar 4 by omega 5 exponential
minus 0.4427 omega by omega bar to the power minus 4 where omega bar is significant
frequency in this expression.
The fourth one which is again used commonly is Jonswap spectrum, which says the
spectral density is alpha bar g square by omega 5 exponential, minus 1.25 omega by
omega naught to the power minus 4, gamma a w where a omega is exponential minus
omega minus omega 0 square by 2 sigma bar square omega 0 square sigma bar is 0.07
for omega less then omega naught 0.09 for omega greater then omega naught. Alpha bar
is parameter 3.25 10 power minus 3 H square omega 04, 1 minus 0.287 natural logarithm
of the gamma.
Where omega zero is significant wave frequency and this is called Peakedness parameter
which varies anywhere from 1 to 7 and of course, H s is significant wave height in
meters.
590
So, friends please pay attention to the programming code available on the screen now,
this programming code gives you plots of different spectra for Jonswap, PM spectrum
and. So, on the coding is available on the screen you can type it back and run it in mat
lab you will be able to plot the PM spectrum.
You can also plot the ISSC spectrum and compare them for a specific mean wind speed
of 20 meter per second, significant wave height of 5 meter and time of 10 seconds whose
typical plot looks like this.
591
So, one can see here the Jonswap the Jonswap spectrum which is indicated in blue color,
compact PM structure indicated in red color which is also further modified with black
which has got the same variation as the top red and which is compared with ISSC
spectrum, you will see Jonswap spectrum has a very narrow band concentrated at this
specific frequency ratio, but the spectral density of modify PM spectrum is much larger
compared to that of ISSC and Jonswap.
592
So, friends one can use any of these spectra to estimate the wave forces in a given
system. So, we will take up an example and see how a wave forces can be computed in a
given system. The simple excel sheet I want to you to pay attention on this.
Whatever you see in blue color they are all input to be given for example, here is three
meter 150 you can vary this, it calculates some of the values based upon 2 pi by for
example, C 20 which is L 2 pi by L we know it is a wave number we already gave the
equation 5. So, it calculates a wave number wave frequency is 2 pi by t 0 c 7 you can see
here is wave period ok. So, 2 pi by t 0 and so on.
593
So, I want him calculate the wave force based on the water particle kinematics horizontal
velocity and acceleration, then to compute the force we use Morison equation in the
presence of current which is one meter per second.
So, if you look at different values of Z and Y velocity acceleration the drag force and the
inertia force are computed total force is added and total force is computed, one can see
any specific value here which is taken from the code.
594
The code is available on the screen you can always reproduce it in a excel sheet and try
to plot the variation.
If you see if the variations are plotted from the sea bed towards the mean sea level, from
the sea bed towards the mean sea level because the water depth is 150 meter you can see
here the water depth is 150 meter. So, I am trying to plot from the sea bed towards the
mean sea level, mean sea level is 150.
So, if you take only about the waves there is a typical variation you see.
595
If you plot adding current wave there is a variation you can see.
So, that is a very interesting code we have in simple terms, the detailed calculations of
doing this has also been indicated in the worksheet here, is also being given in the
worksheet here.
So, the comparison of the plot with wave and current and with wave alone is also shown
here. So, simple coding which helps us to formulate the problem and try to find force in a
single cylinder which can be used. So, that is the variation of the spectrum.
596
So, friends let us look at quickly the summary what we learned in this lecture we
understood Airy’s theory has limitations in terms of mean sea level you can use
stretching modifications suggested by various researchers to include the variable
submergence effect one can do two approaches for design. One can be a single design
wave analysis one can also do random wave analysis, one is statics no dynamics, other is
statistical analysis you will be using wave scatter diagram one can also find the forces
using various spectra available in the literature.
We have seen Pierson Moskowitz spectrum, modified Pierson Moskowitz spectrum

Jonswap spectrum and ISSC spectrum. We have compared we said that modified Pierson
Moskowitz spectrum gives a broader area, Jonswap is a narrow band focused spectrum
which can be used for application of offshore structures in specific terms. We have also
seen an example how to compute the forces on a given member using horizontal water
particle velocity in acceleration then using the Morison equation, which is used to
calculate forces on a given cylindrical member whose coding is also available. We also
gave you the computer program to estimate the spectra and plot them and compare them
for a given wave height for a given wind speed and fetch conditions.
597
Module – 02
Lecture – 09
Wind Loads (Part – 1)
Friends welcome to the second module lectures, where this is lecture 9 in which we will
discuss about wind loads. In the last lecture we discussed about wave spectra and one of
the important source of offshore loads which is wave load. We also said what are the
different varieties of loads acting on offshore structures, classification of loads where
wave loads are predominantly important, let us talk about wind loads and see what
spectra defines wind load and we will do some couple of examples then we will talk
about the computer code to estimate wind loads.
598
Wind loads actually add some structures which creates in fact, a very complicated fluid
dynamics. In general it is very difficult to compute wind forces with higher accuracy, it is
a general statement I will reinforce the statement slightly by showing you some theories
of an examples, then the question comes what is the most widely used approach to
estimate wind forces.
The widely used approach is based on few observations let us say what are they; one
when a stream of air flows with constant velocity, let us the word speed because wind
speed is important. Velocity v then it will generate force on a flat plate of area;
interestingly this generates force on the plate when the plate is placed orthogonal that is
perpendicular to the flow direction.
599
And this force which exerts on the plate will be proportional to A v square. Now the
proportionality constant is interestingly independent of area, this is proved by many
experimental studies. References can be seen from the list of paper sited in the nptel
course of this specific syllabus. Having said this we now say that the wind force exerted
on a plate placed orthogonal to the flow direction is determined by estimating something
called Net wind pressure, which say as p w and w stands for wind small p stands for
pressure.
So, small pw is half rho a C w v square equation 1 where rho a is mass density of air
taken as 1.25 kg per cubic meter and C w is wind pressure coefficient.
600
It is important to note that the mass density of air that is rho a increases due to water
spray in this flat zone up to a height of about 20 to 30 meters above the mean sea level.
So, it is important that rho a is actually not constant.
Now, the total wind induced force on a plate is given by capital F w sp w into A
interestingly.
If the plate is placed at an angle theta with respect to the flow direction, then one need to
work out the projected area accordingly. For example, if this is my plate, which is normal
601
and this angle is theta and the plate has an area A, if this becomes my wind direction I
need to work out the projected area ok.
So, one has to really carefully workout the projected area in the flow direction. Having
said this the wind flow coefficient C w is generally determined based on controlled
stationary wind flow conditions experimentally, usually this is done in wind tunnel it
depends on few factors the foremost important factor is Reynolds number of the flow
usually C w is taken as 0.7 to 1.2 for cylindrical members.
So, friends natural wind has actually got two components, one is the mean wind
component which is a static component other is the fluctuating gust component. So, gust
component actually is generated by turbulence, in the flow field. This happens in three
spatial direction, but one good news is that in offshore locations it is been observed that
the mean wind speed is much greater than the gust component. Having said this we can
now say v of t is v bar plus v of t.
602
So, this is my mean component, this is my gust component now mean component as also
have the spatial dependence, but it is assumed that the special dependence is only
through the vertical coordinates. V of t is considered to be homogenous both in space and
time. So, now, wind force in offshore structure can be calculated by 2 one is F D other is
F L, F D is a drag force and F L is called the lift force which actually happens in the
direction parallel to the wind flow.
This happens in the direction normal to the wind flow, this is given by half rho C D V z
square A and this is given by half rho C L V z square A, where we already know C D and
C L are drag and lift coefficients respectively and A is the area perpendicular to the wind
flow direction.
603
So, now wind spectrum is being used is used to calculate the force above water surface,
which is given by V z is equal to V 10 z by 10 to the power 1 by 7 this is also called as
one seventh power law because the power is 1 by 7.
V z in this equation is the wind speed at elevation z meters above the mean sea level 10
refers to a reference or a datum height which is actually 10 meters above the mean sea
level. So, friends it is very simple if you substitute z is equal to 10 here, you will see that
up to 10 meter wind velocity remains constant of course, V 10 is that wind speed at 10
meter above the mean sea level. So, there are some comments about the power law this is
called as the power law power law is purely empirical, but most widely used and it is
validated with actual measurements and found to be in good agreement. So, it is fairly a
correct estimate.
604
Module - 02
Lecture – 09
Wind Loads (Part – 2)
605
Now, as applicable to marine structures or offshore structures, let us talk about one
important point called Realization of wind forces on offshore structures. I mean to some
extent we can say this as marine structures also is applicable to coastal structures as well,
you can even say this. We have learnt about earthquake as important source in terms of
environmental loads, you know wind induced vibrations are actually dominant in flexible
structures.
As far as offshore structures are concerned, they are very important in compliant
structures, floating structures etcetera just for comparison earthquakes, just for
comparison earthquakes are dominant in fixed structures or stiff structures. Most
bothering feature is that wind and wave are actually good friends, why because they
generally act together.
So, let us understand few terminologies we know v is now going to be v star plus v of t,
the second issue is it is got 2 components the main component and the gust component.
We also understand that wind produces low frequency excitation, the third component
which is very important the third point is the gust component is generally modeled
probabilistically. The forth point which is important is drag force on the members will be
due to wind and wave, waves also create inertia of earth quakes create only inertia force
no drag force.
606
Therefore vibrations caused by wind and waves are different from that caused by
earthquakes. The good news is that for design purposes, most of the codes consider wind
as quasi static process, but we should remember an important point slender structures are
wind prone. So, flexible structures you can say are wind sensitive.
Suppose if we want to consider wind as dynamic process not as a quasi static process,
consider wind as a dynamic process then following parameters are important. One length
of the record we can also call this as record length. So, record should be continuous that
is one option, can also make intermittent record got sufficiently for long time. Sometimes
they are also measured depending upon the choice that is when the wind speed exceeds a
particular let us say threshold value, only then you record.
So, recording has got different options it can be continuous it can be intermittent and
constant interval, let say every ten seconds every one minute you can record you can also
do it by choice right you keep on measuring when the wind speed exceeds its threshold
value you record otherwise you do not. If you have a record continuous if the record is
continuous, then you take an average is considered for the design.
Let us say that average is v 1, if the record is intermittent let say the velocity is for v 2 it
is seen that v 2 is generally greater than v 1 because longer the record average will be
lower ok.
607
Second is the average time; average time is the time at which the record is averaged the
third factor is a input. So, wind spectrum is an important input for analysis, actually this
defines the fluctuating component of the wind load.
The forth one could be something called cross spectrum. Cross spectrum is actually to
indicate the spatial dependence of wind velocity along height, along x and along y. It
becomes a three dimensional variation will difficult to handle. So, this is compromised in
analysis by using aerodynamic admittance function. There are 2 reasons why
aerodynamic admittance function is being used; one reason is it is to bypass the rigorous
random vibration theory, second AAF can be obtained experimentally with better
accuracy.
608
So, it can be easily quantified. So, aerodynamic admittance function is better quantified.
So, we know that the total load because of wind is going to be half rho CdA v square,
which can be half rho CdA v bar plus v of t square, which can be expanded as half rho
CdA v bar square plus v of t square plus 2 v bar v of t.
We also know that from the literature that v bar is much greater than v of t, we can also
neglect v t square. So, doing that we can now say Fw of t is half rho CdA v bar square,
plus 2 v bar v of t, which can be a said as half rho CdA v bar square plus rho CdA v bar v
of t. So, we call this component as steady mean drag force, we call this component as
fluctuating zero mean force. Now this can be expressed as steady drag component mean
component plus rho CdA v bar v of t, we call this as F g of t. So, g stands for gust.
609
Considering wind as an ergodic process the one sided power spectral density function of
wind process F w of t is related to wind spectrum as follows is given by rho CdA v bar
square S u omega, we calls equation number 6. We can now say I replace the gust
component with aerodynamic admittance function, I can say this spectrum is now given
by 4 F bar square by v bar square of aerodynamic admittance function of Su omega call
equation number 7.
Now, typical aerodynamic admittance function is a chi function of omega root of A by 2

pi v bar square. So, the typical plot of this looks like this, for increase in omega the chi
function of omega will vary. So, this becomes 1 and this is 0 so on the other hand, when
omega root A by 2 pi v bar tends to 1 at lower frequency chi function of tends to 0 at
higher frequency.
610
That is when omega root A by 2 pi v bar tends to infinity, the chi function of omega root
A by 2 pi v bar tends to 0. In general as given by Davenport in 1977 chi of x is equal to 1
by 1 plus 2 x to the power 4 by 3.
So, friends in this lecture we started understanding aerodynamic load that is wind load
caused by wind. We learnt something about the wind process, factors affecting wind load
the drag force and the lift force, then wind velocity as got 2 components the main and the
611
gust component, then aerodynamic admittance function, which approximates the gust
component which we plot and understood.
So, in the next lecture we will talk about the wind spectrum and try to learn how the
wind spectrum equations can be plotted using a numerical code or a MATLAB code, we
will do couple of problems to understand how they can be computed by simple hand
computations and one can also write the simple program to do this which I will show you
in next lecture.
612
Module - 02
Lecture - 10
Wind loads - 2
Friends, let us continue with the discussion on the wind loads lecture 10 on module 2. In
the last lecture we said that wind force has got 2 components, the wind velocity has got
here gust component and the mean wind component. We also said the spatial variation
can be handled using aerodynamic admittance function, this alternative method of
handling the gust component.
613
If one wants to obtain the load from the gust component, then one can use what is called
as a gust factor with the sustained wind speed to obtain gust speed. Average gust factor
addressed by the literature is in the range 1.35 to 1.45. Further variation of gust along the
height is negligible, sustained wind speed should be used in the design of marine
structures which is usually 1 minute average wind speed.
This is according to United States weather Bureau. Another term which is commonly
used in the design that is called fastest mile velocity, this is actually equal to sustained
614
wind speed multiplied by the gust factor. Further a 100 year sustained wind speed of 125
miles per hour is used for design of offshore structures.
Having said this let us see how wind velocity spectrum are available and discussed in the
literature.
There is various spectra available for wind energy: Davenport spectrum which says
omega S omega by del u bar 10 square is 4 theta square by 1 plus theta square 4 over 3
equation 1, where theta is the variable which is given by omega Lu by 2 pi U bar 10
which is also equal to del Lu by U bur 10 where Lu is called integral length, which is 0
less than infinity, for a scale of 1200 meters for Davenport spectrum. Del is called
surface drag coefficient which is 0.001 U bar 10 is mean wind speed at reference height
of 10 meters and of course, Su omega is the spectral density.
615
The second spectrum commonly used in design of marine structures is Harris spectrum,
the equation is as given now I call this equation number 2, where in this case theta is
again explained by the same which is practically same as the earlier equation, Lu theta is
the variable Lu is again the integral length as usual, which is taken as 1800 meters for
Harris spectrum and del is surface drag coefficient which is as same as 0.001, U bar 10 is
mean wind speed at datum or reference height of 10 meters and S plus u is the spectral
density.
616
Next one is the Kaimal spectrum equation is as given now, where theta is the variable
which is given by omega by omega p where omega p is the peak frequency, sigma u
square is the variance of u of t at reference height of 10 meters and Su omega is the
spectral density.
Next spectrum what we have in the literature is given by American petroleum institute
API spectrum; the governing equation is now given in the screen. Again theta is the
variable which is omega by omega p and omega p is the peak frequency; sigma uz square
is again the variance at reference height of 10 meters.
So, there is a range within which you can select the ratio omega p square by u bar z, the
usual value chosen is 0.025. Sigma uz is given by 0.15 U bar z zs by z to the power
0.125 for z less than z s 0.15 U bar z z s by z to the power 0.275 for z greater than zs.
617
In this case Z s is called the surface height usually taken as 20 meters and z is a reference
height usually taken as 10 meters and of course, S u omega is the spectral density.
So, now we have a program which gives you the coding for plotting all this spectral
plots. So, the coding helps you to plot the Davenport spectrum for a constant wind speed
of 20 meter per second and the reference datum is 10 meter; so this coding available for
Davenport, for Harris spectrum, for Kaimal spectrum, and for API spectrum.
618
Then the plot actually gives you all the four davenport, Harris, Kaimal and API for a
constant value of 20 meter per second and reference of 10 meter, the screen shows you
all the plots comparable one can see the variation between all the expressions available
on wind spectra like Davenport then Harris API and Kaimal.
So, the variation on the spectra or higher beyond a specific value of the variable which is
theta, beyond that for a value more than the log scale of 10 power 0 or 1 something at
this area. Beyond that the variation is minimal whereas, for a derivable variable theta
lesser than one you will see that the spectrum values or spectral ordinates very distinctly
vary for different values of the variable.
Having said this, now, one is interested to compute the force at any point z for the known
wind velocity ok.
619
So, the question asked is I have any member may be any member which may be a
drilling derrick is resting on the platform head of an offshore platform, which has got
pontoon members etcetera this is my maybe my mean sea level.
So, the wind is blowing in this direction, I want know a specific point what is the wind
force at this point y, where this is measured at a distance y or F y 1 and y one from the
mean sea level this my mean sea level. By this logic by varying y 1 I can find forces at
any point of my interest and keep on adding them or taking moments of these forces
about the Cg I can find either the moments or I can find the force which is acting in the x
direction.
620
Module - 02
Lecture - 10
Wind Loads - 2 (Part - 2)
621
Let us say I have a body, which is a lantern which is fixed on a deck. The deck is
supported by a jacket and the jacket is resting in the seabed by some pile foundation of
course, the jacket has got bracings and battens. Let us may this is my mean sea level this
may a wind direction and this height is 10 meters and the diameter is 3 meters and this is
the deck, the deck is 15 meter by 15 meter and the height of the deck is 4 meters. So,
what is asked in this question or the example is determine the total wind force F acting
on the deck and a derrick column assume basic wind speed with gust.
So, gust factors multiply as 70 meter per second; what is asked is locate the resultant of
the wind force for two cases for one. Sustained wind speed acting constant over the
entire height 2 wind speed follows API spectrum.
So, let us say solution, for the first case wind speed is constant for the complete height
we know that force because of wind is given by half rho CD rho of wind CD U z square
and the projected area.
Let us say for a rectangular dick the drag coefficient is 1.5 and we already said take u c U
z as 70 meter per second and area projected if you look at this figure deck is 15 meter by
4 meter. So, I should say the projected area will be 15 meter. So, this are projected area.
So, it us going to be 15 meter by 4 which is 60 square meter and we know density of
wind we already said that 1.225 kg cubic meter. So, that gives me F w as half 1.225 1.5
70 square into 60, which is so much kilo Newton this is on the deck.
622
Now, on the derrick being circular CD is 0.75 and area you look at this figure diameter is
3 meter height is 30 meter sorry 10 meter. So, area is going to be 10 into 3 30 square
meters. So, F w is going to be half 1.225 into 0.75 into 70 square into 30, which gives me
67.528 kilo Newton. The total wind force is summation of these two which is going to be
337.641 kilo Newton.
So, let us say we want to find the moment, moment caused by wind. So, we already have
two objects one is the derrick other is the deck, Cg of the deck is somewhere here cg of
the derrick is somewhere here, we know this is going to be 2 meters because this is 4
meters and we know this is 10 meters. Therefore, this is going to be 5 plus 4 9 meters
from this bottom. So, the moment due to wind is going to be 270.113 that is on the deck
into 2 meter plus you can see here 67.528 into 9 meters, which is 1147.978 kilo Newton
meter.
I want to find the location of resultant from the base of the deck I can say that is equal to
moment by the total force, which is 1147.978 by total force is 337.641 which gives me
3.4 meters which is somewhere here this is the point, where the resultant of the force is
acting let us solve this problem using API code as well.
623
So, b using API wind velocity profile; we already given the governing equation for the
spectrum AP wind velocity says U at any z will be given by U z 0 z by z 0, 1 by n where
U z is the mean wind velocity at height z above the mean sea level U z 0 is wind velocity
at reference height z 0. Z 0 is the datum which is generally 10 meters above the mean sea
level and n actually is an index this index depends on sea state distance of the structure
from the coast and averaging period for the wind.
Usually, 1 by n is 1 by 13 for gust wind; it is 1 by 8 for sustained wind in open sea. In the
specific problem we have been asked to include the gust effect. Therefore, we will take
this value as 1 by 13.
624
So, in that case Uz will be given by 70 z by 10 of 1 by 13 where 70 is the mean velocity

in meter per second, now I want to calculate this for the deck for the deck at its Cg. Let
us say this is my derrick this is my deck which is supported by a system and this is my
mean sea level.
Let us say this, the datum we say it is 10 meter and we already know this is 4 meters and
this is again 10 meters. In that case for the deck that its Cg z value will be 10 plus 2
which is 12 meter therefore, U z is going to be 70 into 12 by 10 raised to the power 1 by
30, which gives me 70.989 meter per second. So, wind force is half rho CD U z square
projected area, which is half into 1.225 into 1.5 into 70.989 square and the projected area
remains same as we worked in the last case which is going to be 277.799 kilo Newton.
Now, b for the derrick z is going to be 14 plus 2.5 because you want to divide this into 2.
625
So, I take this as derrick as two objects, this is one this is the other this is my deck which
is 4 meters and I divided this as 5 meter and 5 meter. I call this as Fw 2 and this as Fw 1
and this is going to be 2.5 and this may MSL which is 10 meter therefore, z is going to be
10 plus 4 plus 2.5 which is 16.5 meter. So, Uz is going to be 70 into 16.5 by 10 to the
power 1 by 13, which is get 72.749 meter per second therefore, Fw 1 will be half rho CD
vz square projected area, which is half 1.225 into 0.75 that is cylindrical 72.749 square
multiplied by projected area is going to be 3 into 5; 3 is the diameter and 5 is the height
which gives me 36.468 kilo Newton.
Similarly, for the second piece z 2 is going to be 10 plus 4 plus 5 plus 2.5 which is 21.5
meters. So, again Uz 70 21.5 by 10, 1 by 13, 74.246 meter per second and Fw 2 is half
into 1.225 into 0.75 into 74.246 square into 3 into 5 which gives me 37.984 kilo Newton.
Now, the total wind force is 277.799 that is the deck wall plus 36.468 plus 37.984 which
gives me 352.251 kilo Newton.
626
I want to now workout the moment, moment about base of the deck is going to be
277.799 into 2 that is a deck wall plus 36.468 into 6.5 plus 37.984 into 13.4 which gives
me 1305.42 kilo Newton meter therefore, y bar cg is going to be M by F which is
1305.42 by 352.25 which is 3.706 meters.
This has a reference we can refer also to D.V Reddy and A.S.J Swamidas essentials of
offshore structures CRC pres. So, friends the resultant of this is 3.706 whereas, in the
earlier case this was 3.4. So, one can try to plot this in this figure. So, in the first case it
was from the deck we plotted this already here and 3.706 I should plot this slightly let us
say this is my derrick this is my deck one Cg another Cg, this is because of API this is
because of constant that is what can compute. So, the problem clearly explains how to
use API code as well as constant value for estimating the moments and the certain due to
wind.
627
So, friends in this lecture we learnt equation for different wind spectra. We also learned
the average gust factor which can be used to convert the, include the gust factor in the
velocity component. We also did a numerical example we also plotted different wind
spectra and understood the difference and variation with respect to the force.
Thank you.
628
Module - 02
Lecture - 11
Ice load and earthquake load
Friends, we will check with the next lecture which is lecture 11 in module 2, where we
are going to discuss about ice loads and earthquake loads on offshore structures. Just as
an overview what we have so far seen, we have computed examples of wave load acting
on offshore cylinders.
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We have computed wind loads acting on offshore members, we will do one more
problem I will just work out one more problem for wind load estimate.
Let us say I have a drilling derrick on this dimension, which is supported on a deck.
Which in turn is supported by a jacket leg and so, let us say this is my mean sea level, I
have a very good air gap. So, I say this is my dimension of 10 meters and the deck is
about 2 meters and I divide this in 4stages.
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So, this is stage 1, stage 2, stage 3 and stage 4 each one is our 2 meters, and there is a
living quarter nearby on the deck which I am marking in green which is about 4 meters,
the data given is CD for segment 1 is 0.44, for segment 2 it is 0.456, for segment 3 it is
0.472 and for segment for it is 0.504 which is given the data and it says that assume basic
wind speed as 60 meter per second follow API code for wind velocity profile and
estimate the total wind force and its position.
The general equation we know is Uz is u z naught z by z naught 1 by n, we are going to

use o1 by n s 13. So, z by 10 that is z term height 1 by 13 is used. So, the wind force at
any point of z is given by half rho CD U z square and the projected area using this
equation.
Let us try to find different dimensions H z let us say Uz projected area CD and wind
force and the moment which is wind forced into height.
The height is measured from the base of the deck. So, let us say for the deck height is 1
meter you can see from the figure, from the base of the deck this is 1 meter and z of
course, is 11 meter because this is 10 meter from their muscle right 11 meter therefore,
substituting from the equation U z is given by this equation and F w is given by this
equation using this Uz is going to be 60.441, projected area for the deck you know this is
10 meters. So, if I say this may projected area this is 10 and 20. So, 10 by 10 meter. So, it
is going to be 20 meter square, this is meter square this is meter per second, this is in
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meter this also in meter 20 CD is taken as one point for a rectangular. So, I get Fw as
67.127 and F w into H is also 67.127.
Now, there is a living quarter. So, it is 4 meters you can see here cg of the living quarters
is 2 meters from here, but from the base of the deck this height is going to be 4 meters.
So, 4 meters. So, add 10 to it further; so 14 meters. So, this becomes 61.573 this is 16
meter there is a 4 meter square 16 meter square; so 1.5 again rectangular. So, this is
55.731 and this is 222.926.
Now, for the derrick there are 4 stages. So, stage 1, stage 2, stage 3 and stage 4; stage 1is
in the top and stage 4 is in the bottom, you know the derrick dimensions are given like
this, this is 1 meter, this is 1.5, this is 2, this is 2.5 and this is 3. If that is the case for let
us say unit 1 that is unit 1, I want to find the Cg which will be from the top of the deck is
going to be 6 meters plus two third off 2 into 1 plus 1.5 by 1 plus 1.5 this is simple
trapezoidal equation formula one meter 1.5. So, 6 meter is this value 2 plus 2 plus 2 6
meter, 2 plus 2 plus 2 6 meter plus Cg from the base; so 6 plus two-third off 2 and 2 1 1.5
plus 1.5 which gives me this value as 6.933 meters.
Similarly, for 2 is going to be 4 plus you can see here this 2 meter and this 2 meter, 4 plus
two third off 2 into 1.5 plus 2 by 1.5 plus 2 which comes to 4.952 meters similarly for 3
and 4 one can work out this value as 2.963 meters and 0.97 meters.
Now I want to find the value of z. So, z value is going to be these are all entered here let
us say this is 6.933 this is 4.952 this is 2.963, this is .97 therefore, the z value which I am
entering here in green is 16.933, 14.952, 12.963 and 10.97 for which I have to add plus 2
meters, this plus 2 is added because they measuring from the bottom of the deck from
here. So, this is two meters I get the value.
So, I can always find the use it value I do not think any difficulty will be there here and
area projected will be for the case 1 is 2.5, 3.5, 4.5 and 5.5 which are given. So, CD cm
CD is already worked out is already given in this problem. So, let us enter them back
0.44, 0.456, 0.472 and 0.504. So, one can work all Fw and m. So, why bother certain will
be m by F w one can calculate this.
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So, it is a very simple demonstration of estimating the wind force on a derrick, at any
point of interest we have worked out at the cg of these places and then we found the
resultant of this. So, it is very easy to estimate and write a simple program for this.
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Module - 02
Lecture - 11
Ice load and earthquake load
Let us move on to the next important load which is ice load.
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Ice load are generally dominant in arctic region prediction of Ice loads has lot of
uncertainties. Ice actually exist in different forms like level ice, broken ice, ridges and
icebergs, ice can result in various effects. Ice loads can cause various effects on members
it can cause creep, can cause buckling, it can cause spalling and the failure can also be
due to crushing; these are all different kinds of failures which can be caused by ice on
members.
More interestingly ice loads also vary both in space and time.
So, ice loads can be classified as below one, total ice load otherwise called as global load
to local load otherwise called as pressure. Interestingly the global loads affect overall
motion and stability of the structure whereas, the local loads affect members at local
points all it is a critical sections. So, the most important factor in ice load estimate is the
number of interactions between the member and ice.
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Interestingly the current international codes include equations for estimating ice load as
static ice loads, it is important to know that ice loads also depend on shape of the
structure which it is encountering; study show that ice loads on conical structures like
pyramids or lesser than cylindrical structures.
So, that is given by a good reference Sanderson 1988 the main reason for this reduction
is due to the fact that, the well designed conical geometry can alter the failure mode of
the structure caused by ice from crushing to bending that is the reason.
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So, ice given again by ice force spectrum on a narrow conical structure, this is given by
the following equation A F bar square T bar minus delta divided by f or exponential
minus B by T bar alpha and f beta equation 1. Double equation A and B are constants
whose values are A is 10 and B is taken as 5.47, T bar is Lb by v which is called ice
period LB is called ice breaking length typically it is between 4to 10. F bar 0 is called
force amplitude on the structural member, the ice breaking length is given by k into h
where k is the ratio of ice thickness to ice length, where this lies between 4 to 10 not this
value; f is the frequency is the variable in the spectrum and v is the ice velocity the
constants alpha is 0.64 beta is 0.64.
And F 0 is given by C sigma f its square D by Lc to the power 0.34 where C is again a
constant which is 3.7 sigma f is ice breaking strength which is 0.7 mega Pascal, h is the
ice thickness D is the diameter of the ice cone and Lc is the characteristic length.
So, the equations the power gamma and or respectively 3.5 and 2.5 the characteristic
length Lc is further given by Eh cube by 12 g rho w raised the power 0.25, where E is ice
elastic modulus which is given by 0.5 Giga Pascal and rho w is density of seawater the
typical I spectrum which can be plotted its looked into the figure here.
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And we have given the program to plot by spectrum on a narrow conical structure, the
plot shows the spectral density versus frequency, the constants as I said are already given
in the equation a 10, b 5.47 and other constants are named as per the programming
variables as alpha beta gamma and delta. Now, the plot is shown on the right hand side
whereas, the coding required to plot the spectrum is given on the left hand side of the
screen. So, you can use this coding directly to get the ice spectrum for Bohai gulf as you
see here.
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The next kind of loading is a earthquake load, we understand that offshore structures
which are stiff and connected that is fixed to the seabed, will undergo all will experience
earthquake loads directly. However, complaints structures like TLP will also experience
earthquake loads let us see how. This is a superstructure of the TLP connected to the
seabed using tendons the seabed experiences earthquake loads, earthquake loads cause
ground displacement that is displacement of the seabed this induces change in T 0, this
change in T 0 alters buoyancy and weight and stiffness in the TLP therefore, the
earthquake loads have indirect effect here on compliant structures.
We all know from the literature that earthquake acceleration exhibits random
characteristic, this is due to nature of the mechanism causing earthquake, it can be due to
wave propagation, it can be also due to reflection and further can be due to deflection.
What are the consequences of earthquakes on offshore structures; one it can cause inertia
force due to the acceleration, it can result in a damping force due to motion of water
particle.
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So, as I said in compliant structures like TLP the T 0 varies, this causes dynamic tension
variation. So, this variation is given by a factor of the axial stiffness which is xt minus xg
of t, where xt is the instantaneous response vector of TLP, on xg of t is ground
displacement vector one can quickly look at this vector it is going to have the effect in
such degree no effect in sway Hitler effect in heave degree no effect in roll pitch and
yaw.
So, I should say now that the x 1 of g is actually horizontal ground displacement and x 3
of g is vertical ground displacement. So, earthquake causes displacement and the ground
motion which is caused by earthquakes is simulated by Kanai Tajimi ground spectrum.
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The one sided power spectral density function is given by S x double dot g of omega is
omega is omega g to the power 4 plus 4 zeta g square, omega g square omega square by
omega g square minus omega square the whole square plus 4 zeta g square, omega g
square omega square off S 0, where S 0 is called intensity of excitation which is given by
2 zeta g sigma g square by pi omega g 1 plus 4 zeta z square, omega g is natural
frequency of the ground motion, zeta g is damping of the ground motion and sigma z
square is variance of the ground motion.
So, these three are important parameters of Kanai Tasimi spectrum.
So, Kanai Tajimi spectrum is a three parameter spectrum, what will be the consequence
of this?
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The consequence of this on let us say compliant structures like TLP could be, it results in
dynamic tension variation in T 0 and this variation can be as high as 65 percent causing
pullout. It affects rigid degrees of freedom like heave which is quite dangerous because it
can challenge the safety of the platform. This ultimately also results in loss of functional
value of the platform.
So, detailed results can be seen from the following textbooks: advanced marine
structures authored by me published by CRC press; there is one more book which also
discusses the behavior again authored by me dynamic analysis and design of offshore
structures addition to Springer Singapore.
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So, friends for different damping ratio the typical Kanai Tajimi ground spectrum looks
like this as you see on the screen now.
Let us see the summary what we learned in this lecture we did one more numerical to
understand the wind loads on superstructure of the platform, we have used API code to
compute the wind velocity, we have learnt how to estimate ice loads we have seen ice
spectrum, we have also learnt how to calculate earthquake loads we have learnt Kanai
Tajimi spectrum. So, far we have learnt wave loads, wind loads, ice loads earthquake
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loads including the computer program to calculate them solving example problem to
understand.
I hope you follow these lectures and you will be able to write these programs on your
own and check the results and compare the answers what we have in this screen here.
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Prof. Srinivasan Chandrashekaran
Module – 02
Lecture – 12
Dynamic Analysis – 1 (Part – 1)
So, friends let us continue with the lectures on module 2. This lecture which is lecture 12
will start introducing computer methods in dynamic analysis.
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Now, we know that offshore structures have a novel geometry they are form dominant
design and the loads which are encountering offshore structures are time variant.
However, some of the loads even though they are time variant they can equally
considered as a static or quasi static analysis for example, wind.
Secondly, offshore structures also undergo large displacements in certain degrees of

freedom. This is actually by design because this relative displacement helps in reducing
the effects of forces on members, classical example compliant structures, floating
structures.
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Having said this since the input loading is time variant and the structure has got
compliancy the output which is also the response, so the response is expected to be time
variant. One is interested to know what is a response of the system what we call the
dynamic response behavior. The dynamic response behavior of a system is known only
when a few fundamental characteristics of the system are calibrated. To be very precise
we are talking about fundamental characteristics determination of a dynamic system, the
moment I said dynamic system you can also encounter few words along with this, they
will vibrate at a set of frequencies, these are called natural frequencies.
The system will have a classical mass and stiffness which are system properties. The
system will also undergo response control or degradation which is associated with the
damping. Now the dynamic systems have certain characteristics which need to be
identified and estimated and then they should be represented in a mathematical format to
receive the input load, so that the dynamic response behavior of the program can be
estimated.
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As we all agree and we know your prerequisite generally equation of motion is used to
characterize the response mathematically, to do so the dynamic system needs to be
modeled. So, then the question comes what are essential features of a dynamic system
mass which represents the inertia characteristics of the system, second stiffness which
represents the restoring force capacity of the system. Thirdly the damping element which
represents the frictional characteristics and energy loss in the system and fourth and the
last is an excitation force representing the external force acting on a system.
So, this is represented by M, this is represented by K, this is represented by capital C,

this is represented by F of t. F of t because we already said and we saw in last lectures
that the excitation force which represents external force or environmental loads acting on
offshore structures are time variant. Now the question comes does mass K and C depend
on time they will answer this slightly later, but I would urge you to look at standard
references to learn more on dynamic analysis.
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So, these are some suggested references which will give you some additional reading -
one my own course offered in 2012, 14, 15 and 16 at NPTEL titled Dynamic Analysis of
Ocean Structures. So, kindly go through the video lectures NPTEL which are free
downloadable and go through the tutorials for more learning.
Secondly, there are couple of text books which I want to advocate why I am referring my
own books because you will be able to easily follow the style of my explanation. One
book is 2015 Dynamic analysis and design of Offshore Structures published by Springer
India. The next one could be again in 2017 this is edition one same title this is published
by Springer, Singapore and this is edition II. So, this will give you additional reading
about dynamic analysis. So, you will be able to appreciate some of the important
terminologies and basics of dynamic analysis, but in this course we look into the
computer methods of dynamic analysis where we will give you this program the
MATLAB coding and solve the problems using computer program having said this.
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It is very important to know that discretization of mass helps dynamic analysis. In fact,
this makes analysis less complicated. The moment I said discretization of mass then I
will also add it to that I would like to lump the mass at various degrees of freedom. Now
the question comes what is degree of freedom. Degree of freedom friends is the number
of independent coordinates or displacement components of a dynamic system which are
necessary to represent the effect of all significant inertia forces at any time instance.
In an approximate manner or as a shortcut one can remember that degree of freedom is

the number of mass points or the coordinates were masses said to be concentrated or let
us say lumped. Please understand it is always not true that you can have one point were
masses lumped, but this can have 6 degrees of freedom there can be one degree of
freedom the mass can have different components. So, this is only a shortcut to
understand a similarity between the lumped mass and degree of freedom. The classical
definition actually is the number of independent coordinates which are required in a
dynamic system to represent the inertia forces at any instant of time. Since we say inertia
force we are linking that to the last mass part that is the reason.
Having said this one of the very common model which is being used for dynamic
systems in offshore structures is spring, mass and dashpot model.
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So, in mathematical model which is very popular to do dynamic response analysis of

offshore structures, typically this model looks like this say. This is the mass point
represented by M, the mass is exerted by a force which is F of t, the mass is lumped at a
point therefore, the degree of freedom is x of t, the mass when it moves to the right
where the excitation force the mass will exhibit a restoring force represented by K, the
response of the mass in terms of time will also decay which exhibits some friction some
decay some energy loss which is exhibited or represented by a dashpot indicated by C.
So, friends this is the inertia force inertia component this is the external force or
excitation component this is the restoring component and this is my damping component
and this indicates the degree of freedom. Since here there is only one degree of freedom
this is a classical mathematical model of single degree of freedom. So, look back the
definition we said essential features of a dynamic system are mass representing inertia,
stiffness representing restoring component, damping representing the frictional
characteristics and F of t representing external force. Look back here we have the same
components present here. So, this is a typical popular mathematical model which is used
to represent identically the behavior of offshore structures excited under time variant
loads.
Having said this we would like to know how to write equations of motion to represent or
to characterize the dynamic response behavior. So, for single degree it is very easy and
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simple to estimate the essential features of this model which is the natural frequency
represented by omega units are generally radiance per second. By the way unit units of
mass will be in kg units of stiffness will be in Newton per meter, units of C we are using
the whiskers damping model in offshore structures, so it is Newton per meter per second
or Newton second per meter. And F of t of course, we know we have already estimated
them in the last few lectures that is one characteristic natural frequency, the second one is
the mode shape mode shape has no units it is represented by small phi it is relative mass
position at any instant of time when the system undergoes or vibrates at a specific
frequency. So, omega and phi are actually pades for every omega there will be every phi
that is why there are called eigen values and eigen vectors, eigen is a term related to
uniqueness in German language.
So, we will not discuss more in detail about the single degree because single degree
freedom system models are relatively simple and they are readymade solution available
in the literature you do not need actually a computer program to solve them, let us go for
multi degree freedom model systems. So, our job is to mathematically identify a multi
degree freedom system model and then solve for omega and phi using computer
methods.
So, what is our objective now? Our objective now is to mathematically model a multi
degree freedom system then write equation or rather equations of motion in time domain
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and try to solve for the fundamental characteristics of the model which are natural
frequency omega and mode shape which is phi. So, this we will try to do using computer
methods. But I would suggest a small deviation from this objective first we will take a
few examples of multi degree freedom model systems solve them using numerical
methods by hand that is using calculators.
Then we will also write and explain the computer program solve the same problem using
coding and then verify the results that will be better. So, we understand both right. So,
once you know this then we will move to application of computer methods of dynamic
analysis to offshore structures in reality and explain how they can be solved using
different software. So, this objective set in mind.
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Module - 02
Lecture - 12
Dynamic Analysis - 1 (Part - 2)
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The example 1 which we now take to start with is a 2 degree freedom system model a
spring mass system. Will take up this as an example let us say my example problem is 2
degree freedom system model which has mass m 1 and m 2, the degrees of freedom are
marked here as x 1 and x 2, the model does not have damping, but it has a restoring force
k 1 and k 2.
So, I want to first to draw the free body diagram to write the equations of motion. So,
listen carefully how do we write them, draw the free body diagram and then derive the
equations of motion using Newton’s method. There are 5 methods based on which you
can derive equations of motion simple harmonic method, Newton’s method, energy
method, Rayleigh method and using D Alembert’s principle. So, the details of these
methods individually can be examined and studied and understood from the reference
textbooks and NPTEL courses which I cited in the previous slides. We will not talk about
those methods in detail in this particular course we will simply take one simple easy
method which is Newton’s force method and try to derive the equations of motion.
So, now, this is my mass m 1 when the mass is allowed to put downwards by this x 1 let
us say the force the mass will be restored by the spring. So, I give in unit force and it will
be restored by stiffness and displacement because you know stiffness is actually force by
displacement. If I multiply stiffness with displacement I will get the force. So, when the
mass m 1 start to move by newly force and the first degree of freedom x 1 k 1 spring will
restore the mass.
At the same time the k 2 spring will be compressed and will apply a force in the opposite
direction because k 2 will be compress now will oppose this motion and that will be
equal to the stiffness of that spring multiplied by the point where you are measuring the
displacement and the point where the spring is connected. It is very clear please
understand here. The x 1 is the point where you are measuring the displacement of the
force given and x 2s to the point where the spring k 2 is connected k 2s connected
between x 1 and x 2, so I say x 1 x 2. The direction of k 2 is simple, m 1 is trying to pull
down k 2 will oppose m 1, so apposition, m 1 tries to move down k 1 is trying to pull it
up. So, the direction the force value the direction and the force value are very clear in
this particular figure.
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Let us do this similarly for mass m 2. So, same logic mass m 2 I apply unit force along x
2 along x 2 when I apply that the spring k 2 will try to oppose that and that is going to be
equal to k 2 multiplied by the point where the unit forces apply minus the point where
the spring is connected. It is very simple, k 2 is connected between x 2 and x 1 you can
see that x 2 and x 1. And first coordinate will be where you are measuring the force
second is where you are connecting this force the direction is very simple mass m 2 is
pulled down therefore, k 2 will try to full it down. I do not think any confusion is there in
marking the arrow directions of the stiffness of the springs marking the arrow direction
of the unit force and therefore, now this is me free body diagram. Now, we are ready to
write the equation of motion using Newton’s law.
So, I want write equation of motion. So, let us say first degree I am writing a force
balance equation we know that force equal to mass and acceleration. So, m 1 x 1 double
dot will be acting down that is the acceleration force given by the x 1 double dot which is
actually a derivative of displacement x 1 which will be actually equal to minus k 1 x 1
negative sign because m 1 x 1 double dot is acting in the downward direction whereas, k
1 x 1 is a restoring force in the opposite direction therefore, minus sign; similarly again a
minus sign for k 2 which is x 1 minus x 2.
So, let us say m 1 x 1 double dot is minus k 1 x 1 minus k 2 x 1 plus k 2 x 2 which is

minus x 1 of k 1 plus k 2 plus x 2 of k 2. Rearranging m 1 x 1 double dot plus k 1 plus k
2 of x 1 minus k 2 of x 2 is 0 that is my first equation of motion. How can you say this
first equation of motion? Because the first equation of motion the coordinates are x 1 and
x 2 they are connecting because I applied unit force which is having acceleration in the
first degree of freedom.
Now, let us do for the second degree of freedom. So, look at this figure now. So, m 2 x 2
double dot is equal to minus of k 2 of x 2 minus x 1 which is minus k 2 x 2 plus k 2 x 1.
So, rearranging m 2 x 2 double dot minus k 2 x 1 plus k 2 x 2 is 0 second equation. So, I
have written the equations of motion I can write also them in a matrix form because
computer methods require more simple method of representing these equations let us say
equation 1 and 2 will be represented in matrix form.
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Let me write the equations first m 1 x 1 double dot plus k 1 plus k 2 of x 1 minus k 2 of x
2 is 0 there is a first equation the second equation is m 2 x 2 double dot minus k 2 x 1
plus k 2 x 2 is 0. I want to represent this in matrix form. So, I can say now m 1 0 0 m 2 of
x 1 double dot x 2 double dot plus k 1 plus k 2 minus k 2 minus k 2 k 2 this is stiffness
matrix, x 1 x 2 is 0. One can read this first row m 1 x 1 double dot plus that is this term, k
1 plus k 2 of x 1 this term, minus k 2 of is 0. So, I get the equation.
Similarly, the second row m 2 x 2 double dot minus k 2 x 1 plus k 2 x 2 is 0. So, the
equations are now converted to a matrix form this matrix is called mass matrix this is
your displacement vector this is stiffness matrix this is displacement vector acceleration
vector. So, I say this is going to be a. So, inertia force, restoring force, excitation force of
course, this is 0 in this case we have to set it to 0, we have to set it to 0 to estimate the
fundamental characteristics of the dynamic system. That is why there other ways called
free vibration characteristics. They are also called natural frequencies because under no
excitation force these frequencies are demonstrated by the system, that is why they call
natural frequencies and mode shapes.
So, writing equation of motion gives me 2 inputs – one, the mass matrix is an input for
me analysis the stiffness matrix is also an input from analysis. From a computer method,
I should be able to derive the mass and stiffness matrix and give them as an input. Once I
have this input I want to estimate the frequency and mode shape.
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So, step number 2 to determine the natural frequency as I said we are doing this problem
by hand. So, we will do this solution the classical eigen solver method then will
introduce you to the computer methods and solve the same problem very easily using a
computer program. So, equation of motion can be easily written for this problem.
So, now to estimate the natural frequency we will take slightly a complicated problem.
So, we a taking a frame of single bay 2 storey, the mass is lumped at both the locations I
call this as m and this as 2m and this is my degree of freedom x 1 of t and x 2 of t and the
frame has dimensions as given in the screen now the height of the frame is h and h.
So, let us know that the mass matrix in simple terms very quickly can be identified from
this which is going to be 2m 0 0 m. I am not deriving the equation of motion I believe
that you understood from the previous slide how equation motion can be easily derived
by using force balance method suggested by Newton by drawing free body diagram. I
believe that you know that. So, this is an equivalent system now, the equivalent system is
mass spring mass spring and so on.
So, the stiffness matrix when you do the equation of motion will be 3 minus 1 minus 1 1
with the multiplayer of k where k is 24 EI by h cube because we are looking for a
bending stiffness. So, I have the mass matrix now, I have this stiffness matrix norm
which is also derived from the first principles by writing equation of motion for a simple
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problem. For this problem similarly I play the same technique is a small homework given
to you, you will be able to array the masses stiffness matrix as shown on the screen now.
So, let us sin the natural frequency for this system. So, it is very simple find the
determinant of k minus omega square m and set it to 0. So, let us do that determinant of
do you know k matrix is 3 k minus k minus k k and m matrix 2m 0 0 m. So, I am writing
it here 3 k minus omega square 2m there is k minus omega square m minus k minus k k
minus omega square y I said the determinant to 0. So, doing that expanding I get 3 k
minus omega square 2m into k minus omega square m minus k square is 0.
Again expanding 3 k minus 3 k square 3 m k omega square minus 2 omega square y m k

plus 2 omega 4 m square minus k square is 0. So, rewriting 2m square of omega 4 minus
3 plus 2 that is 5 m k of omega square plus 2 k square is 0. Let omega square v x. So, the
equation of becomes 2m square x square minus 5 km x plus 2 k square is 0 the simple
quadratic of second order I can find the roots of this quadratic which is x 1 and x 2 which
will be minus b plus or minus b square minus 4 ac whole by 2 a let us do that. So, 5 km
plus are minus root of b square, so 25 m square k square minus 4 ac, so 4 to 8 to 16. So,
minus sixteen m square k square a whole divided by 2 a. So, that gives me 4 m square.
So, which gives me x 1 x 2 after simplification as 2 k by m and k by 2m there are 2 roots
now.
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We also know x 1 is omega square. So, omega 1 square can be said as 2 k by m
therefore, 1 can find omega 1 has root of 2 k by m and k value is known m value if
known one can find omega in radians per second. Similarly omega 2 square is k by 2m
therefore, omega 2 is going to be root of k by 2m. So, knowing the values of k and m 1
can estimate omega 1 and omega 2. As we have seen, we have found out the natural
frequencies of the system. But we did not know which is the lowest frequency or the
fundamental frequency how to identify the fundamental frequency, the fundamental
frequency can be identified only by estimating the mode shapes and then from the mode
shape can qualify and find out what is the fundamental frequency.
So, the next step is the estimate the mode shape, the estimate the mode shape the
governing equation is simply a x is lambda x that is a minus lambda x is set to 0 that is k
minus omega square 1 of phi n is 0 where phi n is the corresponding mode shape of
omega let us do that.
So, we have 3 k minus omega square 2m minus k minus k k minus omega square m
multiplied by let us say phi 1 phi 2 set it to 0, that is 3 k minus omega square 2m of phi 1
minus k phi 2 is 0 that is the first equation we get. Minus k phi 1 plus k minus omega
square m 5 to is 0 is a second equation here. I want to find the first mode shape. So, what
I do is in these 2 equations substitute omega 1 square as 2 k by m which we already got
can see here omega 1 square is 2 k by m.
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So, substitute that to get the first one. So, we say 3 k minus 2m of omega square that is 2
k by m off phi 1 and just substituting the value the previous equation minus k phi 2 is 0
minus k phi 1 plus k minus 2 k by m off m of phi 2 is 0 simplifying I get minus k phi 1
minus k phi 2 is 0. If phi 1 is phi 1 phi 2 is minus 5, so the mode shapes corresponding
are 1 and minus 1. Since there is a zero crossing between them the frequency
corresponding to this mode shape cannot be the fundamental frequency because the
fundamental frequency will have no zero crossing what did mean the zero crossing let us
try to plot this.
I have a system of this type, you can see here from this figure this is x 1 and x 2. So, x 1
and x 2 let us try to plot this. So, this is positive and this is negative because this is 1 this
1. So, when a joined them I get 1 0 closely. Fundamental frequency cannot have any 0
cross it means the omega value corresponding to root of 2 k by m is not the first
frequency, but the second frequency and this is the second mode shape. So, that is why I
said just by saying omega 1 it does not mean that the first frequency fundamental
frequency should be qualified based upon the characteristic of the mode shape. So, we
found the mode shape, we got the characteristic there is no zero crossing then we can say
first frequency if there is 1 crossing then second frequency it means zero crossing will be
of 1 order lesser than the frequency. So, if it is second frequency one zero crossing third
frequency two zero crossing first frequency no zero crossing. So, we should workout the
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first frequency. So, as we substituted omega 1 square as this value let us do the same
logic and substitute.
For the second, for the second value that is substitute 3 k minus omega square 2m minus
k minus k k minus omega square m off again phi 1 and phi 2 there is a next mode shape
set to 0, but in this case substitute omega square as k by 2 m. So, 3 k minus k by 2m of
2m of phi 1 minus k phi 2 is 0 which gives me and the next equation is minus k phi 1
plus k of k by 2m of m of phi 2 is 0.
So, simplifying I get 2 k phi 1 minus k phi 2 is 0 or minus k phi 1 plus k by 2 phi 2 is 0.
So, if phi 1 phi 2 is phi 2 then phi 1 is half of phi 2 from this equation what does it mean
is in this system these are the mass points phi 1, phi 2 is 1 and this is half. So, I get the
mode shape like this, so there is no zero crossing. The corresponding omega now is
square root of k by 2m and this is the first mode shape which is 0.5 and 1. So, the earlier
mode shape was correspondingly 1 and minus 1.
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So, friends in this lecture we have started understanding the dynamic analysis of multi
degree freedom systems we are solving the problem by hand to estimate fundamental
characteristics of the system. So, in this example we have used eigen solver method to
find omega and phi of a 2 degree freedom system model. We will continue the discussion
in the next lecture.
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Module - 02
Lecture - 13
Friends let us continue with the 13th lecture on module 2 where we will continue to
discuss dynamic analysis to obtain natural frequencies and mode shapes of a dynamic
system. In the last lecture we discussed the first method which is the classical eigen
solver method to obtain natural frequency and the corresponding mode shape for an
mdof system.
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In this lecture we will discuss about another numerical method which is influence
coefficient method to obtain natural frequency and mode shape. For your multi degree
freedom system model what are the influence coefficients. Influence coefficients are
nothing but flexibility coefficients of a given system if flexibility is expressed as small f
it has relationship with stiffness for a given system using Newton’s force method we can
derive stiffness matrix for an mdof system. So, just take an inverse of the stiffness matrix
it will actually give you the flexibility which is influence coefficient matrix.
But in this lecture we will explain you how to obtain the influence coefficient matrix
directly without inverting the stiffness matrix.
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So, we will take an example of a three degree freedom system model mass being all
equal and stiffness being all the equal here, the degrees of freedom are marked as x 1 x 2
and x three. So, flexibility is to give unit deflection and find the force. So, let us say I
want to draw the first degree, so the unit deflection and find the force. So, this is going to
be k times of alpha 11 whereas, this spring will oppose is going to be k times of alpha 11
minus 21. We will have the same value, but opposite in direction this bottom spring will
oppose k times of alpha 21 minus 31. So, this spring we will have an opposite direction
of the same value.
So, you must realize that the second subscript in this derivation is all 1 meaning that we
are giving unit displacement and the first degree. Similarly I can do for the second
degree. So, I give delta as unity here. So, in that case this spring will have a force which
will offer alpha 22 minus 12 this will be opposite and this will be stiffness of alpha 12
and this will be stiffness of alpha 22 minus 32 this will be opposite.
Similarly, we can do for the third degree that delta v unity. So, this will be k times of
alpha 33 minus 23 this is opposite. This will be k times of alpha 23 minus 13 and this
will be opposite and this will be k times alpha 13. So, this is first degree, this is second
degree, this is third degree.
So, let me write down the equations based on this let us take the first figure that is this is
the master figure this is figure 1 this is figure 2 this is figure 3. Let us take figure 1. So,
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figure 1 was unity here and this was k alpha 11 and this was k alpha 11 minus 21 and this
was k alpha 21 minus 31.
So, let us write down the equilibrium equation 1 which is acting downward should be
equal to k alpha 11 plus k alpha 11 minus 21. Similarly I can also write k alpha 11 minus
21 is k alpha 21 minus 31 I can also write k alpha 21 minus 31 is 0 this equation 1
equation 2 and equation 3. So, from equation three since k cannot be equal to 0 alpha 21
minus alpha 31 is said to 0 which implies that alpha 21 is equal to alpha 31. Now
substituting this in 2 we get k of alpha 11 minus 21 is 0 which implies that alpha 11 is
also equal to alpha 21 substituting this further in 1 we get 1 equals k alpha 11 which
implies that alpha 11 is 1 by k.
So, now I get alpha 11 is 1 by k, alpha 21 is also 1 by k and alpha 31 is 1 by k I get the
first column of my influence coefficient matrix. Let us move on to the second figure.
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The second figure was indicating like this delta equals unity here which implies k times
of alpha 22 minus 12 k times of alpha 12 and k times of alpha 22 minus 32 writing the
equation 1 we will be equal to for this k times of alpha 22 minus 12 plus k times of alpha
22 minus 32. And the second equation says k times of alpha 22 minus 12 is 0, then we
say k times of alpha 12 is k times of alpha 22 minus alpha 1. Call this as equation
number 1, 2 and 3.
So, from 2 since k cannot be 0 alpha 22 minus 12 is 0 which implies alpha 22 is equal to
k times of alpha 22 minus 32 is 0 which indicates alpha 22 minus alpha 32 is 0 we says
that alpha 22 is actually equal to alpha 32 n 1 we say that alpha 22 alpha 22 minus alpha
12 is actually equal to 1 by k. So, substituting this in 3 alpha 22 minus 1 21 by k, so
alpha 12 is actually equal to 1. So, therefore, alpha 22 is 1 by k plus alpha 1 21 by k plus
1 by k which is 2 by k and alpha 32 is also equal to 2 by k.
So, now this gives in the second column alpha 12 alpha 22 alpha 32 alpha 12 is 1 by k
alpha 22 is 2 by k and this is also 2 by k. So, that is my second column of my influence
coefficient matrix.
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Let us do the third figure. So, delta as unity here, this implies k times of alpha 33 minus
23 which implies k times of alpha 23 minus 13 this is alpha 13.
So, writing the equations of equilibrium 1 is equal to k times of alpha 33 minus 23 and k
times of alpha 23 minus 13 is k times of alpha 33 minus 23, k times of alpha 13 will be k
times of alpha 23 minus 13 equation 1, 2 and 3. So, from 1 it says that alpha 33 minus 23
is 1 by k substituting this in 2 we get k of alpha 23 minus 13 is equal to k times of 1 by k
which is 1 which implies alpha 23 minus 13 is also equal to 1 by k. Substituting this in 3,
we get k times of alpha 13 is k times of 1 by k which means 1 solve for 13 is 1 by k. So,
alpha 23 is 1 by k plus 1 by k which is 2 by k and alpha 33 is 1 by k plus 2 by k which is
3 by k. So, now, I get alpha 13 alpha 23 alpha 33 as 1 over k 2 over k and 3 over k. I get
the third column of the influence coefficient matrix.
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So, the influence coefficient matrix is derived directly as explained and the matrix which
I call as alpha matrix is a 3 by 3 matrix 1 over k, 1 over k, 1 over k, 1 over k, 2 over k, 2
over k, 1 over k, 2 over k, 3 over k. So, this is symmetric diagonally dominant and
square. So, this is the influence coefficient matrix is directly direct. Once a derive this I
can also write this matrix as 1 by k of 1 1 1, 1 2 2, 1 2 and 3. For the given problem if we
write the mass matrix from this figure it is easily m 0 0, 0 m 0, 0 0 m which can be also
said as m times of 1 0 0, 0 1 0, 0 0 0. So, now, I have alpha matrix I have mass matrix
which is m times of 1 0 0, 0 1 0, 0 0 1.
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Module - 02
Lecture - 13
I can now write the control equations for finding the mode shape and frequency.
x 1 x 2 x 3 is actually equal to alpha 11, alpha 21, alpha 31 plus alpha 12 alpha 22 alpha
32 alpha 13 alpha 23 and alpha 33 that is first row first column first row second column
first row third column and so on, multiply omega square m x 1 omega square m x 1
omega square m x 1. So, this becomes omega square m x 2, m x 2, m x 2; omega square
m 3 omega square m x 3 omega square m x 3.
I can now write this in a matrix form x 1 x 2 x 3 as omega square m by k of 1 1 1, 1 2 2,

1 2 3 that is my alpha matrix with m. I will multiply it by x 1, x 2, x 3 - equation 1. Now
you can see in this equation the vector x 1, x 2, x 3 are present both in left hand side and
right hand side. So, the scheme becomes iterative I assume the value of this vector
substitute and see what value I am getting back if the assumed value and the obtained
value are same then the solution is converged.
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Let us start with the first mode shape zero crossing let us take it as all 1 1 1 which will be
omega square m by k times of 1 1 1, 1 2 2, 1 2 3 of 11 1 let us multiply and see what
happens. So, omega square 1 m by k I take a multiply 3 out if we do that I get a vector as
1, 1.67 and 2.0. I started with 1 1 1, I got 1, 1.67, 2 so no convergence let us start the
second iteration with 1, 1.67 and 2.0 as omega square m by k 1 1 1, 1 2 2, 1 2 3
multiplied with 1, 1.67 2.0 which gives me omega square m by k 4 0.67 is the multiplier
I get 1, 1.79, 2.21.
Again this converges not happened let us take the next iteration 1, 1.79, 2.21 is omega
square m by k 1 1 1, 1 2 2, 1 2 3 of 1, 1.79, 2.21 which becomes omega square m by k.
Now the multiplier is 5, if I do that I get this value as 1, 1.8, 2.24. I do one more iteration
1, 1.8, 2.24 is equal to omega square m by k 1 1 1, 1 2 2, 1 2 3 multiplied by 1, 1.8, 2.24
which will give me omega square m by k the multiplies 5.04 and I get a vector as 1,
1.801 and 2.25.
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So, they are more or less converging once they are converging let us write down the
equality 1 is equal to omega square m by k 5.04 of 1 which implies that omega is
actually equal to 0.445 square root of k by m and the corresponding mode shape is 1,
1.801, 2.25. So, this is my first or fundamental frequency. Why fundamental frequency? I
think you will you have to guess this, this is because the mode shapes has zero crossing.
So, it is the first mode shape. So, I should say now omega 1 and phi 1.
So, I can also obtain the fundamental frequency and mode shape using influence
coefficient method as omega 1 and phi 1.
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I can also obtain the higher modes using the principle of orthogonality. So, I can also get
the higher modes using the principle of orthogonality, I will quickly explain you let us
say A 1, B 1, C 1 is the first mode vector and let A 2, B 2, C 2 be the second mode vector
in other case is going to be 1, 1.801 and 2.25. Let us do not know the second mode take
it as A 2, B 2 and C 2.
So, let modes be orthogonal if they are orthogonal then m 1 A 1 A 2 plus m 2 B 1 B 2

plus m 3 C 1 C 2 will be 0. So, m in our case is 1 value a 1 in our case is 1 and a 2 we do
not know plus m 2 now cases m and 1.801 and B 2 plus m 2.25 and C 2 is set to 0. So, I
will get an equation in A 2 B 2 C 2. So, let C to be C 2, B 2 be B 2 and express A 2 as a
function of C 2 and B 2 and then apply the algorithmic principle and try to obtain the
higher modes. I am not solving the higher modes in this particular lecture you can please
refer to the NPTEL notes on dynamics or the textbooks which you have referred in the
last lecture on dynamics written by me and you can compute the higher modes.
So, now we have learned the second method that is influence coefficient method which
gives me the value of fundamental frequencies and mode shapes and higher modes as
well. So, now, let us look at the third method which is given by Stodola.
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So, Stodola method gives the fundamental frequency and mode shape it does not give
higher modes the method is easily programmable by computer though the method is
iterative, but simple.
Let us take the same example and solve. So, the example 3, but similar to example 2 that
is m 1 m 2 m 3, this is x 1 of t, this is x 2 of t, this is x 3 of t which is same as this
example, same as this example provided ms and ks are well defined in the same fashion.
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So, let m 1 be m 2 be m 3 be m, similarly this is k 1 this is k 2 this is k 3 let k 1 be k 2 be

k 3 is k. So, let us try to solve this problem using Stodla’s method. So, let us it is a
tabular form let us say assumed deflection say k 1 m 1, k 2 m 2 and k 3 m 3. Let us say
the assume deflection is at the mass points 1 1 and 1.
The inertia force could be m 1 omega square 1 and this is going to be m 2 omega square
deflection, m 3 omega square deflection.
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Now, I want to compute the spring force the spring force for k 3 that is the spring force
for k 3 will be actually equal to m omega square and for k 2 it will be 2 m omega square
it is because m 2 and m 1 n all equal to m, there is the reason. Similarly for k 1 it will be
3 m omega square I want to find the spring deflection, I divide this by k 1 so 3 m omega
square by k 12, m omega square by k 2, m omega square by k 3.
So, now I want to compute the calculated deflection. So, I keep m and k out. So, I should
say here this is going to be 3 omega square I should say k by m and phi omega square
and 6 omega square. So, now, we can find the ratio keep this as 1, keep this as 1 so this
will become 1 0.67 and this will become 2. So, I started with 1 1 1 I got 1, 1.67 and 2 so
no convergence.
So, I will repeat the same case starting at 1, 1.67 and 2. So, I would say these are my
deflections. So, this is the first iteration, deflection is 1, 1.67, 2 I calculate inertia force I
take multiplier m out. So, this is going to be 2 omega square, there is 1 0.67 omega
square this is omega square. I calculate the spring force again m out which is going to be
2 omega square, 3 0.67 omega square, 4 0.67 omega square. I say spring deflection again
I say it is m by k 4.67 omega square, 3.67 omega square, 2 omega square. I get
calculated deflection is m by k is going to be 4.67 omega square, 8.34 omega square just
sum them up and 10.34 omega square. Now, I take a ratio take this as 1 this becomes
1.79 and this becomes 2.21. I started with 1, 1.67 and 2, but ended in 1; 1.79 and 2.21
again no convergence.
Let us do the third cycle assume deflection, which is let us say this is k 1 this is m 1, this
is k 2 this is m 2, this is k 3 this is m 3.
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So, assume deflections are 1, 1.79 and 2.21 that is what we are borrowed from the last
iteration. So, the inertia force m out will be 2.21 omega square 1.79 omega square and
omega square spring force with m out will be 2.21 omega square which becomes 4.0
omega square which becomes 5 omega square as summation. Then I find spring
deflection so divided by the stiffness, so it is going to be 5 omega square 4 omega square
2.21 omega square.
Now, I say calculator deflection I say this is going to be 5 omega square I get this at the
mass points this is going to be 9 omega square and 11.21 omega square. I now take a
ratio say this is 1, this is 1.80 and this is 2.24. I believe that it has converged because the
previous iteration the values were 1, 1.79 and 2.21; now it is 1, 1.8 and 2.24. Once it is
converged we say that 1 plus 1.8 plus 2.24 will be equal to 5 plus 9 plus 11.21 omega
square m by k. So, if you are called I get omega as 0.447 root k by m.
So, if you look at the results of influence coefficient method we got 0.445 k by m and the
mode shapes were 1, 1.801 and 2.25. Now we let us see what result do we get from here
omega is 0.447 and the corresponding phi is 1, 1.80 and 2.24. Let us quickly compare
these results 0.447 and this whereas this value is 445 and 1.8, 2.25. See very closely they
are matching.
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So, we learnt 3 methods in this lecture, we learned 3 methods of determining omega and
phi that is a natural frequency and more shapes the methods are Classical Eigen solver
method to Influence coefficient method, 3 Stodola method. All these are easily
programmable we will be giving you also the computer methods of this and write the
program and then solve the problem using the computer program and compare the
results.
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Module - 02
Lecture - 14
Dynamic Analysis - 3 (Part – 1)
So, friends let us continue the discussion on the 14th lecture in module 2.
We are discussing computer methods of estimating natural frequency and mode shapes.
So far in computer methods of estimating natural frequency and mode shapes are
discussed we have discussed Classical Eigen solver method, we have discussed Influence
coefficient method, we have discussed Stodola’s method, all are easily programmable.
The solution is iterative and needs an algorithm to solve.
Let us now discuss one more method which is the 4th method which is given by
Rayleigh which is again a numerical method which is easily programmable.
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Let us take an example, demonstrate this method let us take a problem which I am
drawing here, it is a this is 2k, this is k, this is m and this is 2m and the degrees of
freedom are this is x 1 this is x 2, we want to find omega and phi for this system.
So, let us take Rayleigh method it is again a tabular form numerical in method, let us say
mass deflection which I call as phi r which I call as mr, inertia force which is alpha mr
phi r where units of omega square m are kept outside. Then we say computed deflection
which is A double prime of phi r then we say mode shape which is phi r double prime
then we say F I of phi r double prime then we also find mr phi r double prime square.
Let us try to make a table enter these values. Let us say I want enter mass m and 2 m
these are the mass values. I assumed the deflection with no zero crossing as 1 and 2
arbitrarily I assumed this value, I take the deflections as the spring values which is mr
phi r which is alpha omega square m is constant. Here mr phi r which becomes 4 alpha
omega square and mr taken as constant.
So, I make this sum the sum is phi alpha. I find this value is actually equal to this phi
alpha divided by this stiffness which is I write here as 2.5 alpha and I will have a
constant omega square m by k 2.5 alpha. By the same logic I can say this will be 4 alpha
by k, but the summation will be 2.3 plus 4, 6.5 alpha.
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Now, I take a multiplier a double prime as 2.5 alpha therefore, the mode shapes become
1 and 2.6, this 2.6 nothing but 6.5 by 2.5. Once they do this I will then find F I multiplied
by phi r which is simply alpha and 4 alpha into 2.6 that gives me 10.4 alpha I sum this up
I say 11.4 alpha. Then in the last column I find mr multiplied by phi r square. So, this is
going to be simply 1, here also I have omega square m constant and here also I have
omega square m constant and this is going to be equal to 2m multiplied by 2.6 square
which is 13.52. So, I make the sum this is 14.52 and so on.
Now, I want to find omega. So, I get omega I get omega as sum of F I phi r that is this
column divided by a double prime which is this value into sum of mr phi r square that is
this column. So, that is going to be equal to 11.4 alpha by 2.5 alpha into 14.52.
So, we substitute the units you will see this value will be in omega square m this value
will be omega square m they gets canceled, they will cancel and this will be having a
multiplier omega square m by k. So, I get omega square m by k. So, k by m is subset I
can say that, this omega square k by m.
So, if we substitute that and take a root I get omega as 0.56 root k by m and the
corresponding vector is 1, 2.6 that is this value. I started with 1 and 2 I got 1 and 2.6 non
converging so one more iteration. So, again mass deflection inertia force, computed
deflection, mode shape, inertia force multiplied by phi r then mr multiplied by phi r
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square. Let us borrow those values form a problem this is m and this is 2m and the
previous iteration it is 1 and 2.6, I will take that value as 1 and 2.6.
So, this going to be alpha 5.2 alpha I request you to follow the same algorithm what we
expressed in the last cycle of iteration, last cycle of iteration the same way you get F r
you get F I. Then this is going to be this value divided by. So, let us take the sum is going
to be 6.2 alpha. So, this is going to be 6.2 alpha by 2 k. So, that is the stiffness. So, 2 k
we just I think I should write 3.1 alpha then you add them up it becomes 8.3 alpha and
the sum. So, I take a double prime as 3.1, alpha I get the mode shape as 1 and this going
to be equal to 8.3 alpha by 3.1 alpha which is 2.68.
Then this is F I phi into phi r, so phi r is this value this is phi r 2. So, it is going to be
alpha this is 13.936 alpha I make the sum which is 14.936 alpha. So, this is mr into phi r
square which is going to be 1 and this is going to be 2m multiplied by 2.68 square which
is equal to 14.365, I make the sum which is 15.365. So, now, I find omega in the same
algorithm I should say phi I, F I phi I double prime divided by a double prime and this
which is going to be equal to 14 point omega square, is 14.936 alpha divided by 3.1
alpha and 15.365 which will give me omega as 0.56 root k by m.
And the corresponding vector is 1 2.68. I do the next iteration I take this as m and 2m I
take 1 and 2.68, this is alpha this is 5.36 alpha sum becomes 6.36 alpha, so this becomes
3.18 alpha, this is 8.54 alpha and therefore, I take a prime as 3.18 alpha I get more chip
as 1 and 2.69 that is my motive 1 and 2.69. Then you work on this value as alpha 14.418
alpha I make the sum which is 15.418 alpha this is 1 and this is 14.472, I make the sum it
is 15.472. Eigen omega square as 15.418 alpha by 3.18 alpha multiplied by 15.472 which
of k by m which gives me 0.56 root k by m as omega and phi is this value.
So, we will believe that it has converged and the final answer omega is 0.56 root k by m
and phi is 1 and 2.69 since there is no zero crossing I can call this omega 1 and phi 1
respectively.
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Module - 02
Lecture - 14
Dynamic analysis - 3
Let us try to solve the same problem for experience by Stodla. So, let us say k 1 and m 1
let us say k 2 and m 2, k 1 in the given problem you can see the problem k 1 is 2 k and k
2 is k, m 1 is m and m 2 is 2m. So, will use that k 1 is 2 k m 1 is m; k 2 is k and this is
2m.
Let us say assume deflection we will assume the deflection at the mass points let us call
this as 1.0 and 2.0 inertia force will take m out. So, this is going to be 2 omega square
this is also going to be 2 omega square. Then we say spring force again mass out, so this
is going to be 2 omega square and 4 omega square. Let us find out the spring deflection.
So, divide this by the stiffness of the spring this is going to be 2 omega square because 4
omega square by 2 k is 2 omega square m by k and this is going to be also 2 omega
square.
Now, let us say calculated deflection with the m by k out which is going to be 2 omega
square and 4 omega square now the values are 1.0 and 2.0 there is no convergence will
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take this as assume deflection. Then will compute the inertia force with mass out is going
to be 4 omega square this is omega square, let us compute the spring force with mass out
is going to be 4 omega square and 5 omega square. Then we say spring deflection we say
k out, so 5 by 2 that is 2.5 omega square m by k, then this is 4 omega square m by k. Let
us say calculated deflection with m by k out is going to be 2.5 omega square and 6.5
omega square let us find the ratio of 1 and 2.60. Again converging did not happen we
will do one more cycle we will say k 1 m 1 k 2m 2, this is 2 k this is m, this is k this is
2m.
So, we have done this is the first cycle and this is the second cycle, now we are doing the
third cycle of iteration we say assume deflection. So, we assume this value as the third
iteration start value. So, the values are entered the mass point 1.0 and 2.6, we compute
the inertia of force with mass constant, which is 5.2 omega square this is omega square
we find the spring force which is 5.2 omega square 6.2 omega square then the spring
deflection with m by k, so 6.2 by 2 that is 3.1 omega square m by k this is 5.2 omega
square. So, we say calculate the deflection with m by k which is 3.1 omega square with
8.3 omega square we take the ratio this is 1.0 this is 8.3 by 3.1 which is 2.6.
We started with 1, 2.6; we landed in 1, 2.67. We assume that they are almost converged
we say that 1 plus 2.67 is actually equal to 3.1 plus 8 point 3 omega square m by k is in
under say constant out. So, now, I find omega square as 0.567 root k by m and the
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corresponding phi the mode shape is 1 and 2.67. Let us compare this answer with what
we got with Rayleigh method. Rayleigh method says omega is 0.56 and 1 2.6 and this
method says 0.567, 1.267.
Let us solve this problem also by influence coefficient method. So, it is very simple I
have to derive the influence coefficients from the first principles let us do that.
This is going to be m 2m this is 2 k and k, let us write the free body diagram so unit
force. So, this is going to be 2 k of alpha 11 and this is going to be k of alpha 11 minus
21. Similarly for the second degree give unit force here. So, this is going to be k times of
alpha 22 minus alpha 12 and this is going to be 2 k of alpha 12.
So, let us write down for the first degree we say this is unity this unity. So, k of alpha 11
minus 21 is equal to 0 which implies that alpha 11 is alpha 21. 2 k of alpha 11 plus k of
alpha 11 minus 2 1 is unity. Substituting that this value is 0 you know alpha 11 will
become 1 by 2 k which is also give me as alpha 21.
Now, for the second degree k times of alpha 22 minus 12 is unity, then 2 k of alpha 12 is
k of alpha 22 minus 12. So, k of alpha 22 minus 12 is equal to unity so I can say this is 1
which implies that alpha 12 is 1 by 2 k. Now we know alpha 22 minus alpha 12 is 1 by k.
So, alpha 22 is 1 by k plus alpha 12 which is 1 by k plus 1 by 2 k which I get this as 13
by 2 k.
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So, now I have the alpha matrix with 1 by 2 k constant out. So, this going to be alpha 11
and 21 is 1 and 1, alpha 12 is again 1 and this is 3. And for this problem the mass matrix
is m 0 0 2m. Now I write the control equation for iteration we know it is going to be x 1
x 2 is actually omega square m by 2 because m and 2 k are constants in alpha in m
matrices. So, m by 2 k then I have to multiply alpha matrix with m. So, I get the first
column as simply 1 that is this and this, so 1 and this with this is going to be again 2 is
going to be 1 and 6 of x 1 x 2 because this is m and 2m therefore, this is 1 2 and 1 and 6.
Let us assume the iteration as 1 and 2 which is omega square m by 2 k of 1 2 1 6 of 1 and

2. So, this has a multiplayer omega square m by 2 k of 5 of 1 and 2.6. So, the second
iteration 1 2.6 omega square m by 2 k - 1 2 1 6 of 1 and 2.6 which is omega square m by
2 k of 6.2 of 1 2.68.
So, we take the next iteration 1 2.68 omega square m by 2 k, 1 2 1 6 of 1 2.68 this gives
me omega square m by 2 k the multiplayer of 6.36 and I get the vector 1 2.69. I do one
more iteration.
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1 2.69 omega square m by 2 k, 1 2 1 6 of 1 2.69 which gives me omega square m by 2 k

multiplayer of 6.38 of 1 2.69, I get the same conversion value therefore, 1 will be equal
to omega square m by 2 k of 6.38 of 1 which implies that n omega is equal to 0.56 root k
by m and the corresponding 5 is 1 2.69 no zero crossing therefore, first frequency and
first mode shape. Let us compare this answer with what I got from Stodla, so 0.567 and 1
2 6 7, so 0.567, 1, 2.6. So, the answers are completely matching.
688
One can also verify this with another method which is given by Dunkerlay which say an
approximate method it can also be used to compute only the fundamental frequency and
not the mode shape. So, this says 1 by omega 1 square there is a fundamental frequency
is some of mi alpha (Refer Time: 14:38) i. So, if you would not really find out for this
problem it is going to be 1 by omega 1 square which will be equal to m 1 is m and alpha
11 is 1 by 2 k plus m 2 is 2m and this is 3 by 2 k this will give you approximate to the
value of omega. I leave it to you to compute this, but does not give you phi.
So, as summary friends in this lecture we learned Rayleigh method of estimating

fundamental frequency and mode shape. We also learnt an approximate Dunkerley
method of estimating only the fundamental frequency. We also solved a numerical
example by Eigen solver the of course, we did not do it here in this class, but I hope you
must have known to do it, but also solved it with Stodola, with Rayleigh, with influence
coefficient method and we compared the answers and they were found to be in good
agreement. So, the point is all these methods are computer based methods they are easily
programmable and they are iterative and hence needs computer method.
So, in the next lecture we would like to give you the coding of these, solve a problem
and then compare the results using computer code which are exactly same as that of the
results of what you got behind.
689
Module - 02
Lecture - 15
Computer methods of dynamic analysis
Friends welcome to the 15th lecture in module 2. In the previous lectures we discussed
about different numerical methods to compute the natural frequency and mode shape of a
multi degree freedom system. We have also shown you the comparison of the results and
we realize that the values are tallying and they are in good agreement.
690
In this lecture we will explain you how a computer code is being written to estimate the
natural frequency and mode shape we will again compare the rules of a specific problem
what we did in the last lecture behind, compare the results with computer codes then we
will see that they are again in better agreements.
So, we will now discuss about the frequency and mode shape of multi degree freedom
system model. We will take an example problem.
691
The problem demands to obtain all mode shapes and a corresponding frequency of a
system shown the system has got 3 stiffness K K K and m which are equal. And now
marking the degrees of freedom this is my x 1 this is my x 2, this is my x 3, I can say
even x 1 of t x 2 of t and x 3 of t. So, one can very clearly see here m 1 equals m 2 equals
m 3 is simply m maybe some numeric value similarly k 1, k 2 and k 3 are taken as k
some numeric value. This problem we solved in the last lecture behind compared the
results by different methods we found them that they are in good agreement.
So, easily when the degrees of freedom are marked at the point where mass is lumped the
mass matrix will be the diagonally dominant matrix whereas, off diagonal elements will
all be 0 which we already know and there is no confusion in writing the mass matrix
readily. To write the stiffness matrix we need to formulate the equation of motion which
we already said by Newton’s method let us try to do that quickly for this specific
problem, let us compare this and see how we are able to get the stiffness matrix.
692
So, the system what we have is m m and m, k k and k, this is x 1 x 2 and x 3. So, we got
a free body diagram let us say unit displacement, this is going to be k times of x 1 and
when this spring will now oppose k times of x 1 minus x 2 and we are giving unit
displacement in the degree of freedom x 1. Similarly for the second degree we give unit
displacement along x 2 and this spring will try to oppose the movement which will be k
of x 2 minus x 1 and this spring will now again oppose the moment of k of x 2 minus x 3.
And we have the third degree this is also m m and m. So, this is again x 3, so this spring
will try to oppose the moment which is x 3 minus x 2.
Let us write the force balance equation for the first case. So, force is equal to ma. So, m x
1 double dot, x 1 double dot should be equal to minus of kx 1 minus k x 1 minus x 2
which is simplify as minus kx 1 minus kx 1 plus kx 2 which is minus 2 kx 1 plus kx 2.
So, m x 1 double dot plus 2 kx 1 minus k x 2 is 0 that is my first equation of motion.
Now, for the second degree similarly m x 2 double dot will be equal to minus k of x 2
minus x 1 minus k of x 2 minus x 3 which will be minus kx 2 plus k x 1 minus k x 2 plus
k x 3 which is say kx 1 minus 2 kx 2 plus kx 3 that is m x 2 double dot. So, I can say m x
2 double dot minus kx 1 plus 2 kx 2 minus kx 3 is 0, that is my second equation of
motion.
Let us say the third equation which I write here m x 3 double dot is minus k x 3 minus x
2. So, m x 3 double dot is minus kx 3 plus k x 2. So, m x 3 double dot minus k x 2 plus
693
kx 3 is 0 that is my third equation. Now, writing all these equations in a simultaneous
form let us say m x 1 double dot plus 2 k x 1 minus k x 2 is 0, m x 2 double dot minus kx
1 plus 2 k x 2 minus k x 3 is 0, m x 3 double dot minus kx 2 plus k x 3 is 0. I can now
convert these equations into a matrix form, I can now say this can be expressed as m
times of 1 0 0, 0 1 0, 0 0 1 of x 1 double dot x 2 double dot x 3 double dot plus k times of
2 minus 1 0, minus 1 2 minus 1, 0 minus 1 1 of x 1 x 2 x 3 is 0.
So, this is my mass matrix and this is my stiffness matrix. So, if you look at the file what
we just now showed to you the mass matrix and the stiffness matrix are exactly in the
same style, so k times of or m times of 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 and k times of 2 minus 1 0,
minus 1 2 minus 1, 0 minus 1 1. So, getting a k matrix as an input to the program is not
difficult we can write equations of motion, getting mass matrix and stiffness matrix as an
input for a given program is not a problem.
Having said this let us try to write the program by 4 methods Eigen Solver, Dunkerley,
Influence coefficients, Stodola and Rayleigh Ritz.
694
Let us take the Eigen solver method the coding is available on the screen. Now the hatch
box shows you the input file actually inputs are given in multiple formats the first input
refers to the degree of freedom, second line of the input refers to the mass matrix value
in kg you are going to give the value with a space bar and separate each row by a
semicolon. The third line of the program input is for stiffness the units are in Newton per
meter similarly you have to enter row wise the stiffness matrix what we just now saw is 2
minus 1 0 is a first row. So, you can see here 2 minus 1 0 with a space bar in between
and a semicolon separating the lines open with the bracket and closed with a bracket.
So, you can enter the input file as degree of freedom of your choice mass matrix of your
choice and k matrix of your choice. Once you do this the program is now going to
evaluate the eigen value and eigen vector for this problem. So, it calculates the stiffness
matrix it prints the stiffness matrix. Then it computes the eigen values and eigen vectors,
it also estimates the modal matrix.
695
This method gives all frequencies and mode shapes the mode shapes are combined in a
modal matrix is written here. So, in a model matrix of 3 by 3 because the 3 degree
freedom system model, each column will refer to the each vector so this is phi 1, this
column will be phi 2 and this column will be phi 3 together this matrix is called phi
matrix or modal matrix.
Then orthogonality condition is also checked for this given problem and if the modes are
not orthogonal the modes are made orthogonal and one can find out that.
696
So, now normalization is being done and we get ultimately the normalized modal matrix
with respect to mass. You can normalize the matrix modal matrix either with respect to
mass or with respect to stiffness. So, in this case it is normalized with respect to mass.
So, the last section of the code actually gives you the mode shape plot also you can see
here, the mode shape plot is being given in this section, it even plots the mode shape.
697
And there is a sample input mass matrix is been given stiffness matrix has been printed
and it calculates all the 3 frequencies it calculates the corresponding omega 1 this is phi
1, omega 2 this is phi 2 and omega 3 this is phi 3.
We can see here phi 1 does not have any zero crossing phi 2 has 1 zero crossing and phi
3 has 2 zero crossings. So, these are first mode shape, second mode shape and third mode
shape. These modes are naturally not orthogonal they are now normalized and you get
the normalized mode shape like this. They are also plotted the blue one, the blue one
shows mode 1 the green one shows mode 2 and the red one of course, shows the mode 3.
So, this has been obtained with the sample program which has been given to you on the
screen I will also give you the complete coding at the end of this presentation.
698
Let us move further let us take the Dunkerleys method. Dunkerley method is a shortcut
method which again requests you to give the input as degree of freedom, mass and
stiffness.
Then it calculates the influence coefficient matrix by inverting by inverting the stiffness
matrix, inverse the standard subroutine in MATLAB. So, once k matrix is designated can
invert the matrix to get influence coefficient. So, friends please remember influence
coefficient matrix is nothing, but the flexibility matrix.
699
So, inverse, influence coefficient matrix is obtained once you have this coding with you
then it estimates only the fundamental frequency with of course, a high degree of
approximation let us see the sample input.
So, the sample input for the mass and stiffness is same this becomes my flexibility matrix
now which otherwise a call as influence coefficient matrix and based on the Dunkerleys
algorithm which says 1 by omega square is actually sum of mi alpha ii it calculates
omega 1 it gives you only the fundamental frequency with a serious level of
approximation. The value what you obtained is 0.408, in the previous case the value
what we obtained is 0.445 for the first mode shape and frequency. So, there is an
approximation.
700
Module - 02
Lecture - 15
Computer methods of dynamic analysis
The third program is influence coefficient method program we also did a problem of the
same kind in the last lecture in influence coefficient method, but we derive the influence
coefficient matrix directly in the last lecture.
701
So, the mass matrix and stiffness matrix are again given an input, so it is standard for all
the programs. It inverts the mass matrix sorry the stiffness matrix and gets the influence
coefficient matrix one can directly also get the influence coefficient matrix which we did
in the last lecture. I think you can verify back the solution procedure in the last lecture.
For the completion sake let us try to do that in this example.
So, this is the coding for the classical Eigen solver which I just now showed you. So, the
complete coding it continues from here, the coding continues after this it continues here.
702
I am sorry for the alignment of the code because it cannot come on the same page. So,
please continue the code from here to here after this line this is the next line please
continue the code. Sample input is given sample output is also known and you can see
here the plot which has been just now discussed.
Similarly, the coding for Dunkerley is also shown on the screen now we have already
explained different segments of this code and we also have the sample output which is
been plotted from the screen.
703
Now the influence coefficient method coding is available, but I am interested to estimate
the influence coefficient matrix without inverting the stiffness matrix. This code actually
inverts the stiffness matrix it inverts the stiffness matrix to find the influence coefficient
matrix, but I can directly find the influence coefficient by the first principles which I am
going to do now.
So, this is the problem let us write down the problem this is m and these are all k. The
degrees of freedom are this is x 1, this is x 2 and this is x 3. So, influence coefficient is
nothing, but the flexibility. So, flexibility is give unit force and find the responses. So, I
say k alpha 11 where alpha is the influence coefficients in the given matrix and this is
going to be k alpha 11 minus 21. Similarly, for the next the arrow is reversed and this
spring is going to compress which will be k alpha 21 minus 31 and again this arrow will
be reversed. So, one can notice very well here.
The second subscript in all will be one indicating we are given unit force in the first
degree and we are getting the first column of the flexibility matrix. Let us do for the
second case to give unit force here so obviously, this spring will try to pull it back. So, k
times of alpha 22 minus 12 and there was reversed and this is going to be k times of
alpha 12 and this spring will try to compress therefore this is going to be k times of alpha
22 minus 32 and this spring is reversed.
704
Similarly, for the third degree unit force, so this is opposing k of alpha 33 minus 23
which will be reversed with this spring this will try to pull the mass back which will be k
times of alpha 23 minus 13 which will be reverse here and this will try to pull this back
again which is k times of alpha 13. So, once this is d11 can write the equations and try to
solve and get the influence coefficient matrix for example, let us do for the first two
degree. So, I am referring to this figure. So, I am writing it as 1 is equal to k alpha 11
plus k alpha 11 minus 21 I can also write k alpha 21 k alpha 21 minus 31 is equal to k
alpha 11 minus 21, k alpha 21 minus 31 is 0, so this implies that k cannot be 0 therefore,
alpha 21 minus 31 is 0 which implies alpha 21, alpha 21 is actually equal to alpha 31.
Substituting this back in the second equation the left hand side will become 0 which says
that alpha 11 is also equal to alpha 21, substituting that back in the first equation you will
see that alpha 11 becomes 1 by k which are now true for all the cases. So, alpha 11
therefore, alpha 21 is also 1 by k and alpha 31 is also 1 by k. So, that is the first column.
One can similarly do for the second column and third column which we did in the last
class last lecture please see that. So, the alpha matrix can be simply said as 1 by k of 1 1
1 that is what we got the first column 1 2 2, and 1 2 and 3. So, let us see what did we get
from the computer program.
So, one can see here for giving a mass matrix and stiffness matrix I get the influence
coefficient matrix as 1 by k multiplier is anyway out. So, 1 by k is anyway here. So, first
705
column is as same as what we got second column and third column. So, the matrix
exactly is same as we obtained from the program.
So, once we know this then this coding estimates the fundamental frequency and mode
shape and the fundamental frequency now is 0.445 and the mode shape is first mode
shape is this value which closely compares and agrees with the previous methods.
The next is a Stodola’s method which we also solved a problem in the last lecture.
706
We maintain the same degree of freedom, mass value and stiffness values as entered in
this case, but please note here the entire mass matrix and stiffness matrices need not be
given, you want to give only the value of m 1, m 2 and m 3; then k 1, k 2 and k 3. We do
not have to give the mass matrix and k matrix.
Please note in the earlier case we are supposed to give the mass matrix completely and
the k matrix completely row wise. But in this coding it does not require you to give the
mass matrix and k matrix you are to only give the mass values and k values with a space
bar in each row.
This is the mass value this is a k value once you do this the code actually identifies and
computes accumulated deflection finds the mode shape plus iteration and then from the
iterated value it picks up omega n square the fundamental frequency and then also picks
up the mode shape. Let us see the sample output what we got from this code it is 0.445
and this is my vector. You can see this value closely agrees with what we have in
influence coefficient method.
707
We have 0.445 and the vector is 1, 1.8, 2.25 you can see here, this is again 0.445, 1, 1.8,
2.25. So, the values are exactly matching and surprisingly you will also notice we add
exactly obtained the same values close to this by hand calculation in the last lecture. So,
you can compare them. So, the computer program what we explained to you is exactly in
the same line as the computer methods what we discussed by hand in the last lecture.
The last one is the Rayleigh Ritz method which we also explained in the last lecture we
solved a problem using Rayleigh method. Similarly please note friends in this method
708
also we have to give the value of m 1, m 2 and m 3 similarly k 1, k 2 and k 3. In this
problem all ms that is m 1, m 2 and m 3 are actually equal to m, so they are taken as
unity. Similarly k 1, k 2 and k 3 in this problem are taken as k and we have entered 1 1 1.
You do not have to give the mass matrix and k matrix as an input for this problem, you
have to give only the values of independent stiffness and mass the row wise as you see
the screen here.
Once you do this it assumes an initial mode shape here because we are looking for a
fundamental frequency all are taken as positive.
Then it calculates the mode shape then it calculates the fundamental frequency let us see
the output. So, you get 0.445 and this is the vector, so eigen vector of the first mode
shape which is exactly same as we obtained by the previous methods and this value also
matches with what we have worked out by hand in the last lecture. This is the coding for
Stodola method, which is shown on the screen now there is a sample output and this is
the coding for Rayleigh Ritz method which is shown on the screen now and that is the
sample output.
709
We have compared the results and they were all in good agreement.
So, let us make the summary. So, the summary says we learned computer methods of
determining natural frequency and mode shape of multi degree freedom system models.
In dynamic systems the methods learnt where classical Eigen solver method, Dunkerley
method, Influence coefficient method, Stodola method and Rayleigh method. We picked
our sample problems, we also gave you the computer coding, we showed you the sample
710
outputs and they were found to be in good agreement with hand calculations what we
showed in last lectures.
I think friends now if I am able to obtain the mass matrix for offshore structural system
and stiffness matrix for offshore structural system I should be able to obtain omega and
phi for the dynamic system in all degrees of freedom. That is the outcome of this
particular set of programs what we did for dynamic systems. In the next lecture we will
start discussing about the damping matrix which is also one of the important issue as far
as offshore structures are concerned.
711
Module - 02
Lecture - 16
Damping Estimate (Part – 1)
712
So, friends let us welcome to the 16th lecture in module 2 where we are going to talk
about damping estimates. As a quick revamp we already said one can estimate natural
frequency and mode shape using various numerical methods for which the computer
programs has been already given. We have also solved some sample problems using the
computer code and compare the results for validation. You can recollect very well that in
these methods we have standard inputs as follows, you must input the mass matrix, you
must input the stiffness matrix, you have to also state the number of degrees of freedom
based on which you will be able to get the natural frequencies omega n and the
corresponding mode shapes phi n, otherwise referred as eigen values and eigen vectors.
In dynamic analysis we realized that damping estimate is one of the important parameter
to be evaluated.
There are many methods by which damping can be estimated, but in offshore structures
damping estimates become very crucial because source of damping can be from various
sources. For example, it can be arising from fluid structure interaction, it can also arise
from material non-linearity, it can also arise from material degradation etcetera.
So, let us see how damping estimates can be made for the known mass and stiffness
matrices. When you talk about damping a very common class of reference in engineering
literature is classical damping. Classical damping is actually an appropriate idealization
713
and is applicable only when similar damping ratio is uniformly distributed throughout
the structure.
Alternatively people have recommended a new kind of damping in the literature which is
proposed by Rayleigh and named after Rayleigh damping. Let us see what Rayleigh
damping insist upon.
Let us consider a mass proportional damping and stiffness proportional damping

independently that is C is a 0 m that is mass proportional damping or C is a 1 k where a 0
and a 1 are constants, but with units. We strongly agree and believe that in offshore
structures viscous damping model is commonly accepted. In viscous damping model we
know the unit for damping could be Newton per meter per second which is Newton
second per meter.
So, keeping that as a unit Newton second per meter should be a 0 of Newton per meter
per second square. So, therefore, a 0 unit is coming to be per second. We can substitute
and see C should be a 0 m which means per second Newton per meter per second square
I get Newton second per meter which is as same as C.
Similarly, C is also equal to a 1 k this is Newton second per meter and a 1 we do not
know the units k is Newton per meter so; obviously, unit of a 1 is second. So, a 1 k will
be second multiplied by Newton per meter which is Newton second per meter which is
714
as same as unit of C. So, now, we have constants a 0 with unit per second and a 1 with
unit second.
In both the damping cases that is mass proportional and stiffness proportional damping,
C is diagonal by virtue this is due to modal orthogonality, these are called classical
damping matrices.
Physically they can be represented as below. Let us take a multi story building with n
number of floors each floor we have a mass lamped, let us say m 1, m 2, m n and each
mass will have a separate degree of freedom which are independent displacements. Now
I can represent this as your damping model which is represented as here dash port model
which I call this as a 0 m 1, a 0 m 2 by that logic this is a 0 m n this is mass proportional
damping. In mass proportional damping, damping caused by presence of air or
atmosphere can be negligible. But in offshore structures this can be significantly high.
715
The next case could be a stiffness proportional damping. So, let us say we have again a
multi story building we have each floor levels, each floor level will undergo relative
displacement and now the damping model is expressed as a relative displacement
between the floors.
So, this is going to be a 1 k 1 this is a 2 k 2 similarly this can be an kn whereas, the

stiffnesses are k 1, k 2, k n respectively. In this case dissipation of energy depends on
relative displacement between the successive floors to be very precise I should say it is
between the successive mass points.
716
Having said this let us say keeping C proportional to modal damping ratio for a mass
proportional damping system we get Cn as a 0 m n, then the damping ratio will be zeta n
is Cn by 2 m n omega n that is a standard relationship which is substituted as a n m n by
2 m n omega n which I get zeta n as a 0 by 2 1 by omega n which indicates that the
damping ratio zeta n is inversely proportional to the natural frequency of the system.
Therefore, a 0 can be selected to obtain a specified value of zeta in any mode of your
choice that is zeta i can be designers choice and a 0 will be 2 zeta i omega i.
717
Once a 0 is determined it is a known value now because zeta i and the corresponding
omega i are chosen damping matrix C can be computed which is C equals a 0 of m for
known a 0 values.
Similarly, for stiffness proportional damping Cn equals a 1 k, Cn is a 1 omega square m

and zeta is equation number 4 zeta is Cn by 2 m omega n which is a 1, omega n square m
n by 2 m n omega n which will give me zeta n as a 1 by 2 omega n. This says that the
damping ratio zeta is directly proportional to natural frequency omega n.
So, let us call this equation as phi and this equation as 6. a 1 can be determined for
known value as omega i and zeta i for anymore then C simply is a 1 k and a 1 or a 1 is
equal to 2 zeta j by omega j. So, one can find I call this is 6 a, a 1 and a 0 both constants,
once you know these constants you can either find damping matrix as mass proportional
or as stiffness proportional.
718
But in reality there is a difference or there is a problem by doing these models. In both
the damping models that is stiffness proportional and mass proportional the actual
behavior of the structure depict either of them. This has been verified experimentally and
found that actual damping is neither mass proportional nor stiffness proportional then
what is the designer’s choice.
719
Module - 02
Lecture - 16
Damping Estimate (Part – 2)
720
Rayleigh proposed damping which includes both C is going to be a 0 m plus a 1 k,
therefore it is a combination of mass and stiffness proportional. In that case damping
ratio at n-th mode is given by you know the damping ratio for stiffness proportional is
equation 6.
Damping ratio for mass proportional is equation 3, therefore damping proportional for a
combination of this could be simply the addition of this that is a 0 by 2 1 by omega n
because for mass proportional damping is inversely proportional to omega plus a 1 by 2
omega n because for stiffness proportional damping ratio is directly proportional to
omega n. I call this equation number 8. Of course, this is my equation number 7 given by
Rayleigh.
721
So, therefore, once we said zeta n as actually a 0 by 2 1 by omega n plus a 1 by 2 omega

n. The coefficients a 0 and a 1 can be determined for a specific damping ratio zeta i and
zeta j respectively for i-th and j-th modes. So, now, the damping will look like the plot as
shown now the original damping which is mass proportional is omega n and this is the
zeta n. The mass proportional damping looks inversely proportional to omega increase
this is I should say C is equal to a 0 m whereas, the stiffness proportional damping is
directly proportional to omega n. So, I should say in this case C is a 1 k Rayleigh gave a
combination of these 2 it says that let it be a combination of mass proportional and the
stiffness proportional, this is Rayleigh damping.
So, for any specific value of omega i and omega j, this is omega i this omega j I should
be able to get the same zeta, so pickup zeta in such a manner that it is same for omega i
and omega j as shown in the figure. So, zeta i is going to be a 0 by 2 1 by omega i and
zeta j is a 1 by 2 omega j hence zeta n is a 0 by 2 1 by omega n plus a 1 by 2 omega n.
722
So, I can now say zeta i zeta j is actually equal to half of I am expressing this in a matrix
form, I am expressing this relationship in a matrix form 1 by omega i omega i, 1 by
omega j omega j of a 0 a 1. One can read this equation and similarly understand zeta i is
equal to a 0 by 2 into 1 by omega i plus a 1 by 2 omega i which is as same as this.
So, now, for zeta i zeta j is same as zeta. Then I call this matrix as a matrix let us work
out a inverse is very simple to find out that it is going to be twice of omega j by omega i
minus omega i by omega j of omega j minus omega i minus 1 by omega j 1 by omega i. I
can easily find a 0 a 1 which are the coefficients of the damping matrix as twice of
omega i omega j by omega j square minus omega i square of omega j minus omega i
minus 1 by omega j 1 by omega i of zeta 1 and zeta 2.
We now say zeta 1 zeta 2 are same zeta that is a condition, you see here omega 1 zeta 1
omega 2 zeta 2 they should be same zeta for this condition to be imply.
723
I can now say a 0 is going to be twice of omega i omega j into omega j minus omega i of
zeta divided by omega j square minus omega i square. I am just finding out this value a 0
is twice of this zeta 1 this zeta 2, there is no zeta 1 zeta 2 there are zeta divided by this
that is what I am writing omega i omega j omega j omega i zeta minus omega i zeta. I
can see that is what I am writing and so on, which can be simplified as 2 zeta of omega i
omega j by omega i plus omega j where this can be denominator expanded as a square
minus b square I get the product I can cancel this I will get this value that is my a 0
equation number 10.
Similarly, reading from the second row of this equation a 1 will be equal to twice of
omega i omega j by omega j square minus omega i square of 1 by omega i minus 1 by
omega j because this omega j is minus is negative j of zeta. This says 2 zeta omega i
omega j into omega j minus omega i by omega i omega j of omega j square minus omega
i square. So, this goes away I can now say it is going to be 2 zeta 1 by omega j plus
omega i, I got a 1 equation 11.
Now, C is actually equal to a 0 m plus a 1 k which is given by Rayleigh. So, for the
known values of a 0 and a 1 one can find C matrix because m and k are already known.
724
There are some observations on this condition some observations are - in applying this
procedure of Rayleigh damping the modes i and j with specify damping ratio should be
chosen. The condition is in the chosen modes for different frequencies same damping
ratio is applied.
So, you should be able to choose 2 different frequencies which has the same damping
ratio. Further in order to check examine damping in other modes for the same ratio. For
example, if it is a 3 degree freedom system model 3 modes need to be included in the
analysis then the damping ratio in all the 3 modes should be roughly same, I should say
the word roughly same because you cannot get exactly the same ratio which is desirable
to apply this method.
Let us take an example problem which we already solved.
725
The example problem is let us say this is m 1, m 2 and m 3; this is k 1, k 2 and k 3. Let m
1 and m 2 and m 3 be a constant value which is 3500 kg, k 1 k 2 and k 3 be a constant
value not constant let us take it like this k 2 is 1.5 k 1, and k 3 is 2 k 1, and k 1 is k which
is 1500 kilonewton per meter let us say this data is given.
So, now, the mass matrix and k matrix are known to us which is required I can apply any
standard procedure what we discussed in the last lectures and find out omegas. Let us say
I determined omega by influence coefficient method and the values are omega 1 is 0.57
root k by m which is 0.57 root of 1500 kilonewton divided by 3500, let us say 11.8
radians per second. And the corresponding phi 1 is 1.68 and 0.32. Similarly omega 2 is
1.414 root k by m. So, we substituting we get 29.27 radians per second and the
corresponding phi 2 is 1 minus 1 and minus 1.
Similarly, omega 3 is 2.163 root k by m which equals to 44.778 radians per second and
the corresponding phi 3 is 1 minus 3.68 and 4.68.
726
So, the mass matrix is now known to me which is m times of 1 0 0, 0 1 0, 0 0 1. From the
equation of motion by force Newton’s force method I can also find the k matrix I leave
this is an homework to you, k will be actually equal to 1 minus 1 0, minus 1 2.5 minus
1.5 and 0 minus 1.5 and 3.5 that is my k matrix now. So, m matrix can also be said as
3500, so much 1 0 0, 0 1 0, 0 0 1 in kg and k matrix can be now said as 1500 into 10
power 3 of 1 minus 1 0, minus 1 2.5 minus 1.5, 0 minus 1.5 3.5.
So, now let us quickly compute a 0 which is 2 omega 1 omega 2. I am taking first 2
modes and I am assuming zeta to be 5 percent 0.05 divided by omega 1 plus omega 2
that is the equation for, you can see here for a 0 which is 2 zeta omega 1 omega 2 and
sum of this and a 1 is 2 zeta by this sum. Let us do that which is going to be 2 into 11.8
into 29.27 into 0.05 divided by 11.8 plus 29.27 which gives me as 0.841.
Similarly, a 1 is 2 zeta by omega 1 plus omega 2, 2 0.05; 11.8 plus 29.27 which is
0.0024. So, now, I can find the C matrix as a 0 m plus a 1 k.
727
So, that is C is going to be 0.841 into 3500 of 1 0 0, 0 1 0, 0 0 1 that is my mass matrix

plus 0.0024 that is my a 1 into 1500 into 10 power 3.
Summing them all we get C matrix as 6543.5 minus 3600 0, minus 3600, 0 11943.5
minus 540, minus 5400 15543.5 in so many Newton second per meter because k matrix
is in Newton per meter mass matrices is in kg, C matrix is this.
728
Now, I want to check what is my zeta 3, that is checking for the third mode zeta 3 I want
to check. So, we know zeta n is a 0 by 2, 1 by omega n plus a 1 by 2 omega n. So, zeta 3
is a 0 by 2 omega 3 plus a 1 by 2 omega 3; a 0 we know is 841 by 2 by 44.778 plus a 1 is
0.0024 and omega 3 is 44.778 when you estimated this I get this as 6.31 percent which is
very close to 5 percent hence we can say all 3 modes contribute to the response.
So, Rayleigh damping is very easy to obtain a problem we will take the numerical
example of this through a computer code.
729
The computer code in this program now shows how the code is written for Rayleigh
damping this is for a Rayleigh damping. You have to enter the degrees of freedom, you
have to enter the mass matrix in our case is the mass matrix. Similarly one can enter the
stiffness matrix, we have entered the stiffness matrix then enter the damping ratio we
have taken 5 percent. Once you do that then the Rayleigh constants are evaluated and
then the damping matrix is evaluated and it is printed and check for the third one. So, the
sample output looks like this, this is my mass matrix, this is my stiffness matrix and these
are the input frequencies which we already got 11.721, 29.277 and 44.783 by computer
program.
The modal matrix what I get is what I gave you this is my first mode; this is my second
mode this is my third mode. And the damping matrix is what I get here 3 by 3 which is
exactly same let us say 6588 I by hand I got 6543. So, that is what, it is going to be same.
And check for the third mode damping ratio I get 6.396 whereas, we got third mode as
6.31. So, the computer program exactly solves the problem in the same style as we did
by hand a sample output is shown to you. And let us see the summary now.
So, in this lecture friends we learned how damping estimate is important in offshore
structure, what is mass proportional and stiffness proportional damping, what is classical
damping, what is the problem with the classical damping and why Rayleigh damping is
appropriate to offshore structures and how to solve see from Rayleigh damping. We also
730
learned the computer method, we also have the access to the computer code, we solve the
problem both by hand and by computer code and we found the answers are agreement
closely with them.
I hope you will be able to program this in MATLAB and do couple of problems and
realize how easy and convenient is Rayleigh damping for damping estimates in offshore
structures.
731
Module - 02
Lecture - 17
Damping Estimate - 2 (Part – 1)
Friends, welcome to the 17th lecture, we will continue with the damping estimate. In the
last lecture, we discussed about damping estimate using Rayleigh method, we derived
the equation, we solve the problem by hand, we also gave you the computer code and we
validated the results by the computer code with that of the solution what we had in hand
where exactly the same answers more or less comparable were Rayleigh damping. Now
the second issue which is also related to damping in offshore structures is.
732
If you really want to include higher modes in terms of damping ratios, then one should
take a general form of classical damping matrix. Remember classical damping matrix is
assuming damping ratio more or less proportional to we say in all the modes entire space
of the structure.
So, let natural frequencies omega r and phi r be known, they satisfy the following
relationship; k phi r is omega square m phi r, pre multiply equation 1 by phi n transpose
k m inverse on both sides; we get phi n transpose k m inverse k, I am just grouping, it phi
r is omega r square phi n transpose k phi r, this is equal to 0 for n not equal to r because
the modes are orthogonal.
733
Pre multiplying equation 1 on both sides by phi n transpose, k m inverse square, we get
phi n transpose k m inverse square k of phi r is omega r square, phi n transpose k m
inverse k m inverse m of phi r.
I have just expanded k m inverse square like this, which is equal to omega r square phi n
transpose k m inverse k of phi r. Please look at this equation omega r square phi n
transpose k phi r omega r square phi n transpose k m inverse k, k phi r this term which is
expressed here phi n transpose k m inverse k phi r phi n transpose k m inverse k phi r is
already 0 [FL] I should say this is now 0 for n not equal to r. So, we repeating this by
repeating this application or this procedure, we can establish a family of orthogonality
relationships. Now this can be expressed in general form as phi n transpose C l phi r is 0
for n not equals r, where C l is k m inverse to the power l of k for l equal 0 1 to infinity.
734
Now, C l can be rewritten as follows C l is equal to k m inverse to the power l of k, for l

equals 0, 1, 2 infinity call equation 3 a. Pre multiply equation three a with I which is m m
inverse. So, C l is equal to m m inverse of k m inverse l of k, which can be said as m m
inverse k m inverse that is a k m inverse of l times of k, which can be m, m inverse k of l
times of because I can group each one of them and so on this is true for l equal 0, 1, 2 up
to infinity I call this equation number 4.
735
So, C l is equal to this equation, similarly for k phi r equals omega r square m phi r, pre
multiply the above equation by phi n transpose m k inverse, follow the same algorithm as
we did in the previous case. So, we get C l is equal to m, m inverse k to the power l for
now l equals minus 1, minus 2, minus 3 to infinity equation 5. So, now, combine 4 and 5
equation 4 and 5, we get C l is m summation of l equals minus infinity to plus infinity
because in this case, C l is valid in the minus range, in the previous case C l is valid in
the plus range. So, combining these 2 I can say C l minus to plus infinity a l, m inverse k
to the power l.
It can be seen in equation 6 that only n terms in this series are independent.
This shall lead to a general form of classical damping matrix, which is given by C l
equals m l equal 0 to n minus 1 a l m inverse k to the power l, I call equation number 7,
where n is number of degrees of freedom of the dynamic system and a l are constants for
the damping matrix, let us consider first three terms of this series in 7.
736
So, let us say a 0 the equation is I am considering first 3. So, let us I am putting this as 1
0 1 and 2 we are starting from 0. So, c 0 I am what interested. So, I let find out a l or a 0
a 0 into m see a 0 into m inverse k m into m inverse k right. So, m into m inverse k to the
power 0, you can see here m a 0 m inverse to the power 0 which will give me a 0 m
similarly i substitute this as one.
So, a 1 m m inverse k 1. So, a 1 m m inverse k will be equal to a 1 k, similarly a 2 m m

inverse k square will be equal to a 2 k m inverse k I call this as equation number 8. One
can very easily see here the first 2 terms are same as Rayleigh damping is it not? These 2
are same as Rayleigh damping. Suppose one is interested to specify damping ratio of J
modes of n degree freedom system model, then J terms need to be included and this
series is what we call as Caughey series. So, we include this in Caughey series.
737
So, there could be any J of N terms of equation 7 equation 7 is this. There could be any J
term J of N terms of equation 7 typically first J terms are included in the series and they
will be as follows, C is going to be m summation l equal 0 J minus 1 a l, m inverse k of l
equation 9. Then the modal damping ratio zeta is given by the following set of equations.
Let us say for n th mode we know the generalized damping is given by C n which is phi
n transpose C phi n, which can be now said as summation of l equal 0 to N minus 1 phi n
transpose C l phi n I call this equation number 10, where C l is m m inverse k to the
738
power l which is same as equation 5, which we already had equation 5 m inverse k l
same as that equation m inverse k l ok.
So, for l equal 0 because it just vary from 0 to n minus 1 l equals 0 phi n transpose C 0
phi n, will be phi n a 0 m of phi n because you know for l equal 0 we already have this
term is a 0 m. So, a 0 m is added here similarly, for l equals one phi n transpose c one phi
n will be phi n transpose a 1 k phi n, which is actually equal to a 0 M n this can be a 0
omega n square M n and for l equals 2 phi n transpose c 2 phi n can be phi n transpose a
2 k m inverse k of phi n which can be a 2 omega n square.
739
Module - 02
Lecture - 17
Damping Estimate - 2 (Part - 2)
740
Which can be said as a 2 omega n square phi n transpose k phi n can be actually said as
omega n square m n by standard derivation; hence, a 2 omega n square omega n square
m n which is a 2 omega n 4 m n.
So, substituting for l equal to 0 1 and 2 in equation 10: substituting the above in equation
10 we get C n will be summation of l equal 0, n minus 1. We can see the equation 10 C n
l equal to 0 n minus 1 phi n. So, we have worked out phi n transpose c 0 c 1 c 2 that will
be the summation, right. So, it is going to be a, a l omega n 2 l of m n equation 11.
741
Now damping ratio zeta n is given by C n by 2 n omega n. So, zeta n is now going to be
half of summation of l equal to 0 to N minus 1, a l omega n 2 l minus 1 equation 12. So,
it is interesting to know that the coefficients of damping matrix that is a l can be
determined from various damping ratios specify for any J modes.
This can be done by solving J algebraic equations of equation 12. So, for unknowns of a l
for l equal 0 1 etcetera till J minus 1 this can be done the above can be done I do not
think there is any confusion in this.
Once the damping coefficients a l are determined for J modes, then the damping matrix C
n is known from equation 11. And damping ratios zeta n are given by equation 12; there
are some important observations of Caughey series, the algebraic sum of the equation
that is equation 12, algebraic sum of equation 12 are numerically ill conditioned because
the coefficients omega n minus 1 omega n minus 2 etcetera omega n omega n three
omega n 5 can defer in various order of n magnitudes.
Now, how to address this issue? If more than 2 terms are included in Caughey series, C
becomes a full matrix even for K being a banded matrix and m being diagonal because
masses dumped.
So, what is the consequence of this?
742
The consequence is this increases the computational cost and time where then matrix
now becomes a full matrix, especially when applied to large systems.
Let us take an example problem the same case what we did, let say this is m 1 m 2 m 3;
m 1 m 2 and m three are m let us say it is 2500 kg. This is k 1, this is 1.5 k 1, this is 2; k
1 and k 1 is simply k which is 1500 kilo Newton per meter and let us say assume zeta 5
percent in all modes. So, using Caughey series let us evaluate. So, evaluate classical
damping using Caughey series, that is the question asked.
We all know that omega 1 for this problem is 11.8 radians per second, omega 2 is 29.27
and omega 3 is 44.778 and the corresponding mode shapes also were known to us phi 1
is 1.68 and 0.32 phi 2 is 1 minus 1 and minus 1, and phi 3 is1 minus 3.68 and plus 4.68
that is we already know.
743
So, we know that 2 zeta n is equal to a 0 by omega n plus a 1 omega n, plus a 2 omega n
cube this is actually the value what we have from this equation ok.
So, 2 zeta n is we are taking three series 0 1 and 2; so a 0 a 1and a 2. So, if it is 0, l is 0

this becomes one by omega n that is the term what we are getting here similarly if this is
one. So, zeta 1 a 1 this becomes omega 1 that is what I getting here. The second term and
similarly if this is 2; so 1 by 2 a 2 and this is going to be omega n cube that is what we
are getting here. So, 3 terms, ok.
So, very interesting to I am assuming damping ratio same in all the modes classical
damping which is expressed as in matrix form 1 by 11.8 that is my omega 1, 1 by 29.27
omega 2, 1 by 44.778 then omega 1 omega 2 and omega 3, then omega 1 cube, omega 2
cube and omega 3 cube of a 0, a 1, a 2 I can convert the above equation into a matrix
form as given below.
Now, I call this matrix as A find A inverse. So, that will give you the coefficient matrix a
0 a 1 and a 2 once you know a 0 a 1 and a 2, one can find C as given by Caughey series.
So, which actually equal to a 0 m plus a 1 k plus a 2 of k m inverse k this can be easily
solved and found.
Let us take a computer program of this.
744
So, this is the program which is showing you the Caughey damping. We have to enter the
degrees of freedom and enter the degrees of freedom give the mass matrix, give the
stiffness matrix, assume damping same in all modes classical damping then of course,
eigen values and eigen vectors are determined we already have the answers with us, get
the modal matrix then find out the damping constants and then find the c matrix the
program is actually continuing from here and to here. So, it is continuing here and then
print. So, mass matrix is input stiffness frequencies corresponding mode shape and the
damping matrix.
You will notice that the damping matrix obtained for all the three degrees including
mode 1 2 and 3 is marginally different from what you obtain from Rayleigh damping in
the last lecture.
745
So, friends let us quick at the summary of this lecture, in this lecture we have learned the
Caughey series of estimating classical damping matrix, we have also seen the limitations
or observations of using the Caughey series. We have done a numerical example we have
also given the computer coding to solve the problem and we compare the answers and
validated.
You have also seen a damping matrix obtained by Rayleigh and damping matrix obtained
by Caughey or more or less similar for zeta equals 5 percent in all 3 modes. I hope you
have followed this lecture. You will attempt to solve this problem completely using a
computer program, compare the answers for other application problems and let me know
if you have any difficulties.
746
Module - 02
Lecture – 18
Newmark's method
Friends, let us continue with a discussion on numerical methods in computer analysis of

offshore structures we are discussing lecture on module 2. In module 2, we have given
exposure to computer course on dynamic analysis. Now we understand how to estimate
the basic characteristics of dynamic system, which essentially are the natural frequencies
and the mode shapes.
747
We already know that this can be estimated by different methods.
We have computer codes to estimate them, we also have hand calculations to verify them
further for here lumped mass system or with discretization principle. We know how to
obtain the mass matrix and from the equation of motion how to get the stiffness matrix.
Once I know the mass and stiffness matrices I can always estimate the damping matrix
by classical damping by Rayleigh damping and by Caughey damping.
748
So, now for a given system I already have the variables of equation of motion as written
here, this is my classical equation of motion for a multi degree freedom system model.
So, we know the mass matrix, we know the k matrix for a given zeta value we know the
damping matrix and from the different equations and coding available, I can always
estimate the aerodynamic the wind loads, the wave loads, the current etcetera at any
desired point at any special variation in a given system, may be take a for example, a
cylinder.
Now, interestingly how to solve this problem. Let us take a very classical difficulty
which is arising in this problem. If you consider an offshore cylinder cylindrical member
which falls in the Morison Regime, we already know that force at any instant time is a
function of the structural displacement and velocity and acceleration.
So, interestingly the equation of motion at c in equation number 1 are coupled, because
the right hand side of this equation has a variable, which actually an unknown value in
this equation. In fact, when you solve this equation you are trying to get the displacement
then the velocity and then the acceleration. So, that is an unknown actually, if this is not
known you will not be able to find the force vector.
So, now there is a strong coupling existing between the right hand side of this equation
and left hand side of this equation, how to solve this.
749
There are various methods available in the literature we will take one classical example
of a numerical method and solve a simple problem by hand with this method now, let us
explain a computer code then try to show the validated results between the computer
code results and that of solved by hand.
A numerical method is popular to solve such equations of motion is Newmark’s method,

Newmark method was suggested by Newmark N.M 1959, a method of computation for
structural dynamics journal of engineering mechanics ASCE, 85 EM 3, 67-94.
Interestingly since the left hand side and right hand side are interdependent, solution to
the equation of motion becomes iterative, literature used direct integration method.
So, according to this method the equation is integrated using numerical method, which is
a step by step procedure.
So, the term direct means no transformation of equations into different forms is done
prior to the numerical integration that is why this method is called direct integration
method. To make this integration scheme conditionally stable, because all integration
schemes in particular are numerical schemes in general needs to be a certain for its
conditional stability.
This method says that the integration scheme suggested by Newmark is conditionally
stable, when the time step used is smaller than a critical value, that is the time step used
750
delta t should be lesser than or equal to delta t cr which is actually equal to delta t cr is
actually equal to tn by pi, where n is the order of element of the system.
And tn is a smallest period natural period on the system. So, the basic analogy in this
method is equation is actually not try or it is not solved at any instant of time t, but it is
aimed to satisfy the equation at discrete time points that is very very important. Discrete
time points within the interval of solution that is a first analogy. The second assumption
is that variations in the variables that in my case displacement velocity and acceleration
within each time interval is assumed.
751
So, what does it mean is mathematically, following equations are valid u dot of t plus
delta t is equal to u dot of t, plus 1 minus del of u double dot t plus del u double dot t plus
delta t of delta t call equation number 1; u t plus delta t is equal to ut plus u dot t plus
delta t plus half of half minus alpha u double dot t, plus alpha u double dot t plus delta t
multiplied by delta t square. So, these equations are valid with respect to this analogy.
So, based on this Newmark proposed an unconditional stable solution Newmark

proposed an unconditionally stable solution, this is called average acceleration method.
More reference can be seen at Klaus Jurgen bathe and Edward Wilson 1987, numerical
methods in finite element analysis, prentice hall India private limited, pp 528 it is another
reference which is parallelly available in the literature, which helps you to understand the
average acceleration method suggested by Newmark’s beta.
So, in the above equation if you see the variables del and delta t and alpha. So, alpha is
considered as 0.25 and del is considered as 0.5 and delta t is a time step for the solution.
So, these are nothing, but the discrete points the discrete time intervals at which the
equation is valid, that is what happening.
752
Module - 02
Lecture - 18
Newmark's method
753
Suggested by Newmark’s beta scheme as the following steps, the first step is related to
initial conditions. So, it says form the k matrix, m matrix and c matrix, which we already
know. The second step initialized U 0 and U dot 0 and compute u double dot 0, third
select time step delta t and then the parameters alpha and del for the scheme.
Fourth step compute integration constants; there are many integration constants which
are to be computed for the system, del value should be greater than or equal to 0.5 and
alpha should be greater than or equal to 0.25 of 0.5 plus del the whole square.
So, a 0 these are integration constants 1 by alpha delta t square, a 1 alpha delta t, a 2 1 by
alpha delta t, a 3 1 by 2 alpha minus 1, a 4 del by alpha minus 1, a 5 delta t by 2 del by
alpha minus 2, a 6 delta t 1 minus del and a 7del delta t.
So, these are integration constants, once I do this I go to the fifth step.
754
This is form effective stiffness matrix which I called as K hat which is given by original
K plus a 0 M plus a 1 c; then triangularize k hat that is k hat will be equal to L D L
transpose. For each time step now compute the effective load at new time step T plus
delta t that is F hat T plus delta t will be equal to F T plus delta t plus m times of a 0 u T
plus a 2 u dot T plus a 3 u double dot 3 plus c times of a 1, u T plus a 4 u dot t, plus a 5 u
double dot t.
755
The next step is solve for displacement, at time T plus delta t that is a new time step. So,
L D L transposes U T plus delta t is F hat T plus delta t, because LDL transpose is
actually equal to k hat. So, stiffness into displacement will give you the force on the
other hand I can always say k hat u plus delta t is actually equal to F T plus delta t.
So, I want U T plus delta t that is a displacement at the new time step is given by k hat
inverse Ft plus delta t in the third step compute acceleration and velocity at new time
step, T plus delta t which can be given by u double dot T plus delta t will equal to a 0 u T
plus delta t minus u T minus a 2 U dot T minus a 3 u double dot T and the velocity at the
new time step will be equal to u dot T plus a 6 u double dot T plus a 7 u double dot T
plus delta t. So, that is a scheme available to us, let us try to take an example problem
and see how are you going to solve this.
The example problem what I going to take is the 2 degree freedom system simple
problem, where the mass matrix is 2 0 0 1 and the stiffness matrix is 6 minus 2 minus 2
and 4 and the force vector is given by 0 and ten. So, let us say u 0 u dot 0 is 0. So, you
know m u double dot plus k u is f of T where I am taking un damped system.
So, one can say 2 0 0 1 of u 1 and u 2 plus 6 minus 2 minus 2 4 of u 1 u 2 is 0 and 10. So,
by this logic I can always find u 1 double dot and u 2 double dot by taking inverse of this
matrix and multiplication and I will get this value as 0 and 10. Please check this value
756
please check this answer by a simple mathematics as we can simply multiply these 2
because this value is actually 0 is it not this value 0.
So, I will take an inverse of this matrix and try to multiply with this vector get this value
check this answer. Once I get this I want to perform important step the important step is.
You know mass matrix is actually 2 0 0 1 and k matrix is 6 minus 2 minus 2 1 4, one can
easily use the existing computer programs which I gave you to find out the frequencies.
So, let us do that I will get omega 1 square as 2 and the corresponding 5 1 as 1 by root 3
and 1 by root 3.
Similarly, omega 2 square is 5 and the corresponding 5 2 I will get this as 0.5 root 2 by 3
and minus root 2 by 3. Therefore, I can get T 1 has 2 pi by omega 1 which is 2 pi by root
2 which is 4.443 seconds and T 2 is 2 pi by root 5 which is 2.81 seconds. So, delta t
should be actually equal to the ratio between these 2 values, which I take it as maybe
delta t will be considered as one tenth of the lowest period I take it as 0.28 seconds in
this example.
We should also check that this delta t should be less than or equal to delta t c r which
should be T minimum by pi that is 2.81 by pi which becomes 0.9. Since, delta t is less
than delta tcr the solution will be stable. So, we have ensured this once I do this then let
757
me calculate let us calculate the integration constants for alpha equals 0.25 for del equals
0.5 and delta t equals 0.28.
So, a 0 is 1 by alpha delta t square which is 1 by 0.25 0.28 square which gives me 51.02
a 1 is del by alpha delta t which is 0.5 by 0.25 of 0.28 which gives me 7.14, a 2 is 1 by
alpha delta t which is 1 by 0.25 and 0.28 which is 14.286 and a 3 is 1 by 2 alpha minus 1
2.25 minus 1, which is 1 and a 4 is minus 1 which is 0.5 by 0.25 minus 1 which is 1
again a 5 delta t by 2 del by alpha minus 2 which is 0.28 by 2 0.5 by 0.25 minus 2 which
become 0.
A 6 is delta t 1 minus del which is 0.28 1 minus 0.5 which is 0.14 and a 7 is del delta t
which is 0.5 into 0.28 which is 0.14. So, I have got all the integration constants required
form a numerical scheme.
758
So, the next step could be compute K hat which is K plus a 0 m plus a 1 c. So, this is 0 in
my case. So, I should say is going to be 6 minus 2 minus 2 4 plus a 0 is 51.02, 2 0 0 1
which gives me k hat has.
108.04 minus 2 minus 2 55.02, I can use the standard subroutine to compute the inverse.
So, I get k hat inverse as you can check this value 1 0 0 9 3, 0.0 0 0 3 4, 0.0 0 0 3 4 and
0.0 1 8 2 I request you to please check this value before you proceed it is a standard
solution you can obtain this.
759
So, for each time step we need to evaluate the following let us see what are they we need
to calculate F hat t plus delta t which is the original F plus m times of 2 0 0 1 of 51.02 u
T plus 14.286 u dot T plus 1.0 u double dot t, then we need to find K hat u t plus delta t is
equal to F hat t plus delta t then one need to find out u double dot t plus delta t as 51.02 u
t plus delta t minus u t minus 14.286 of u dot t minus 1.0 u double dot t.
Then 1 need to also find out u dot t plus delta t as u dot t plus 0.14 u double dot t plus
0.14 u double dot t plus delta t we need t o know this let us quickly see how we can write
the computer program for this and solve the problem using computer code.
So, the same example is being considered now you know this my mass matrix this my
mass matrix this my stiffness matrix, I want to consider the system with the mass value
the damping value and the stiffness value and that is my initial force vector, I am using
alpha and del and delta t as you see from here.
760
So, now let us enter the degree of freedom which is 2, the mass matrix is entered and the
stiffness matrix is entered and the damping matrix of course, computer in entered in this
example and the force vector is entered.
Then let us verify this by printing the mass matrix, the stiffness matrix and the damping
matrix. So, we need to give the inputs as degrees of freedom mass matrix stiffness
damping and force what we did here. So, please check the units of mass and stiffness
matrices and damping values before you enter be very careful about the units.
761
Once I do this, then I do initial calculation the following inputs are required I need to
give initial displacement initial velocity initial displacement velocity are set to be 0 and I
have to compute the initial acceleration which I will compute later, then I need to give
the alpha and beta values which are entered here the del value is referred as beta in the
literature that is why this method is call Newmarks beta method ok.
You also decide the step size that the delta t should be lesser than the delta t critical, then
you estimate what is the total time you require for calculate in the response in this case
we have taken as 20, then compute the initial acceleration vector which is required to
solve the problem. So, this is computed from the original equation of motion.
Once I do this I now estimate the integration constants a 0, a 1, a 2 and so on once I do

this then I compute the effective stiffness matrix which is k hat using the equation then I
find the final displacement velocity in acceleration and keep on iterating it.
762
So, calculate the displacement responses, then plot the values and try to understand how
they vary.
763
If I try to plot them the mass matrix the stiffness matrix and damping matrix are given as
a sample output, this is the output at every 0.28 you get the plot value the marker and the
total time taken is 10 seconds.
If I try to do this for hundred seconds, you will see that initially for 10 seconds .the
values are changing, then it becomes constant then after a specific time it becomes
completely unchangeable it is a steady stable output is available from the scheme.
764
So, let us see the computer coding of this. So, this is my computer coding which we just
now explained. So, we have entered the degrees of freedom the mass matrix the stiffness
matrix and also the damping matrix we have entered the initial force vector we have
computed and we have printed the mass matrix the stiffness and damping for
verification.
We gave the initial displacement in velocity as 0 we computed the initial acceleration we

also fixed the alpha and beta value for the scheme, we also taken the time step we want
to do it for total 20 seconds. We calculated integration constants then we computed the k
effective k hat matrix, and then found out for a scheme of iteration the velocity
displacement and acceleration as you see in the scheme.
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If you look at the answers we have plotted at every delta t value the steps at every 0.28
when we extend this for 100 seconds you will see there is a steady stable solution
available in the scheme.
So, friends in this lecture we understood how to solve an equation of motion using
numerical scheme. What are the basic assumptions and analogy followed in this scheme,
how to select or choose the time step for numerical integration, how to compute the
critical time step. So, that the time step chosen is lesser than a critical. So, to get a stable
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unconditional solution we solved an example problem of 2 by 2 matrix and we found out
that after along iteration the solution becomes still.
So, the computer coding is available to solve this problem to solve this problem. So, one
can try to repeat the solution by some other example and see how this can be
comfortably followed by you.
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Module - 02
Lecture - 19
Articulated Towers (Part - 01)
Friends, in the last lecture we discussed about an equation of motion for dynamic
analysis for example, let us say an equation of motion of this order. Where, the right
hand side of equation of motion has got a dependent variable which is to be solved after
knowing the left hand side.
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So, there is a very strong interdependency between right hand side and left hand side of
this equation of motion. So, we have used numerical integration scheme to solve this
problem. Now friends we already have programs to compute omega and phi to find the
damping matrix c. To find orthogonal vectors phi normal to compute environmental
loads that arise from waves, wind, ice, earth quakes etcetera.
We already have programs of this in pieces. Now we will apply this to couple of example
problems and see how I can derive input matrix mass, input matrix k and then find c and
then compute omega and phi and then compute phi n and for a given f of t find the
response that is our idea now using computer program.
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So, we will take an application problem in offshore engineering and try to solve this by
different methods. So, the example problem what I am going to solve now is one of the
compliant offshore structures articulated tower. We know that articulated tower is an
compliant platform where the deck of the platform is supported by a tower and the tower
is connected to the base; the sea bed using articulation which is nothing but a hinged
joint.
We all know that tower is compliant because under the action of waves the tower can
have an action of an inverted pendulum or can have an action of an inverted pendulum
this way and so on. Now, for a given sea surface elevation, you know the degree of
freedom what the tower has independent rotational degree of freedom.
So, this tower can be idealized as a single degree freedom system model, dynamic
system with rotation at the base as independent degree of freedom. To solve the problem
in the equation of motion we need to know the mass matrix, the c matrix the k matrix and
f of t which I am going to do for this specific problem.
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So, let us draw initial portion of the tower, which is hinged at the bottom which is
subjected to wave direction of this order, which is subjected to wind loading, which
varies non-linear this is the wind load, the wave loading, which again there is non-linear.
So, this is the deck of the tower and this is the tower.
Now, the tower under the given action of lateral loads will be displaced. So, degree of
freedom what you are measuring with respect to the central line which is theta, since I
am going to measure the forces or the loads at different intervals because you know wave
load will vary along the depth wind load vary along the height. So, if you look at the
wind load it has got variations along x along y along t and along z.
If we look at the variations of wave load it will vary along x, along y, along t, along d
that is this variation. So, now, to attain the forces at any point of my choice either on the
super structure or on the sub structure, I need to divide this in a different number of
elements. I pick up any one such element look at the cg of the element I call this as k-th
element ok.
Now, this element has a weight which is wk and this element is located at distance sk
from the base. So, now, let I 0 be the mass moment of inertia of the tower about the base
at theta equal 0, that is un displaced position. Let k be the rotational stiffness for small
rotations.
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Being in analysis course, we should understand what is rotational stiffness. Rotational
stiffness is defined as the moment required to cause unit rotation when the tower is un
displaced. Once I know mass moment of inertia and rotational stiffness I can find the
natural frequency of the system, which going to be square root of k by m which in my
case going to be square root of k by I naught structural damping ratio.
Let I 0 beta t be the time varying added mass moment of inertia and k into gamma t be
the time varying rotational stiffness. So, it is very important to know that when the tower
is getting displaced I 0 into beta t and k gamma t will be depending on the displaced
volume of the tower at any instant of time. So, they should be computed.
So, I 0 beta t and k gamma t should be computed. Now the degree of freedom rotational
displacement is theta therefore, theta dot and theta double dot are angular velocity and
acceleration respectively. So, f of t actually is the moment of the dynamic forces about
the base of the tower, say it is the moment it is not the force.
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So, now equation of motion will be given by I 0 1 plus beta t of theta double dot plus 2
zeta I naught omega n theta dot plus k of 1 plus mu of t of theta as f of t, is a classical
form of equation of motion where this is the master this is the restoring term and this
becomes my classical damping term this my forcing function.
Rearranging this equation we get as follows. I 0 theta double dot plus 2 zeta I naught
omega n theta dot plus k theta is f of t minus k mu of t theta minus, I 0 beta t theta double
dot. Friends look at the form of equation 2 since the structure is compliant in nature
which undergoes or I should say permitted to undergo large displacements.
The right hand side force value is reduced you see there is a negative term; the negative
term reduces the force. This is one of the main advantage of compliant system which I
should say they are actually geometric form based design. So, here displacements are
important not the strength. So, one need to work out the displacement controlled design
behavior which we spoke about this in the formation offshore structures as form based
designs, ok.
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Having said this if you look at the equation 2, the unknowns in this equation are I 0 k
gamma t and beta of t. If we know this then equation of motion is fully known please
understand it is not solved equation is only known. So, actually it is related to problem
formulation not the solution comes later first let us formulate the problem.
Having said this let us refer to this figure. So, I call this as figure 1, let us refer to figure
1 and work out the over turning moment, due to surfeit of the tower. Let us compute the
moment about the base. So, I should say m overturning is equal to look at this figure. So,
I am talking about wk and this distance is going to be Sk sin theta.
So, the overturning moment is going to be wk into Sk sin theta which will be in this
form. So, I should say Wk into Sk sin theta this is only for the k-th element I want to do
this for the entire tower. So, I should sum up this from k equals 1 to capital N, I can re
write this equation as sin theta summation k equals N Sk wk equation 3.
Where Sk is distance of k-th element measured from the base along the axis of the
member, Wk is weight of the k-th element in air and where N is the total number of
segments.
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Module - 02
Lecture - 19
Articulated Towers (Part - 2)
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Now, the restoring moment which comes due to the buoyancy force is given by M
restoring is again S k sin theta into V k into rho w g; sum this up for k equals 1 to n
where n is the number of submerged elements and V k is the volume of k eth element,
rho w density of sea water and g is acceleration due to gravity, which is 9.81 meter per
second square. So, I call this as equation number 4. In fact, I rewrite equation number 4
straight in a different form as restoring moment is rho w g sin theta summation k equals
1 to n, S k V k, I call this as equation 4.
Now I have the (Refer Time: 02:09) turning moment which is M overturning, I have the
restoring moment which is M R, now I can always find the resistive moment which is
otherwise called as recentering moment. If you recollect it is important to note that
compliant structures are generally designed to have a very high recentering capability
therefore, let us try to find out the recentering moment which is given as R t, which will
be actually equal to the restoring moment minus overturning moment.
The restoring moment minus overturning moment if I call this as R t from a original
equation of motion, please look at the original equation of motion from the original
equation of motion this is my restoring force.
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So, this should be equal to be restoring force in fact, restoring moment because I am
taking moment above the hinge in all the cases. So, I should say this should be actually
equal to k of 1 plus r of t into theta. So, now, I substituting, this is going to be equation 5
now substituting from equation 3 and equation 4 in equation 5, we get sin theta rho w g
summation k equals 1 to n of Sk V k minus sin theta summation k equals 1 to N S k w k
is actually equal to k 1 plus r t of theta. So, I call now this as equation 5 after substitution
let us say 5 a.
Now, for small rotations that is theta being very very small, sin theta can be said as theta.
Then when the tower is in undisplaced position, k will be equal to because now in the
above equation theta will get cancelled let us write down that equation for more clarity.
So, I should say rho w g summation k equals 1 to n Sk V k minus summation there is
theta here summation k equals 1, S k w k theta equal to k of 1 plus t theta. So, for small
values of theta I write the equation, now theta gets cancelled and in undisplaced position
you will see that this value will also be set to 0. So, now, k will be actually equal to rho
w g summation of k equals 1 to n 0 Sk V k minus summation k equals 1 to N S k w k.
Now you may introduce a new term which is n 0 let say where n 0 is total number of
segments when the tower is undisplaced ok.
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So, at any instant of time gamma t can be computed as R t by k theta minus 1 equation 7.
So, gentlemen please look at equation 6 which is this equation.
Its gives me, k equation 7 gives me R of t. Please note that r of t depends on both theta
and n at any instant of time, hence it is displacement dependent. Let us talk about mass
moment of inertia of the tower about the base. So, which is equal to I t which can be
summation of k equals 1 to N, w k by g, S k square because mass moment to inertia
about the base. So, second moment of area; plus rho w summation k equals 1 to n 0, C m
minus 1 that is variable submergence S k square into V k. So, that g is divided here, so
rho w g. So, it is g here, now if you look at the equation of motion that value should be
actually equal to the inertia component this is inertia component. So, now, this actually
should be equal to the inertia component which is I 0 1 plus B t, I call this as equation
number 8.
Now, for undisplaced position of the tower, mass moment of inertia is given by I 0 equals
summation k equals 1 to N S k square w k by g plus rho w summation k equals 1 n 0, C
m minus 1 S k square V k this equation number 9. So, let us equate equation number 8
and 9 ok.
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So, equating equations 8 and 9, we get I t by I naught minus 1 will be B t. So, friends
look at this equation we wanted I 0 B t k and gamma t, to qualify the complete equation
of motion. So, we got let us say k from equation 6, then I t equation 8, beta t equation 9
and gamma t from earlier equation in equation 7. So, now, we have obtained all variables
I, beta t, k gamma t which are necessary to form the equation of motion.
We have got this. So, let us talk about F of t moment of the forces about the base that is
about the hinge. So, F of t will have 2 parts, the first part will be exposed portion above
water will be subjected to wind load, submerged portion which is underwater will be
subjected to wave load at any instant of time.
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Having said this, the hydrodynamic force per unit length at 2 nodes; let us consider 2
nodes node i and i plus 1 of element j. So, f i of t will be half rho w C d D j u dot n i
minus theta dot h i absolute, u dot n i minus theta dot h i plus pi d j square by 4 C m rho
w u double dot n i let us call this equation number 11. Let us find out the force for i plus
oneth node of the j eth element. So, half rho w C d D g u dot n i plus 1 minus theta dot h
i plus 1 absolute, u dot n i plus 1 minus theta dot h i plus 1, plus pi D j square by 4 C m
rho w u double dot n i plus 1, I call equation number 12 where h I is the height of the i
eth node above the base, D j is the dia of the j eth element, u dot n plus 1 u double dot n
plus 1 or velocity and acceleration of the water particle at node i.
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Thus moment of the j eth element caused by wave load is computed. Total force will be
of time by summing up all the forces acting on all elements about the base. Now since F
of t, beta of t and gamma of t are dependent on displacement, theta the solution to this
equation of motion is iterative. We have already discussed the numerical method for
solving iterative solution; we can use either new marks beta method which is one of the
direct integration procedure to solve the problem. The computer method for solving this
problem the computer code is already available to you.
You can alternately solve this problem using iterative frequency domain method, which
is relatively new concept in solving equation of motion of this type ok.
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So, friends in this lecture we learned one application problem on articulated tower, we
already have a computer program which calculates omega and phi for the known value
of mass and k. So, for mass and k to be input one can find out omega and phi. So, this
example explained you how to find out mass, which is as same as I naught and k for this
problem. Once you know mass and k, one can compute c using the computer code. The
problem also helped you how to estimate the wave forces which is F of t for a given
tower using finite element.
So, in the solutions iterative, we already know how to apply new marks method to solve
this problem. So, one can easily write a computer code algorithm to solve this problem
and try to find the vector theta, with the help of computer codes given in part and parcel.
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Module - 02
Lecture - 20
Tension Leg platforms
Friends, welcome to the 20th lecture in module 2. Where, we are going to discuss about
details of analysis of tension leg platforms briefly known as TLPs. Tension leg platforms
are form dominated offshore structures meant for deep water oil exploration.
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If you look at the problem formulation for analyzing a TLP, essentially TLP consists of a
deck which will have all tops I details as drilling derrick, living quarters, flare boom
etcetera which will be supported by the column members and pontoon members.
These are column members, this is the pontoon member which rests on the sea bed and
anchored by tethers. So, these are called tethers. The basis design concept of a tension
leg platform is the buoyancy force exceeds the weights, we know buoyancy is
proportional to the submerged volume. So, if this is my water level which is my mean
sea level the buoyancy force will act on the upward direction and weight of the platform
will act in the downward direction. If buoyancy exceeds the weight it will make the
system the float, ok.
When the system floats it is easy to install, to commission, but since the buoyancy is
larger than the weight to hold the platform in position, tethers are provided these tethers
will be of high initial pre tension. So, these tethers will have high initial pre tension, we
call this value now the basic equation of equilibrium will be w is acting downward which
is lower than F B. So, w and F B need to be balanced I should say w plus T 0 should be F
B.
So, the difference between the weight and the buoyancy is will be by T 0. So, now, to
analyze the system, we need to know the degrees of freedom of the system we need also
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know the mass these degrees of freedom we also need to know the stiffness matrix of the
system to do the primary or preliminary dynamic analysis.
Let us talk about degrees of freedom we already spoke about that just to reiterate what is
important let us mark the 3 axis.
Let us say these are the three axis x y and z let us say we have displacement along x as
surge displacement along y axis as sway displacement along z axis has heave use your
right hand now keep your thumb facing the x axis in the positive sense remaining four
fingers will show you the direction of rotation for example, if I keep my thumb along the
positive axis of x this now becomes my roll direction.
This becomes the pitch direction and this becomes my yaw direction. So, there are 6
degrees of freedom the platform has three translations and three rotations, this is along x
y and z this is about x y and z. So, since there are 6 degrees of freedom, I need to
establish the proportionate mass values along these 6 degrees of freedom. So, my mass
matrix is expected to v size of 6 by 6. Similarly, I should derive the stiffness coefficients
and then the stiffness matrix which will also be a size of 6 by 6. Once I have the mass
matrix and stiffness matrix for a given system of TLP, you can always find damping
matrix using the classical damping method or I can use Rayleigh’s approach which is
mass and stiffness proportional.
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You can also use Caughey method to get my C matrix provided I know the damping
value. In terms of percentage usually it is 2 to 5 percent of that of the critical. So, friends
for a given problem how do you actually determine or derive the mass matrix and
stiffness matrix from first principle, which should be based on some computer method.
So, that I can write a simple analytical coding to create this mass and stiffness matrices
and then do the analysis for this particular structure.
So, let us talk about derivation of stiffness matrix from the first principles. In the first
module we have learnt how to derive stiffness matrix for various kinds of boundary
conditions and the problems, we will now apply that algorithm back again to a TLP, let
us say I have a tension leg platform of a specific dimension which has got a column
member and a pontoon member whose C g centre of gravity are the mass centre is lying
same by here this is my centre of gravity. So, as I know this will be subjected to or
commission to the sea bed using tethers, which has initial pre tension net value is T 0 ok.
Now, the length of the tether is marked as l the distance of the Cg from the keel is
marked as h bar this is my mean sea level the depth of immersion is marked as D r when
I apply a force or a lateral load in terms of wave load to the system the system will not
respond because it is complaint in nature it will start moving towards its right.
Let us say hypnotically it is moved to this much the restoration will again happen
whereas the cables or by the tendons the tension in the cable will be T 0 plus delta T 1
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there is an increase in tension, because of the displacement we believe and assume that
the tension in this cable is also of the same amount which is T 0 plus delta T 1. So, what
we have done is we have given a displacement of x one to the system ok.
Now, the tethers undergo an angle of rotation which is gamma x now what is k i j? K i j
is a force in the i-th degree of freedom for unit displacement in j-th degree of freedom
keeping all other degrees of freedom constrained, that is how we can derive the stiffness
coefficient k i j is actually is the force, we want to find the force in all degrees of
freedom by giving unit displacement in the j-th degree of freedom. So, I have given unit
displacement in the first degree of freedom because surge you see look at this equation
surge is the first degree, sway is the second degree, heave is the third degree, roll is the
fourth degree, pitch is the fifth degree and yaw is the sixth degree.
So, I have given unit displacement along x I should say this displacement should be
unity. I want to find the forces what will be the forces generated in different components
of degrees of freedom. So obviously, you will have a force which is the stiffness
coefficient in the first degree because of displacement given in the first degree you will
also get the stiffness coefficient in the third degree, because of unit displacement given in
the first degree because you know there will be a set down effect this is called set down
in TLP dynamics and of course, this is called off set.
And further it will also give me rise to moment k 5. In addition weight will be acting
downwards buoyancy will be acting upwards; we already know that weight which is
acting downward is much lower than buoyancy which acts upward. So, weight acting
downward will be compromised with T 0 which is also acting downward to equalize this
to the buoyancy force which acts upward which we already said we already said that.
So, that is has the thumb rule for our understanding we must know that usually T 0 is
about 12 to 15 percent of the draft, you know you design the draft value you know the
immersed volume from the immersed volume you know the load or you know the weight
take about 15 percent of that that is going to be a T 0 it means w and F B are separated or
let us say differenced by a value about 15 percent of that of the immersed volume, that is
an approximate thumb rule idea it may vary from different TLPs, but to know an idea we
should have a guess now having said this particular figure. We now are interested in
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estimating the values of. In fact, deriving the coefficients of k 11, k 5 1 and k 31. So,
looking at this figure I can now write the increase in tension.
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Module - 02
Lecture - 20
Tension Leg platforms
789
Delta T 1 as x 1 square plus l square the whole root minus l multiplied by AE by l, where
A is the cross sectional area of tethers e is modulus of elasticity of tether material if it is
T we already know the value of steel x 1 is the arbitrary displacement in surge degree of
freedom, l is the length of the tethers, tethers are considered to be inextensible.
So, delta T 1 is increase is tension due to arbitrary displacement x 1 to be very clear this
arbitrary displacement is considered as unity to derive the stiffness matrix. Now having
said this let us write down the equilibrium of forces in surge direction, I request you to
refer to this figure again.
There are forces acting in the surge direction k 11 and there is an component of this in
the x axis, if this is gamma x this value is also gamma x.
Obviously, I should say this will be T 0 plus delta T 1 of sin gamma, x because the
vertical component will be cos gamma x and this is sin gamma x; so k 1 1 and this. So,
our opposites in direction as you see from this figure. So, write the equilibrium of these
forces you know stiffness units actually are in newton per meter that is force per by
displacement.
So, if you want to find the force I should multiply the stiffness coefficient by the
displacement to get the force, I am writing the force equilibrium therefore, I should say k
1 1 into x 1 it should be equal to we can see here this force will compromise, which will
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be T 0 plus delta T 1 of sin gamma x, but friends please see TLP has got 4 legs or 4
columns each column will have a set of tethers.
So, each tether value is T 0 there will be 4 such legs, further from the figure sin gamma x
is actually equal to x 1 by root of x 1 square plus l square you can see from this geometry
sin gamma x will be x 1 by root of this value this value . So, now, substituting this let us
say call this equation 1 and equation 2 substituting 2 in 1, we get k 1 1 as 4 times of T 0
plus delta T 1 by root of x 1 square plus l square equation 3.
So, this is my coefficient which obtained from the surge displacement, naturally no force
in sway direction.
And therefore, k 2 1 will be 0, let us talk about equilibrium of forces in heave direction.
So, I am talking about equilibrium in the vertical axis now heave direction. So, you see k
3 1 will be 1 component k 3 1 will be 1 component in the heave direction and the vertical
component of this will be T 0 plus delta T 1 of cos gamma x.
So, now I want to write the equilibrium for this which will be k 3 1 into delta will be
equal to T 0 cos gamma x plus delta T 1 cos gamma x there are 4 such legs minus initial
tension of 4 because I am looking only for the difference right. Also from the geometry
cos gamma x is actually l by root of x 1 square plus l square. So, substituting back this is
equation number let us say 4.
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This equation number 5 this become 6. So, substituting equation 6 in equation 5 we get k
3 1 into delta will be 4 T 0 cos gamma x minus 1 plus 4 delta T 1 cos gamma x again
substituting for cos gamma x, we say 4 T 0 cos gamma x minus 1 plus 4 delta T 1 cos
gamma x by delta this becomes my k 3 1 which is going to be a 7.
Now, you know the value of cos gamma x and substitute them and write in terms of l by
x 1 square plus l square now what is this delta? This delta is nothing, but the set down.
So, delta is the set down effect. So, naturally when we apply a force along x axis the
rotation about x axis will be 0.
So, k 4 1 will be 0 because no moment will be developed about x axis as there is no force
along sway axis that is since k 2 1 is 0 k 4 1 will be 0 ok.
Let us say like this. So, if I call this as equation number 8 let us talk about k 5 1 the
rotation this is going to be this is anti-clockwise about C g let us take the moment about
the keel right . So, this distance is h bar. So, I should say k 5 1 should be actually equal to
minus of k 1 1 into h bar. So, this is equation number 9 the negative sin indicates that k 1
1 develops moment opposite to that of k 5 1 and k 6 1 will be 0.
No yaw motion because as there is no moment about z axis. So, that is equation number
10. So, now, if you look at friends we have k 1 1 we have k 2 1, we have k 3 1, we have
k 4 1 we have k 5 1, k 6 1. So, now, in the k matrix of 6 by 6 the first column k 1 one k 2
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1 k 3 1, k 4 1, k 5 1, k 6 1 are now ready please understand stiffness matrix is always
derived column wise.
So, the first column of the stiffness matrix is now derived from the first principles
similarly we can do for the sway direction.
So, look at this figure if you look at this figure we have given displacement x 1 along
surge. So, now, I should give displacement x 2 along sway where sway is along the y
axis. So, having said this by giving unit displacement x 2 along sway axis, one can derive
stiffness coefficients in the same manner as that of the first column.
But let us keep a very important I on the non-zero elements or let us say 0 elements if
you look at the first column we already said that k 2 1 is 0, k 4 1 is 0, and k 6 1 is 0, k 2 1
is 0, k 4 1 is 0 and k 6 1 is 0 it means no sway no roll and no yaw on the same basis I
should say no surge, no pitch and no yaw no surge that is k 1 2 will be 0 please
understand how I explained k 1 2 k 1 2 is the stiffness coefficient that is force in the first
degree of freedom, that is surge by giving unit displacement in second degree of freedom
that is sway keeping all other degrees of freedom constrained.
So, k 1 2 since there is no surge this will be 0. So, I should say k 1 2 0 since k 1 2 is 0 I
can expect that k 5 2 will also be 0 it means no pitch. So, k 5 2 will also be 0 and of
course, k 6 2 will be 0 because no yaw moment. Now I am interested in finding out k 2 2
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which is similar to that of k 1 1 see a k 1 1 T 0 delta T 1 by this similarly I can write k 2
2 as T 0 plus delta T 2 divided by square root of x 2 square plus l square 4 times you can
see here.
I have only replaced this and this the second suffixes 2 done this. Once I know k 2 2 I
can now find k 3 2 also. So, that is going to be 1 by delta of 4 T 0 cos gamma y minus 1
plus 4 delta T 2 of cos gamma y and k 4 2 will be minus k 2 2 of h bar now one can write
negative sign is due to moment due to the fact that k 2 2 generates moment opposite to k
4 2 ok.
Now, I have got the second column you know k 1 2, k 2 2, k 3 2, k 4 2, k 5 2 and 6 2 I

got the second column.
So, I can now say I have got the second column k 1 1, k 2 1, k 3 1, k 4 1, k 5 1 and k 6 1
I already have now I have k 1 2, 2 2, 3 2, 4 2, 5 2 and 6 2 out of which let us mark the
zeros this is 0 this was 0 and this was 0.
Similarly, this is 0, this was 0, and this is 0. So, first column is completed second column
is completed by giving unit displacement along surge you know displacement along
sway let us go for the third column. So, what should I do? I should give unit
displacement along heave that is good. So, let us do this we will continue with the
discussion in the next lecture.
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So, the summary friends we are attempting to derive the stiffness coefficients of a
tension leg platform from the first principles, which we learn from module 1 we are
deriving the stiffness coefficients of a TLP to get the stiffness matrix. We will also derive
the mass matrix. Once I have the mass and stiffness matrix I can find the damping matrix
I can find f of t. And then I can solve this problem which I will explain in the subsequent
lectures.
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Module – 02
Lecture – 21
Tension Leg platforms - 2
So, friends let us continue the discussion on derivation of stiffness and mass matrix from
the first principles for an example problem of an offshore structure. We have considered
tension leg platforms in the last lecture we discussed about how conceptually TLPs are
actually designed and developed.
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To recollect that let us see make this statement TLPs or platforms with excess buoyancy,
that is buoyancy exceeds the weight of the platform and this is compromised by initial
pretension in the tethers.
We wanted to develop or derive the stiffness matrix for TLP from the first principles,
what we learn from the earlier lectures and earlier module, we are developing the
stiffness coefficients shaking that we are trying to find out the force in i th degree by
giving unit displacement, in j th degree keeping all other degrees of freedom restrained.
So, we give unit displacement in surge, we give unit displacement in sway and we
developed coefficients along the first 2 columns of the stiffness matrix.
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Now, let us derive the stiffness matrix for the heave motion. So, the same figure we have
the platform given with an offset and set down which is happening in this figure, we
already said what is our k i j. So, we should give now unit displacement in the heave
direction and try to find forces in all effective degrees of freedom keeping other degrees
of freedom restrained.
So, let us say in heave direction k 13 will be 0 because no force is developed in surge
direction because of unit displacement in heave direction. Let us say this is again
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equation number 1 similarly k 23 is 0 for the same reason no force is developed in sway
direction because of unit displacement in heave direction call equation 2, now I want to
find what will be the force in the heave direction because of unit displacement given in
the have direction. So, k 33 delta if you look at the figure now when you give heave
displacement there is a set down happening and that will now cause the change in tether
tension. So, k 33 delta will be now AE by l of 4 tethers plus these column members will
undergo yeah variable submergence effect for example, let us plot this m s l here.
So, this is gamma 1 by which an extra submergence happens. So, I should say pi
diameter of the column a 4 into rho w into g into delta. So, that gives me the volume and
yes gives in the force now, and there are force actually x. So, we call this equation
number 3. Now k 43, k 53 and k 63 will be 0. So, now, I have the third column of the
stiffness matrix because the second subscript indicates unit displacement given, along the
third degree of freedom which is heave and I get forces in almost all degrees of freedom
as 1 2 3 4 5 and 6.
So, I have now the third column of the stiffness matrix derived.
Now, let us go to roll degree of freedom. So, that is the fourth degree of freedom this is
rotation about x axis. Let us say I have a TLP whose deck consists of 4 column members
connected by the pontoon members on the top, as well as the bottom. So, this is the plan
I am drawing. So, let us say the C g of this, this is my x axis this is my y axis in plan in
799
plan and is dimension I call this as plan breath and this as plan length and this is my
wave direction.
Now, I want to name these column members as 1 2 3 and 4, we all know that roll is
rotation about x axis. So, I what to rotate it about x axis let us view this figure this object
from this direction and draw it here. So, when I try to draw it here, original elevation will
be the corner members in the top deck and the bottom pontoon. This will be elevation
now this is elevation.
So, naturally this member will be 2 and this member will be 1 because I am viewing this
from this direction. Now the C g will be located somewhere here, this is my C g and this
is my water level which is says mean sea level. Now I want to roll this about x axis so;
obviously, the new position of the body will be like this let us roll it by this way.
So, this becomes my column 2 this becomes my column 1 column 1, initially I had some
tension in these legs which I call as T 0 plus delta T 4, 4 stands for the fourth degree of
freedom this is T 0 it as delta T 4. Now, there will be new tension in these legs these
values will be T 0 plus delta T 4 and T 0 plus delta T 4 dash.
So, the original buoyancies enter was exactly acting here, now the buoyancy will be
shifted because this column will be more submerged than column 2 therefore, there is
shift in buoyancy this is a new buoyancy force centre from that line of action let this
force or this distance b s 1 and let e be the eccentricity between these 2 that is between
the old and the new let this be e and let this distance this distance b s 2.
Now, looking at this figure one can guess the centered center dimension between one and
2 is pl s pl. Now we are given unit rotation of theta 4 which is roll the forces could be
which is acting as k 34 and the rotation which is k 44 let us try to derive this.
800
So, k 14 will be 0 because no force is developed in surge degree, due to unit rotation in
roll degree. Let us call equation number k 24 will also be 0 because no force is
developed in sway degree due to unit rotation in roll degree.
Due to unit rotation in roll degree that is theta 4 pretension in the tendons are otherwise
called as tethers changes. So, change in pre tension in each leg is given by if you look at
this figure, I am talking about change in pretension in each leg is given by delta T 4
which is actually equal to you can see here this dimension will be pl by 2 because this is
pl. So, I should say pl by 2 cos theta 4 because this angle is theta 4 right. So, cos theta 4
multiplied by AE by l, we assume that the change in pretension between the near leg and
the further leg.
That is delta T 4 and delta T 4 prime both are same is an assumption. Now look at this
figure this value which is the shift between the new and the old Cg I call this as e 4. So,
from this figure I can easily say if this is h bar then I can if this is my h bar and this gives
me theta 4 then I can say this distance is actually e 4. So, with this logic we can now say
that k 3 4 will be equal to that is equation number 7.
K 3 4 will be now equal to delta T 4 plus delta T 4 prime. So, twice of that total is 4
numbers divided by theta 4. So, from the figure we can easily say sin theta 4 is e 4 by h
bar and hence e 4 is h bar sin theta 4.
801
Having said this s one is actually equal to p l by 2 plus e 4 please see this figure; s 1 is
actually equal to this distance plus this. So, I can say it is pl by 2 plus e 4 and s 2 is p l by
2 minus e 4 on the other hand in simple terms s 1 plus s 2 will be actually p l that is what
s 1 plus s 2 will be actually equal to p l.
So, now, I want to compute the extra buoyancy force created by this which will be
because of the immersed legs where d c is the diameter of the column member rho w g
and delta delta is the set down and there are 4 such legs. Now I want write k 44 which
will be pi dc square by 4 into rho w into g into pl sin theta 44 times of this plus t 0 h bar
sin theta 44 times of this AE by l p l by 2 cos theta 44 times of this.
So, let us say this my equation 9. So, now, I have k 14, k 24, k 34, k 44, k 54 and k 64
will be 0 because no moments in pitch yaw developed due to unit rotation in roll degree
of freedom this is equation number 10. So, I have got the entire 4th column now on the
stiffness matrix.
802
Similarly, I can do it for pitch degree of freedom which is the fifth degree of freedom. I
can straight away write by looking at the same equation same figure to get pitch I should
view this from this direction for pitch motion. So, I should rotate this about y axis that is
pitch. So, now, I can say k 1 5 is 0, I think you know the reason k 25 is 0. I think you
know the reason k 35 is delta T 5 plus delta T 5 dash by theta phi twice of this and k 55 is
5 D c square by 4 rho w g p b sin theta 4 you know this dimension when you look at this
will be p b, p b sin theta 4 into 4 plus 4 T 0 h bar sin theta phi same as this, plus AE by l,
p b by 2 cos theta phi into 4 times same as this. So, I get k 55. Now k 45 and k 65 will be
0. Now, I think you will be now the reason for this, now I have the fifth column
generated of the stiffness matrix is now derived.
803
Module – 02
Lecture – 21
Tension Leg platforms - 2
804
Let us now do for yaw degree of freedom, which is the 6 th degree of freedom go back to
the plan again this was the original problem this is the plan, I redraw the plan again. So,
there are column corners what we have here the columns.
These columns are numbered in the same manner as we have here 1 2 3 4 same style.
Let us say 1 2 3 and 4. Let us say I have I am also going to mark the centroidal axis of
this, now I am going to give rotation about the z axis that is yaw. So, let me draw the new
position let me give the rotation, let me draw the new position. We call this angle as theta
805
6, let us this is going to be 1 2 3 and 4 I have rotated clockwise, let me call this
dimension from here as a and from here this dimension as b, in simple terms d of set with
a of set will give me my rotation.
These legs will undergo new tension which will be T 0 plus delta T 6, this leg will also
now undergo a new tension which will be T 0 plus delta T 6 and similarly all of them that
is how the rotation happens. So, now, the cable length will increase by a small amount
which I call as l 1 which will be l square plus theta 6 square of a square plus b square the
whole root with reference to this figure, I call this as equation number.
So, change in pretension in each leg is given by delta T 6, because rotation is about 6
degree which will be l 1 minus l of AE by l that is in each leg this is equation number
force in heave direction. Due to this rotation will be k 36 into theta 6 which will be l by l
1 minus 1 of T 0 of 4 legs plus l by l of delta T 6 of 4 times, which gives me k 36 as 4 T 0
by theta 6 of l by root of l square plus theta 6 square of a square plus b square minus 1
plus 4 delta T 6 by theta 6 of l pi square root of l square plus theta square a square plus b
square.
I call this is equation number 12 and 13.
806
K 66 will be now equal to T 0 plus delta T 6 of a square plus b square by l 1 of 4 times

which in simple terms 4 times of T 0 plus delta T 6 a square plus b square by root of l
square plus theta 6 square of a square plus b square. I calls this is equation number. So,
friends let us now assemble the stiffness matrix.
Let us say the stiffness matrix derived from first principles is like this, which is k 1 1 0, k
3 1 0, k 5 1 and 0 0 k 22, k 32, k 42 and 0.
807
All values of 0 except k 33 in heave similarly in roll we have k 34 and k 44 remaining all
are 0, in pitch we have k 35 and k 55 remaining all are 0, in yaw we have k 36 and k 66
remaining all are 0.
So, that is my 6 by 6 stiffness matrix for TLP one can very easily see some important
observations on this for our understand what are the observations we can see from the
stiffness matrix first and foremost you see heave coefficients of present in all it means
you give unit displacement in surge sway heave roll pitch and yaw.
You get forces in heave direction in all the case; it means heave is strongly coupled with
all degrees of freedom. You take a box which is floating give a heave displacement it will
influence surge influence sway everything. So, heave has got of strong coupling the
second observation what we have is stiffness matrix is square and non-symmetric. K 36
is present by k 63 is not present for example, k 35 is present k 53 is not present.
So, stiffness matrix is square, but non symmetric. So, it also says that presence of off
diagonal terms reflect coupling between degrees of freedom take for example, anyone
specific coefficient let us say k 66. So, the coefficients of stiffness matrix depends on
tether attention variation and change in tether attention variation you see here. So, I
should say that k matrix is response dependent, because T 0 changes only when there is a
displacement.
808
Number 1 change in T 0 k i j is response dependent, change in T 0 results in alternate
tension and compression which results in fatigue failure of tethers. So, friends
interestingly in this lecture we have learnt how to derive the stiffness matrix from first
principles.
So, one can give a very clear summary the stiffness matrix of TLP is not constant at all
times, coefficients change with time step which depends on T 0 and x i.
Let us see what would be the mass matrix, if this is my mass matrix which is again going
to be a square matrix I should say M 1 0 0 0 this is also going to be 0 and 0, similarly M
2 0 all zeros similarly all zeros with M thee then all zeros with M 4 or M 22, M 33, M 44
and all zeros with M 55, and all zeros with M 66. This is the ideal mass matrix, but some
added mass will be added to this.
809
Let us quickly see what is my M 11 M 22 and M 33, this will be equal to the mass of the
platform M 44 will be the mass of the platform into r x square, M 55 will be mass of the
platform into r y square and M 66 will be mass of the platform into r z square, where r x,
r y and r z are respective radius of gyration about x y and z axis respectively. Now what
would be the added mass term? The added mass matrix will be interestingly M a 1 1 0 0
0 M a 5 1 and z0.
Similarly, nothing added in the second column, but in the third column there will be M a
3 3, in the fourth column nothing added there will be M a 33 and M a 53 fourth column
then fifth column and 6 th column. So, what is going to be M a 11; M a 11 is going to be
pi d c square by 4 that is a diameter of the column into C M minus 1 n rho w of x dot
surge.
Then what is going to be M a 33 which is going to be pi D c square by 4 into rho w into

C M minus 1 of x double dot heave then what is M a 51 and M a 53. M a 51 is added
mass moment of inertia due to force in surge degree similarly M a 53 as you correctly
guessed is added mass moment of inertia due to force in heave degree.
So, this is the added mass moment of inertia in pitch degree due to force in such degree
similarly the added mass moment of inertia in pitch degree due to force in heave degree
that is why it is M a 53.
810
Now, we have k matrix derived I want to use the computer program to find c matrix and
then f of T and then solve the problem by Newmark’s iteration scheme which we already
gave you in the last lecture. It is a typical TLP very interesting data will have weight in
kilo Newton’s as 2 0 9 500 buoyancy force in kilo newton has 3334 triple 0 T 0 in kilo
newton it will be 124 500 for a length of 471 meters for a water depth of 500 meters.
The h bar is generally seen as about 26 meters for this platform, the size of the platform
is 92.5 meter by 92.5 meters. Diameter of the column and diameter of the pontoon
members are about 14.2 meters, r x and r y are 29.15 meter and r z is 32.10 meter and the
axial stiffness in cables is about 5 8 0 6 0 kilo newton per meter. There is a typical
example TLP, based on which I want you to find out the mass matrix the k matrix run the
software or run the coding which I gave you in the previous lectures, you will find that
the period of surge and sway will be about 83.33 seconds and period of heave will be
about 1.92 seconds and period of pitch and roll will be about 1.9 seconds and period of
yaw it will be about 75.2 seconds.
So, please verify these results using the program of I can solve which we gave you in the
last lecture. So, this lecture summarizes how to estimate the stiffness matrix, the mass
matrix and of course, the damping matrix for a typical TLP as you see on the screen now.
811
Module - 02
Lecture - 22
New Generation Offshore Structures (Part – 1)
So, friends welcome to the twenty second lecture in module 2. In this lecture we are
going to discuss about derivation of stiffness matrix and mass matrix using fundamental
principles which are computer methods essentially for new generation platforms.
812
Let us recollect an important task of understanding a new generation platform. The
important task of understanding new generation platforms essentially is form dominant
by design and they resist lateral loads by undergoing large displacements, but not
undergoing large stresses in members.
So, one such example which has commenced in the recent past is offshore triceratops.
The word try indicates very clearly there are 3 supporting legs of the platform. Let us
quickly understand how a triceratop action looks like.
813
As usual triceratop will be having a deck of some thickness, it be supported by 3 buoyant
legs which will further anchored to the sea bed using tethers. These are buoyant legs of
course; this is the deck which supports all top side activities.
Now, the interesting component is the deck will be supported by the buoyant leg through
ball joints. Typically it is got a triangular deck which has 3 legs support at the bottom and
then you look at the view, the view typically looks like this which we have just now
drawn. Having said this what is the specialty about this particular structural action
compared to a tension leg platform. Ball joints have a specific property; one they do not
transfer rotational degrees of freedom or rotational responses from buoyant leg to the
deck. 2 they allow transfer of translational responses from buoyant legs to the deck. On
the other hand roll, pitch and yaw of the buoyant leg will not be transferred to the deck
surge sway and heave of the buoyant leg will be transferred to the leg partially I should
say.
So, ball joints essentially isolate the deck partially from the supports. So, to protect these
ball joints from corrosion as expected, the water level or the mean sea level is much
below the ball joints. So, the buoyant legs has got a draft value which is about 60 percent
of their depth, which we call as deep draft systems. So, this resembles as spar further the
legs are connected to the sea bed using tethers, which has got high initial pretension. So,
1 can now say the characteristic of high initial pretension resembles a tension leg
platform, the characteristic of deep draft systems resembles a spar buoy.
So, triceratops has a combined advantage of both TLP and spar. The partial isolation
enables them to use for ultra deep waters. So, these structural systems are essentially
meant for ultra deep waters. So, let us try to derive the stiffness and mass matrix of this
system from the first principles which can be essentially a computer method.
814
So, let us now mark the degrees of freedom of the system, we all know in general for a
point in space for 3 axis being x y and z there are 3 translations along x we call as surge,
along y we call as sway and along z we call this as heave and about x we call this as roll
and about sway axis we call this as pitch and about z axis we call this as yaw this is for
any point in space.
So, 3 translational that is surge sway and heave; 3 rotational that is roll pitch and yaw.
But triceratop has got an isolation of the deck from the buoyant leg which is isolated by
the ball joints therefore; their degrees of freedom are slightly tricky. So, being a
triangular geometry we know that the C g will be located closer to the left side. So, let us
say this is my C g line. So, in the C g line let us mark the water level as shown here this
is my mean sea level this initial tension this is my sea bed. So, these are my ball joints.
So, this is my deck this becomes my point where weight of the structure is concentrated
and this becomes my point where by buoyancy is acting. So, since centre of buoyancy is
located lower than centre of gravity, the system is stable. So, now, from the depth of the
leg to the C g, let us mark this value as h bar let one be the length of the legs let this
distance that is from the bottom of the leg till the centre of the ball joint be marked as h
C g minus d C g and let deck has a weight is acting here and that is w of the deck and
that distance from here is D c g. So, this is my ball joint now if I try to mark the degrees
of freedom at this point, I have 1 2 and 3 translational 4 5 and 6 as rotational.
815
So, I have 6 degrees of freedom for the buoyant legs now the rotations are not transferred
to the deck therefore, I will have additionally 3 more degrees of freedom which will be 7
8 and 9 for the deck now 1 may ask me a question how the deck will undergo rotational
responses when there is no transfer of the rotation from the buoyant leg to the deck that
is true under the wave action there is no transfer of rotation from the legs to the deck, but
under the wind action there can be rotation caused which will not get transferred to the
buoyant legs.
It means there are now 9 independent degrees of freedom which are marked. So, 6 is for
the buoyant legs, marked at the C g of the buoyant legs and 3 for the deck which are
marked at the C g of the deck. So, the stiffness matrix should now become 9 by 9 mass
matrix should now become 9 by 9 and obviously, the damping matrix will also be 9 by 9.
So, let us quickly get the overview of this stiffness matrix.
816
So, we will have k 1 1 and k 3 1, k 5 1, k 8 1 and 0 similarly k 2 2, k 3 2, k 4 2 ,k 7 2 and
0 then the third column will have k 3 3 and all other elements are coefficients in this
column will be 0 then the fourth column will be k 2 4, k 3 4 and k 4 4 remaining except k
7 4 are 0 then the fifth column k 1 5, k 3 5, k 5 5, k 8 5 0 then the sixth column k 3 6, k 6
6 then the seventh column k 2 7, k 3 7, k 4 7, k 7 7 0 eighth column k 1 8, k 3 8, k 5 8, k
8 8 0 and the last column is ninth column is this elements sets of full 9 by 9 matrix where
you can see that there are off diagonal elements present which imposes a non-linearity
plus look at this k 3 2 is present, but k 2 3 is absent k 3 4 is present, but k 4 3 is absent
and so on. So, the stiffness matrix is square 2 it is unsymmetric. The off diagonal terms
represent coupling effect further we can see that the heave is present through and
through.
So, this coefficient exactly means that force in the heave direction by giving unit
displacement in the surge direction that is the meaning of k 3 1, similarly meaning of k 3
2 3 3 and so on can be established which shows that force in heave degree is present for
unit displacement in all degrees of freedom. So, by this logic we can also say that heave
is strongly coupled with other degrees of freedom. One important issue here the stiffness
offered by the ball joint is not considered, now one may ask me a question how ball joint
will offer us stiffness.
You have a ball joint connected to a member and let the ball joint be free to rotate, it will
have some moment rotation characteristics. When you apply an axial force of a very high
magnitude you will see that the ball joint will rotate under some constraint. So, the
resistance offered by the ball joint under the presence of axial force which is nothing, but
the deck weight and the rotation offered by the ball joint to that of the buoyant leg will be
actually disturbed and it not be similar to an ideal characteristic of a ball joint.
817
Module - 02
Lecture – 22
New Generation Offshore Structures (Part – 02)
So, that kind of stiffness which is offered or resistance in fact, offered by the ball joints is
not considered in the derivation.
818
having said this let us now derive the stiffness coefficients; change in tension in tethers
due to unit displacements is given by I say delta Ti and i is equal to 1,2 to 9 can be equal
to axial stiffness change in length xi square minus l square the whole root minus l, where
unit displacement is given in ith degree of freedom.
Now, let say the deck is supported by the ball joints which in turn connects to the
buoyant leg, which in turn is connected or anchored to the sea bed and this becomes my
mean sea level undergoes a surge displacement which is indicated here, there is going to
be a change in tension which is T 0 plus delta Ti.
So, now k 11 will be T0 plus delta Ti or T1 by the new length xi square plus l square
root, there will be 3 such legs where triceratops has 3 legs equation number 2. K 2 1 will
be 0 due to unit displacement offered only in surge degree of freedom. Since k 2 1 is 0 k
4 1 will also be 0 since k 2 1 is 0.
K 3 1 will be given by T0 plus delta T1 of cos theta 1. So, this is angle theta 1, cos theta
1 minus 3 T0 and 3 divided by root of x 1 square plus l square minus l of cos theta 1.
819
Let say equation 3; k 5 1 will be k 1 1 into h bar a negative sign, negative sign indicates
the restoring moment is offered in opposite direction to that of surge displacement. So,
that the re centering moment, k 6 1 will be 0 because yaw motion is not activated.
Now, interestingly k 7 1 and k 9 1 that is roll in the deck due to surge in buoyant leg or
yaw in the deck due to surge in the buoyant leg will be 0. K 8 1 will be present which can
be computed as k 81 into theta 8 1 will be equal to k 1 1 of H cg minus h bar into x 1
minus k 3 1 of root of x 1 square plus l square minus l of x 1, this equation is 4 . So, now,
we have the first column derived of the stiffness matrix.
820
Similarly, we can also do for the sway degree of freedom, k 1 2 will be 0 because unit
displacement is given in sway degree of freedom, k 2 2 similar to 1 1 will be T0 plus
delta t 2 divided by root of x 2 square plus l square into 3 times say this is equation 5. K
3 2 will be T0 plus delta t 2, of cos theta 2 3 times minus 3 T0 by root of x 2 square plus l
square minus l of cos theta 2.
K 4 2 will be minus k 2 2 into h bar, k 5 2 will be 0 because 1 2 is 0. Friends please note

surge invokes roll sway invokes roll. So, this is when surge is absent pitch is also absent
similarly, when sway is absent roll is also absent. So, k 5 2 is 0, k 6 2 is 0 since no yaw
motion, k 7 2 into theta 7 2 will be given by k 2 2 H cg minus h bar of x 2, minus k 3 2
root of z 2 square plus l square minus l of x 2 equation number this is 7 this is 8.
Now, interestingly theta 7 2 simply is tan inverse of root of x 2 square plus l square
minus l by x 2, by that logic theta 8 1 can also be said as tan inverse of x 1 square plus l
square root minus l by x 1, 4 a k 8 2 and k 9 2 will be 0 because there is no transfer of
rotation from the leg to the deck.
821
Let us talk about stiffness coefficients in heave degree of freedom. K 1 3 will be 0

because unit displacement is offered in heave degree by that logic k 2 3 will also be 0, k
3 3 will be actually equal to the axial stiffness of all the legs plus rho wg of Awp, which
is now equation 10. K 4 3, k 5 3, k 6 3, k 7 3, k 8 3 and k 9 3 will be all 0 because no
transfer of rotation due to ball joints.
Let us talk about coefficients in roll degree of freedom k 1 4 will be 0, because unit
rotation is offered in roll degree. K 2 4 will be T0 plus delta t 4 divided by square root of
822
SwD square plus l square of 3 times we call this equation number 11, where SwD is Hcg
minus h bar of sin theta 4 equation 12; interestingly please note sway in the deck is
possible due to roll in the buoyant leg.
Please understand ball joints only restrict transfer of rotations, but sway is a
displacement. So, sway is transferred to the deck and buoyant leg vice versa. So, delta T
4 which is change in tension because of roll degree of freedom is given by AE by l, Pl by
2 cos theta 4 of theta 4 which also same as T 4 theta. So, let us call this as equation
number 13.
Where in a triceratops with a triangular deck these being 3 legs this being the wave
direction this dimension is pb and this dimension is pl and this is my x axis. So, I am
talking about rotation about this axis. So, Pl will be involved here and we also know that
cg lies at pl by 2 and this distance is pb by 3.
So, now trying equilibrium of forces in heave direction for unit displacement or rotation
in role degree, we get k 3 4 as T0 plus delta t 4 of cos theta 4, minus 3 T0 by Zb where
equation number 14 can be assigned to this, where Zb where equation number 14 can be
assigned to this where Zb is h bar minus e 4 by tan theta 4, equation number 14 a.
Now, k 4 4 theta 4 can be said as buoyancy of e 4 plus T0 plus delta T 4 of s 1 minus e 4

plus T0 plus delta T 4 of s 2 plus e 4 minus w deck into SwD, e 4 is h bar sin theta, 4 s 1
823
is pl by 2 plus e 4 and s 2 is pl by 2 minus e 4, SwD is anyway we said it is H cg minus h
bar of sin theta 4.
Let us also insert 1 more expression Zt, which is Hcg minus h bar minus SwD by tan
theta 4 call all these equations as 15.
K 5 4 will be 0, because unit rotation in role is not affecting of buoyant leg; k 6 4 is 0 due
to non-sway sorry due to no yaw motion.
K 7 4 into theta 7 4 will be k 2 4 into SwD, Hcg minus h bar minus k 3 4 of pb by 3 of

Zb call this equation number 16 this is only due to. So, friends k 5 4 will be 0 this is
because of the reason that unit rotation given in roll degree of freedom does not affect
pitch of the buoyant leg, unit rotation given in roll degree of freedom does not affect
pitch degree of freedom of the buoyant leg.
Similarly, k 6 4 0 because there is no yaw motion in the buoyant leg, now 1 can estimate
k 7 4 which can be given by equation 16, which is k 7 4 is given by the equation as you
see here. It arises from 2 components one is because of k 2 4 and other is because of k 3
4. Please note that these components are only due to transfer of translational responses;
you know 2 and 3 are the translational responses 4 of course, is the rotation given to
estimate the stiffness coefficient because of unit rotation in the roll degree in the buoyant
leg.
824
So, by simplifying equation 16 we can get k 7 4, provided theta 7 4 is given by this
expression shown in equation 17. K 8 4 and k 9 4 will be 0 because there is no transfer of
rotation to the deck from the buoyant leg; friends, please note that 8 and 9 are degrees of
freedom of the deck now the buoyant legs are 6 degrees of freedom 1 to 6 and 7 8 9 are
degrees of freedom of the deck.
So, 8 and 9 has no responses on the deck due to rotation given in the buoyant leg,
because the ball joints do not transfer this. So, k 7 4, k 8 4 and k 9 4 which arise because
of rotation from the buoyant leg is kept as 0, then 1 may ask me a question how do we
get k 7 4 when there is no transfer of rotation. Please note k 2 4 and k 3 4 are
translational responses of the buoyant leg due to invert rotation given in the buoyant leg
and translational responses are transferred therefore, k 7 4 is active.
So, friends, we will derive the coefficient of pitch degree of freedom and further in the
next lecture let us look at the summary; we have learnt that the structural action of a new
generation platform by name triceratops is highly innovative triceratops has 9 degrees of
freedom, 6 degrees of the freedom for the buoyant leg 3 rotations and 3 translations
about the respective axes x y and z.
And of course, the deck has an additional 3 degrees of freedom which are all the
translations and no rotations are transferred to the deck. So, I should say no rotations are
transferred therefore; they are ideally rotations of the deck alone. So, I should write here
825
rotations of the deck alone which will be independent of the rotation of the buoyant leg,
we have learnt also that action of ball joints restrain transfer of rotations from the
buoyant legs to the deck and therefore, deck is partially isolated.
So, triceratops derives advantages of tethered construction from that of a TLP and a deep
draft construction of the buoyant legs from that of a spar. So, it is an hybrid new
innovative, new generation platform for which we are trying to derive the stiffness
coefficients to form the stiffness matrix from the first principles which can be aided by
computer methods.
Thank you.
826
Module – 02
Lecture – 23
Triceratops – 2 (Part –1)
Friends, let us continue to derive the stiffness coefficients of triceratops. We discussed

the last lecture the stiffness coefficients till role degree of freedom of the buoyant leg.
827
Now we will start discussing the stiffness coefficients from the pitch degree of freedom
of the buoyant leg. So, just for recollection you know, triceratops has 9 degrees of
freedom there are 6 degrees of freedom of the buoyant leg as you see here.
And 3 degrees of freedom for the deck numbered sequentially as 1 to 6 for the buoyant
legs and 7 8 9 are independent rotations of the deck which are not connected and
transferred from that of the buoyant leg, that happens because of the presence of ball
joint.
828
So, the dimensional variations are given in the figure as shown in the screen now, the
degrees of freedom are anyway marked. So, we are getting 3 degrees of freedom for the
deck and 6 independent degrees of freedom for the buoyant leg which makes it 9, and we
now understand that my stiffness and mass matrices will be of size 9 by 9.
Let us continue to discuss the derivation of stiffness coefficients from the first principles
from the pitch degree of freedom. Let us say this is my deck I have ball joint, which is
now connected to the buoyant legs, which are anchored to the sea bed using high initial
tension tethers similar to the tougher tension like platform, being a triangular geometry
Cg will be shifted towards the left side, let us draw this line as my Cg line.
So, let us mark the degrees of freedom, this is my water line this is my centre of
buoyancy and centre of gravity, let us say this my Cg point, where my degrees of
freedom are marked as K 15 and K 3 5 and K 55; centre of buoyancy is located slightly
in offset because of a simple reason you are giving pitch is a rotational degree therefore,
there may be a possibility of a small shift in the centre of buoyancy. So, the shift between
this 2 is eccentricity, which you call as e 5 and change in tension because of the shift will
be indicated as T 0 plus delta T 5.
So, from this distance this place or this leg p b by 3 and two-third where of course, this
distance is p b in the plant dimension the deck will have an independent rotation
component which will be K 85. So, now, referring to this figure, let unit rotation be
829
applied in pitch degree of freedom of the buoyant leg. Say K 1 5 is given by T 0 plus
delta T 5 there are 3 such legs divided by sum of root of squares of SuD square plus l
square where I will call this equation as let us say start with the new number here 1,
where SuD is H cg minus h bar of sin theta 5. K 2 5 will be 0 because no sway response
in the buoyant leg, due to unit pitch rotation of the buoyant leg. Delta T 5 is given by 2
by 3 p b cos theta 5 of theta 5 of AE by l because we are looking for an axial stiffness
minus 2 AE by you can see here there are 2 legs, which are closer to one-third. So, I
should say 2 AE by l p b by 3 cos theta 5 of theta 5.
So, equation 3 will give me the change in tether tension caused because of unit rotation
in the pitch degree of freedom.
So, K 3 5 z b will be given by 2 0 plus delta T 5 of cos theta 5, 2 such legs plus T 0 plus
delta T 5 of one additional leg separately, because in this figure 2 legs are oriented on the
same line where as one leg is separate. So, I am writing it separately here minus 3 T 0
that is the initial tension the cable, that is equation number 4 K 5 5 theta 5 will be now
equal to F b into e 5 plus T 0 plus delta T 5 of twice of S 1 minus e 5 minus T 0 plus
delta T 5, separate leg which is S 2 plus e 5 minus w deck of SuD. Where e 5 is actually
h bar sin theta 5 and S 1 is actually p b by 3 plus e 5, and S 2 is p b minus S 1 equation
number 6 K 4 5 will be 0.
830
That is rotation in roll degree of freedom due to unit pitch rotation is 0, because any way
roll and pitch are not directly coupled of the buoyant leg these are all for the buoyant leg.
K 6 5 is 0 because no yaw motion in the buoyant leg due to unit pitch rotation in the
buoyant leg. K 7 5 is also 0 because no motion about sway axis of the deck because we
are talking about degree of freedom 7, due to unit pitch rotation of the buoyant leg. K 8 5
will be having some value because this will have influence on rotation about surge axis
due to unit pitch rotation of the buoyant leg.
One may ask me a question how rotation from the buoyant leg is transferred to the deck,
it is not transferred actually; when look at this figure when the deck is rotated because of
submergence happening between the legs there is no transfer of this rotation from the leg
to the deck, but deck alone will have some influence of variable tension which will make
the deck to rotate. Please understand variable tension imposes heave difference. So,
variable tension imposes differential heave and this is transferred from the leg to the deck
and that causes K 8 5.
831
So, K 8 5 into theta 5 will be essentially arising from K theta 5 Z b SuD plus K 15 SuD
H cg minus h bar calls the equation number 7. So, from this equation you can say z top
will be actually H minus h bar of SuD by tan theta 5 and z bottom is h bar minus e 5 by
tan theta 5 which is equation 9 and theta 8 5 is actually tan inverse of z top by p b by 3
which is one of the planned dimensions of the platform, further K 9 5 is 0 that is no yaw
motion in the deck due to unit pitch in the legs ok.
So, by this logic I have worked out K 15, K 25, K 35, K 45, K 55, K 65, 75, 85 and 95.
So, I have got all the 9 coefficients 6 for the legs and 3 for the deck for unit rotation in
the pitch degree of freedom. So, we derive now the fifth column of the stiffness matrix.
832
So, let us now do for do the same for unit rotation in yaw degree of freedom of the
buoyant leg that is theta 6 is given to be unit that is I want to do this. Let us draw the
figure this is my initial configuration of the platform which having a triangular deck
There are 3 legs 1 2 and 3, I name them as 1 2 and 3 let us now draw the new position by
rotating it. Let us say a rotate by some angle at the Cg. We know this is p l and this is p b
equation will be now available for deriving the stiffness matrix coefficients, let us say
this is my new position of the first leg let us call this leg as 3 and this leg as 2. So, the
new legs 1 3 and 2. So, now, they will have new tension which is T 0 plus delta T 6, T 0
plus delta T 6 and T 0 plus delta T 6. Now K 1 6 let us say now what are the degrees of
freedom we are going to mark we are imposing theta 6 unit rotation.
So, we will get K 66 and further things. So, let us say K 1 6 is 0, that is no surge force
due to unit yaw rotation of the buoyant leg K 2 6 is also 0. So, we should say no sway
force in the buoyant leg due to unit yaw rotation of the leg. So, by giving unit rotation
that is let us impose unit theta 6 to the legs, now from the geometry we can say that a
square and b square can be new variables, which can be p l by 2 the whole square plus p
b by 3 the whole square and l 6 the new length of the tether because of this twist will be
root of sum of squares of l square plus 2 a theta 6 the whole square I call equation
number 11.
833
So, change in initial pre tension in each leg is given by delta T 6 which is l 6 minus l of
AE by l equation number 12, let us now summarize the force in heave degree of
freedom. So, K 36 of l 6 minus l will be actually equal to or will be balanced by T 0 plus
delta T 6 minus T 0 of the top 3 legs equation 13. K 46 will be 0 that is no roll due to unit
yaw rotation of the leg, K 56 will also be 0 that is no pitch due to unit yaw rotation of the
leg.
834
Module – 02
Lecture – 23
Triceratops – 2 (Part – 2)
835
Let us try to find out what will be the value of K 66. Now K 6 is rotational degree of
freedom. So, into theta 6 will be equal to T 0 plus delta T 6 of 2 a square by l 6, there are
3 such legs equation number 14. K 76 will be actually 0 because no roll in deck due to
unit yaw in the leg. Similarly K 86 and K 96 will also be 0 due to no pitch and no yaw in
the deck, due to unit yaw rotation of the leg. The answer is very simple this is because of
a simple reason that ball joints do not transfer rotations from the legs to the deck. So, that
is deck is partially isolated. Now let us try to go to the unit rotations in deck.
Let us say we want to now give unit rotation in roll degree of freedom of the deck that is
theta 7. So, if I draw the figure say this is my deck position, supported by the ball joints
the buoyant legs which are tethered to the sea bed. If I have the deck plan which is
triangular which has got 2 legs on one side, and one on other side and if this is my c g if
this my x axis this is the roll which I am looking at to look at this I must rotate it about x
axis. So, let us view this from here this is a view direction if I call this as a leg 1 and leg
3 and leg 2; obviously, this will be leg 1 and this will be leg 3, and I will have to from
this direction you see if this is my P l this will be P l by 2 this will be P l by 2 correct this
is the centre.
So, let us mark the water line, c g will be somewhere let us say here. So, at the point on
the deck we are giving unit rotation and I will be able to get K 77 right. So, we will be
able to get 3 corresponding degrees, which we will mark as we derive them. Now let us
836
understand very clearly that K 17 will be 0, that is no surge in buoyant leg due to unit
rotation in deck please understand this because rotation is not transferred. Let us try to
find out K 27 will not be equal to 0. So, K 27 will be sway in the legs unit roll in deck.
Which will be equal to T 0 plus delta T 7 that is a new tension divided by P l by 2 tan
theta 7 that is equation number 15. K 3 7 will be T 0 plus delta T 7 by P l by 2 tan theta 7.
K 2 7 is T 0 plus delta T 7 by square root of S w B square plus l square, where S w B is

actually P l by 2 1 minus cos theta 7.
837
So, e 7 eccentricity will be given by h bar sin theta 7 or let us call this as theta 4 7. So,
theta 4 7 is actually tan inverse of P l by 2 tan theta 7 by S w B. It is very important to
note that S w B given by the equation 17 depends on K 4 7 ok.
So, K 47 into theta 7 is actually K 27 into S w B into h bar equation number 19. K 57
will be 0 that is no pitch in leg due to unit roll in deck, K 67 will also be 0 because no
yaw in legs due to unit roll in deck. K 77 can be computed by this equation which is
equilibrium in the roll degree of freedom delta T 7 of P l by 2 minus T 0 plus delta T 7 of
P l by 2 where we can say letter T 7 dash that is the tension in the father leg P l by 2 plus
buoyancy into eccentricity this should be equal to 0 that is the equilibrium equation.
From this one can estimate K 77 as P l delta T 7 plus F b e 7 by theta 7. K 87 will be 0

that is no pitch in deck due to unit roll in deck, K 97 will also be 0 that is no yaw in deck
due to unit roll in deck. So, we have worked out the seventh column of the stiffness
matrix.
838
Let us give unit displacement or unit pitch rotation to the deck, that is let us give theta 8
as unity. So, the figure is similar to what we have here. So, we want to give unit rotation
now. So, let us do that. So, we will be getting portion of the deck, which is connected by
the legs these are the buoyant legs, which are connected to the sea bed by tethers let us
mark the water line ok.
Let us draw the plan on the top. So, this is my x axis, I am now giving unit pitch that is
theta 8 is unity. So, I must look at the system from this view. So, if this is like 1, this is
like 3 and this is leg 2 this will be leg 1 and 3 this will be leg 2 and the c g will be here
somewhere here. So, this distance is P b by 3 because this is P b and this is two- third P b
let us now mark the degrees of freedom corresponding to the deck and to this these are
the points where I am going to mark the degrees of freedom. So, this will be K 1 8 and of
course, this is K 88 sorry this is K 58 and this is K 38 and we are giving unit rotation
theta 8 therefore, this will be K 88 on the deck. So, K 18 will be 3 2 0, plus 2 delta T 8
minus delta T 8, but let us keep this as 1 and this as 2 that is the delta T is in different
legs are going to be different because this legs are closer this legs are farther.
So, I had taken 2 different notations here to arrive at them divided by SuB square plus l
square the root. So, let this equation be equation number 21, where SuB is given by 2 P b
by 3, 1 minus cos theta 8. Now K 28 will be 0 that is no sway in the leg due to unit pitch
in the deck rotate will not transferred. K 38 will not be equal to 0. So, K 38 is given by 3
839
T 0 plus 2 delta T 8 1 minus delta T 8 2 because one will be slacking and one will be on
increase in tension divided by Z 1 equation 23.
Where Z 1 is P b by 3 tan theta 8 and Z 2 is two- third P b half tan theta 8, delta T 8 1 the
nearer leg will have A E by l of Z 1 and delta T 8 2 the farther leg will have A E by l of Z
2. So, now, eccentricity will be e 8 h bar sin theta 5 8 and theta 5 8 is given by tan
inverse of SuB by Z 2.
840
So, let us say equation number 24. Now K 4 8 will be 0 that is no roll in the leg due to
unit pitch in the deck. K 5 8 will not be equal to 0 because there is a differential heave K
5 8 will be equal to K 3 8 SuB h bar by theta 5 8 equation number 25, where theta 8 8 is
given by Z 1 by SuB equation 26. Now K 6 8 and K 7 8 will be 0 because no transfer of
rotation from deck to the leg K 8 8 into theta 8 will be given by T 0 plus delta T 8 1 of 2
P b.
By 3 the closer legs minus T 0 plus delta T 8 2 of 2 P b by 3 plus f b into e 8 where e 8 is

given by this equation.
So, 27 K 98 will be 0 no yaw in the deck due to unit pitch of the deck. Lastly let us give
unit rotation in yaw degree of freedom to the deck, let us say this is my original position
leg 1, leg 3 and leg 2 we get a new position because let us mark the c g and give unit
rotation about this point, let us say unit rotation about this point, let us say its rotated like
this or let us slightly increase this line and let us mark it like this ok.
So, I get at the c g we have rotation theta 9 as unity, I get K 99 and I will also get K 5 9.
So, change in tension delta T 9 is given by GJ of the deck by t of the deck into l 9 minus l
equation number 28; where K one 9 will be 0 K 2 9 is also 0 because no surge and sway
in the legs due to unit yaw rotation of the deck, because ball joint is not trans to the
rotation K 39 will be T 0 change in length minus original length of 3 legs min plus 3
delta T 9 l by l 9 of delta T 9 l 9 minus l ok.
841
Equation number 29. K 49, K 59, K 69 all will be 0 because transfer of rotation from
deck to legs because you know 9 is rotational degree of the deck and 4 5 and 6 are
rotational degrees of the legs. K 79 and K 89 will also be 0 because no influence of yaw
on pitch and roll of the deck they are independent, and K 99 theta 9 will be GJ of the
deck by t of the deck.
So, by this logic we have derived the entire stiffness matrix 9 by 9 of the triceratops.
842
Let us look at the summary; friends, in the 2 lecture this lecture and the previous lecture
we understood the structural action of triceratop under unit displacements and rotations.
We derived the stiffness matrix of the triceratop we have stiffness matrix now which is 9
by 9 which we expected to derive from the beginning from first principles. So, the
computer method of deriving stiffness matrix by knowing the coefficients k ij will be
helpful to actually write a program to derive this matrices on first principles.
843
Module - 03
Lecture - 01
Random Process 1 (Part -1)
844
Welcome to the lectures on third module; in this module, we are going to discuss about
the stochastic process in lecture 1. In this module, we will talk about random process;
friends, let us try to ask a question; how random process is important in computer
methods of structural analysis of offshore structures, this question is fundamentally
answered with the basic requirement of understanding and saying that all loads
encountered by offshore structures are random in nature. There are varieties of loads
what we discussed in the last modules; let us quickly sight some examples of these kinds
of loads for our understanding: wave loads, we have seen different equations for
estimating the wave forces, we have also seen different spectra to estimate wave forces
in terms of power spectral density functions.
The second classical load; that is apply in offshore structures is wind loads, though wind
loads have 2 components which are the mean component and the gust component, we
have seen in the last lectures that equivalent wind load as a static process can be obtained
using what is called aerodynamic admittance function. Therefore, friends we now
understand that all environmental loads acting on offshore structures are random in
nature, then how do we actually classify these loads using some simple tools in
mathematics and statistics.
So, let us make a sentence and statement reinforcing the fact that offshore structures are
exposed to various environmental loads which can be modelled as a piecewise stationary
845
process. Now we need to understand; what is a stationary process? the stationary process
is a process for which the statistical properties like for example, mean value, standard
deviation are same for all points in both time and position; let us try to understand this
slightly in a better manner.
Let us say I have time history data which is plotted as shown in the screen now let us call
this as a time variant process and I call this value, let us say as x 1 of t. Now to start with,
I keep on plotting different processes which is also time variant which will have a
different signal; let us say x 3 of t is another process which has some signal and we all
understand that all these processes has their mean value. Now what I do; I take an
interval tau and draw a line, I draw another line with the same interval now these
intervals are equal I do not measure the points of these variables at these intervals.
So, let us explain this process very quickly draw lines across the random process at
intervals of tau. So, we did that in a 2 lines we drawn now find the mean square value if
this MSV is unique across the sample. Now we have a specific name for the sample in
stochastic process we call the sample as ensemble; ensemble is actually a qualified
sample for doing statistical analysis if the mean square value is unique across the sample
then the process is called stationary process extending this discussion to the next level.
846
We call the process as ergodic process which is actually a special stationary process.
Let us explain this speciality with an example, let us say; we will consider about 100
samples find the mean square value of all the sample along the time line if you find this,
mean square value is exactly equal to the unique mean square value of the ensemble
which you worked out in the last slide then the process is called ergodic process. So, by
this logic; we can say ergodic process is a process representing a single sample in the
ensemble which is arbitrarily chosen and has the same mean square value as that of the
unique mean square value of the ensemble.
So, ergodic process is a process which represents a single sample chosen arbitrarily
which has the same mean square value as that of the ensemble. So, what we are trying to
convert here is any load may be wind load, wave load which are random in nature, we
will try to explain and express the time history variation of this process, we take many
number of samples try to qualify these samples to be an ensemble for a statistical
evaluation for this ensemble at different time intervals of tau which are equal in nature,
we estimate the mean square value amongst this ensemble pick up any one sample which
is arbitrary which has the same mean square value as that of this MSV by this way we
are making this process independent of time and position. So, random processes can be
conveniently converted to an equivalent simple statistical process when they exhibit
stationarity and the ergodicity in the revaluation.
847
A stochastic process a stochastic process is ergodic if the statistical properties like mean
and standard deviation can be deduced can be derive from a single sufficiently long
sample of the process. So, that is very interesting ergodic property will simplify the
randomness or random nature in the input loading which is useful for the analysis, it
means ergodic refers to any sample chosen from the process I should say random process
which must represent the average statistical properties of that of the entire process.
848
Next question comes what is the advantage of having the process as ergodic; what is the
advantage of ergodic process?
Very interestingly regardless of the sample chosen by you regardless of the chosen by
you the sample represents the whole process and it does not represent only a section of
the process. So, by this logic, the entire random process what you have chosen take the
sample from the process qualify the sample and the sample now represents the whole
process and not only the section of the process.
The next question comes how do you define ergodicity mathematically we agreed said
saying that the process we will have a constant mean the constant mean of any process
can be given by.
This equation and the auto covariance is given by the following equation; equation 1,
equation 2 which should depend only on the interval tau and not on time t. So, it should
be time independent therefore, properties like mu x and auto covariance are not time
averages they are ensemble averages. So, that is the fundamental difference we have
between a classical random process and an ergodic process, which is the part of the
random process.
849
Module - 03
Lecture - 01
Random Process 1 (Part - 2)
850
Now further, the process can be stated as mean ergodic if the time average estimate also
converges to the mean value of the ensemble average. So, mu hat x is given by the time
average over x of t dt which converges to mu x at T tends to infinity. Similarly, the
process is said to be auto covariance ergodic if the time average converges to the
ensemble average that is auto covariance.
Hat is an time average 0 to t x of t plus tau minus mu x of x of t minus mu x dt which

converges to auto covariance of variable tau when T tends to infinity.
Let us quickly ask the question; can we have a classical example of an ergodic process
the classical example of a ergodic process is stationary Gaussian process which is
classically used as one of the important mathematical model to express various
environmental loads in offshore structure, let us take a question of how do you explain or
express or confirm ergodicity in case of discrete random process.
851
In case of a discrete random process, ergodicity can be verified as follows. Let us say the
x of n is ergodic which represents a discrete time random process if the mean converges
to the ensemble average that is if the mean converges to the ensemble average of
expected value of x at n tends to infinity then the process is ergodicity is confirmed.
So, friends let us quickly see what we have so far learnt we understood that the
environmental loads acting on offshore structures or generally random in nature
randomness comes in 2 ways one with time and one with position to handle this
852
mathematically easily we go with what is called searching for a stationary process;
stationary process is highly generic still we will have a few complications in expressing
the statistical parameters.
Therefore, we go for a specific stationary process called ergodic in nature which is a

special process which selects sample from the ensemble arbitrarily which expresses the
characteristics of the entire ensemble for the entire period not in the section of the chosen
ensemble. So, ergodicity is a easy tool for expressing or converting the randomness in a
given system to a mathematically convenient form to express the statistical variations in
the stationary process which is very important in terms of stochastic dynamics after
establishing a fact that we are able to choose a stationary process.
So, for a stationary process, the statistical properties remain independent of time that is
the mean value which is expected value on the variable is constant and the auto
covariance function c x of tau is expected value of x of t minus mx x of t plus tau minus
mx which will remain as function of tau only and not as a function of time. So, it is time
independent.
Now friends; what is the advantage of choosing a ergodic stationary process to express
the environmental loads in offshore structures for a stationary process.
853
The transfer function between the applied load and response of the structure can be
modelled as linear time invariant system
So, that is a very interesting advantage we have in expressing the connectivity between
the load and the response. So, after all for a given structural system if an environment
load is applied I would like to know; what is the response of the system the applied load
is highly varying which is random in nature. Therefore, it is not convenient and easy to
determine the response for a system because system also has many complexities I should
have a mechanism by which I can express the relationship between this by a simple mean
which can give me at least an approximate first level response of the given system for an
applied load.
So, if the process is converted or identify or scrutinized and verified to be a stationary

process they can explain then a transfer function which will be connecting the load and
the response as well as the function will remain linear and time invariant. So, that is a
great advantage you have in estimating the response of a given system encountered by
environmental loads which are random in nature.
854
Therefore, the relationship between the variance spectrum of the response which we call
as response spectrum and variance spectrum of the load which we call as load spectrum
is determined by the transfer function. So, our job now is to determine or derive this
transfer function which actually connects the response spectrum to the load spectrum.
Let F of t denotes a stochastic load process assume that F of t acts on a linear time
invariant system. Now the impulse response function of the system is represented by h F
x of t for each load component which is realization of F of t of a capital F of t there exist
855
a corresponding realization of response x of t of x of t. So, capital F of t and capital X of
t or the complete set of the load and responses small F of t and small x of t are realized
values of these complete set of load and response respectively.
Therefore x of t can be expressed as integral h f x s f of t minus s ds which can be

simplified as 0 to infinity h fx s f of t minus s ds because integral can be simplified
saying that h f of x is 0 for y s less than 0.
So, no value of this function between minus infinity to 0 therefore, I convert this integral
to an integral as given by equation 1. Now equation 1 connects realization of load
process to that of the response process you can see very well here this is a realization of
the load process a response process.
856
This connection can be further described as X of t is infinity 0 h fx s f of t minus s ds

equation 2 interprets that relation between all corresponding points or I should say pairs
of realization between F of t and x of t exist. So, that confirms the existence of the
relationship between each corresponding pair of the load and the response.
There is a very important observation we can make in this equation.
The impulse response function or the transfer function which you saw in equation 2
which connects the load and the corresponding pairs of response which determines
857
connection between the load and the response is completely defined by the properties of
the so called linear system. Please note this is independent of any given load.
Lastly, we can summarize this saying h F x t is the transfer function the index F x which
is indicated here is only an indicator to connect load and the response; for example, if y
of t is the response and g of t is a load process. Then the transfer function is expressed
with a notation h g y of t which is as identical as h fx of t. So, it is very important that Fx;
Fx or gy is an visual indicator which connects the load and the response the load and the
response.
So, friends in this lecture we learnt the importance of understanding the random process
converting them or identifying a single arbitrary sample which qualifies to remain
stationary and ergodic. We also gave you the mathematical definition of a stationary
process and an ergodic process. We subsequently expressed how the load being a random
process can be connected to the response of a system which is linear and time invariant
using what we call as a transfer function. And we also explain how in stochastic process,
the transfer function is nomenclated as explained in the last slide.
858
Module - 03
Lecture - 02
Random Process 2 (Part - 1)
Friends, we will continue to discuss with what we left in the last lecture, we are working
on lectures in module 3. Today’s lecture will be continuation of the previous lecture on
random process.
If you recollect what we said in the last lecture we said that the impulse response
function or sometimes called as transfer function determines connection between the
load and the response, we learned this. Second thing we learnt is it completely defines
the properties of the linear system, we also said that this is independent of any given load
we learnt it in the last lecture. We will continue this discussion now by extending this
further.
859
Let us say I am interested in knowing what is the mean value of the response. Let us
assume that f 1 of t, f 2 of t till f N of t is a sequence of realization of f of t and let x 1 of
t, x 2 of t till x N of t be the corresponding response realization of x of t.
Then following statement is more vital 1 by N of integral j, equals 1 to N x j of t is

actually given by 1 by N of summation of j equals 1 to N integral h F x s, f j t minus s ds
and call this equation number 3 to continue with the last set of lectures which can be now
rewritten as 0 to infinity the transfer function of 1 by N of summation of j equals 1 to N
of f j t minus s ds the equation 4.
860
Now, the above equations will lead to the following relationships, expected value of x of
t which is a set of realizations corresponding to F of t is now expressed as limit N tends
to infinity 1 by N of summation of j equals 1 to N x j of t which is now borrowed from
the above equation which can be written as 0 to infinity h F x s limit N tends to infinity 1
by N of summation of j equals 1 to N f j t minus s ds. I call this equation number 5.
Which can be further simplified as integral 0 to infinity the transfer function expected
value of f of t minus s ds. Is it because I am replacing the previous integral in equation 5
with an expected value of f of t minus s ds I call this as the equation 6.
861
Now, interestingly F of t is as stationary process which we discussed in the last lecture
about stationarity properties, let us assume that the given input loading is a stationary
process, then the mean value which is again expected value of f of t is constant I think
this statement we already emphasized with an example in the last lecture. Hence
expected value of x of t can be now said as mf of integral 0 to infinity the transfer
function. I call this as equation number 7.
From the above equation that is equation 7, one can notice that the right hand side of this
equation is independent of time that is very interesting characteristic you can see here the
right hand side of this equation is independent of time that is m x which is nothing, but
the expected value of e of x of t is, expected value of x of t is constant.
Having said this let us say my capital f x omega is the transfer function we already know
how the notation is understood in stochastic process. This transfer function corresponds
to the impulse response function h F x of t then h F x 0 can be expressed as the following
integral. I call this as equation number 8.
Now equation 7 can be rewritten as follows. The expected value of x of t is m F, H F x 0

which is again same as m x, that is m x is h F x 0 mf let us make a slightly clearer, m f,
equation number 9. As in this course we are discussing about the computer methods of
structural analysis applied to offshore structures we all know that the environmental
862
loads which act on offshore structures comprises of for example, waves, wind, current,
ice loads, earth quake loads etcetera usually are expressed in terms of spectral input.
As we saw in the earlier modules input loading can be expressed in terms of various
spectra for wind, wave etcetera. Let us take a small application example in dynamic
analysis and see how this transfer function can be easily connected to the dynamic
amplification of factor which you generally derive for dynamic analysis.
863
So, let us take an example application which is going to be a multi degree freedom
system model in dynamics. We all know equation of motion of the system is given by m
u double dot plus c u dot plus k u is p 0 cause omega t. Let us say we have a system
representing this. Let us assume particular integral of the above equation as u p of t, p
stands for the particular solution. Let it be b 1 cos omega t plus b 2 sin omega t.
We all know the dynamic analysis solutions has got 2 parts - one is the complimentary
function other is the particular integral, generally the complimentary function will be
dependent on the initial conditions and the free vibration frequency set of the system
whereas, particular integral generally gives me a steady state response which will be the
function of the forcing frequency omega. So, let us focus only on the particular integral
of the above equation let u p t be as written in the above equation. So, let us differentiate
this once with respect to time which is very easy minus omega b 1 sin omega t plus
omega b 2 cos omega t there is no difficulty and differentiating this. Let us differentiate
this once again with respect to time I get acceleration which will be minus omega square
b 1 cos omega t minus omega square b 2 sin omega t.
Interestingly I can rewrite this equation as minus omega square b 1 cos omega t plus b 2
sin omega t which is as same as, which is as same as my u p. Therefore, I can now write
u p double dot of t as minus omega square u p of t. Now let us substitute this substitute
this in the equation of motion. So, equation of motion is given here this is my equation of
motion let us substitute this in equation of motion and see what happens. So, m u double
dot plus u dot plus k u is P 0 cos omega t. So, I should say now this is equal to m of
minus omega square b 1 cos omega t minus omega square b 2 sin omega t.
864
We already saw this just now in the last slide, I am substituting them simply plus c of
omega b 2 cos omega t minus omega b 1 sin omega t plus k times of b 1 cos omega t plus
b 2 sin omega t which is actually equal to P 0 cos omega t.
All of us know from the first principles of mathematics if you want to really find the
solution I should compare the LHS and RHS of this equation in such a trigonometric
function we must compare the cosine terms and sin terms get in the equivalence. So,
what we are looking for? We are looking for the values of b 1 values of b 1 and b 2, once
I know this I can easily find the solution because the particular integral is nothing, but
the function of b 1 and b 2.
So, now I am interested in knowing how to estimate b 1 and b 2. So, let us compare the
cosine terms between the LHS and RHS let us pick up the cosine terms . So, minus m
omega square b 1 that is this term the first term plus c omega b 2 that is the next term
here plus k b 1 is P naught I think you can easily do this. Let us compare the sin terms
minus m omega square b 2 minus c omega b 1 plus k b 2 is 0.
865
Once I get this let us proceed the next step writing in a matrix form let us write it like
this k minus omega square m of b 1 plus omega c b 2 is p 0 minus omega c of b 1 plus k
minus omega square m of b 2 is 0 I get this equation now, in a matrix form k minus
omega square m omega c minus omega c k minus omega square m of b 1 and b 2 is P 0
and 0.
You can read this equation the first row with the first column will give you the first
equation, the second row with the second column will give you the second equation.
Now, my objective is to find the value of the vector b 1 and b 2. So, it is very simple I
will invert this matrix. So, b 1 b 2 vector is nothing but inversion of k minus omega
square m omega c minus omega c k minus omega square m inverse multiplied by P 0 and
0 let us do the inverse quickly.
866
So, 2 by 2 matrix, you can quickly do the inverse. So, b 1 b 2 is actually 1 by k minus
omega square m square plus omega square c square of k minus omega square m minus
omega c omega c k minus omega square that is going to do the inverse of this matrix
multiplied by P 0 0 will give me the b vector .
Let us retain this equation for our reference. Now we also know there are 2 set of
responses for a dynamically excited system what are they? You can recollect it easily,
one is the transient response the other is the steady state response. And we all agree in
general in dynamically excited systems one pays more attention towards steady state
response and one does not really bother about the transient response in larger cases
because steady state response being a function of forcing frequency will always exist in
the response content, but transient response depending upon the initial conditions may
decay with prolonging time. But however, it is not always true in offshore structures.
If you look at the special types of responses like springing and ringing responses in
offshore platforms there you will also come across the importance of transient response
which may be as demanding and vital as the top a steady state response. However, for a
more generic case let us assume that the steady state response is more vital for taking it
forward for discussions if we agree on that.
867
Module - 03
Lecture – 02
Random Process - 2
868
For a steady state response, we know the dynamic magnification factor which we called
as D is given by this expression 1 by root of 1 minus beta square; square plus 2 zeta beta
the whole square where beta is the ratio of forcing frequency to the natural frequency of
the system and zeta is the damping ratio. So, standard expression in structural dynamics.
So, let us say for a weakly dampened systems, it can be easily shown that the maximum
value of the dynamic amplification factor will be bounded by 1 2 zeta for the benefit of
the listeners if you really wanted to look at more details on structural dynamics.
I shall refer you to an NPTEL course on dynamics of ocean structures through IITM
Madras portal; please look at this course in detail, if you really wanted to know more
about the derivations what we did in the last slide.
Having understood that we know that the maximum amplification factor will be
governed by one way to zeta so, for zeta about 2 percent which is a very common case D
max is approximately about 25; what does it mean?
869
This means that even small oscillation forces may lead to large responses because it is
amplified. So, even for small oscillation forces, it may lead to larger responses because
there is an amplification happening in such situation it is always better to introduce a
complex function or a complex valued function which can account for the phase lag. So,
that function typically looks like H omega is mod value of H omega e minus i phi, I call
this equation as 11.
Hence the response function what you are interested in will be given by the transfer
function multiplied by P 0 cos omega t minus phi where u of t is the steady state response
and H omega gives the amplitude amplification where as phi gives you the phase shift
having said this.
870
Let us quickly see for example, if H omega for a given linear system is 0.001 at any
specific frequency omega, this is true because you know H omega is a function of
omega. So, for any specific frequency, let us say 2 omega 0.001, then your force
amplitude of let us say 100 Newton will give raise to displacement of hundred into 0.001
which will be point one meters at this specific frequency.
So, the transfer function is very useful to connect the response and the load given to an
system at a specific frequency hence for the particular integral u P of t which is rho cos
omega t minus phi be a generalized expression of steady state response.
871
The rho by x static can be simply said as rho by P 0 by k which is the D value therefore,
rho can be simply said as D of P 0 by k. So, now, u P of t is actually P 0 by k 1 by root of
one minus beta square square plus 2 zeta beta square of cos omega t minus phi, I call this
equation number 13. Let us rewrite equation number 12 which we already had here
equation number 12 which we already had here let us compare equation 12 is ut is H
omega P 0 cos omega t minus phi.
872
By comparing these 2 equations, we can observe that H omega can be simply 1 by k of
root of 1 minus beta square square plus 2 zeta beta square H omega is called the transfer
function or also called as frequency response function which connects load or the forcing
function and the response. So, that is a very interesting equation which we derived.
Let us further pay attention more to explaining this equation.
It is seen that H omega is proportional to the dynamic amplification factor t that is H

omega contains all relevant information about the dynamic amplification and phase shift
phase shift is of course, given by phi hence H omega as we said is 1 by k of root of 1
minus beta square square plus 2 zeta beta square e to the power of minus i phi.
There is a specific reason why we use e power minus i phi in this equation.
873
So, d by dt of e power i phi is i d by dt of again e phi that is e power i phi factor does not
change that is one important point. Secondly, e i phi 1 e i phi 2 can be e i phi 1 plus 2
which is as same as e i phi 3 that is product of 2 factors of type e i phi lead to product of
same kind. So, that is the advantage we have when you use e i phi in this equation.
Hence H omega is 1 by k root of one minus beta square square plus 2 zeta beta square of
e minus i phi represents the complete information about the dynamic amplification and
the phase shift which connects the load and the response of a given system having said
this.
874
Let us say H Fx 0 is 1 by k and mean x is mf by k hence mx is F x 0 of m F what does it
mean is the mean value of the response is equal to mean value of the load multiplied by
the system response to a static load of unit size. So, that is a great advantage of
interpreting the response and the load function. So, one can now say mx is H Fx 0 of m F
equation 14.
Let us quickly see what summary we learnt in this lecture. We started with explaining the
random process further we explained the transfer function or the impulse response
function which connects the load and the response.
We also applied this to an example problem of multi degree freedom system in dynamic
systems, then we derive the transfer function as simply the proportion of the dynamic
amplification factor and we said that the mean value of the response will be given by a
simple relation which is expressed here.
So, friends will continue this lecture to take it more advanced in terms of auto covariance
of response processes then from that we will try to derive what we generally use as
response spectrum in stochastic analysis.
875
Module - 03
Lecture - 03
Response Spectrum (Part – 1)
Let us continue with the discussion what we had in the last lecture. This lecture we will
discuss more about response spectrum in at a stochastic process.
We already said that the mean value of the force realization is 0. This implies also that
the mean value of the response process is also 0. Hence force realization set F of t, if it is
a stationary process, one can assume F dash as follows F dash of t can be F of t minus m
F in that case this will also have mean value as 0 X dash of t can be said as integral 0 to
infinity the transfer function F dash of t minus s ds following the same algorithm.
876
What we discuss in the last lectures, this will amount to the integral of the transfer
function minus integral of the transfer function ds because F dash is actually a process
containing this and this which now I can say as this, of course, will give me X of t and
this of course, will give me m X. So, now, I can say X dash of t is given by this equation,
I will continue the same numbering what we had in the last lecture.
For X dash of t to have a 0 mean value F of t and F dash of t should have same auto
covariance that is statistical requirement to establishes fact.
877
Having said this then xj of t and xj of t plus tau small interval can be expressed as 0 to
infinity h F x s 1 F j t minus s 1 ds 1 multiplied by the other integral which is h F x s 2 fj
t plus tau minus s 2 of ds 2 which now can be written as double integral h F x s 1; h F x s
2 F of j e minus s 1 F of j t plus tau minus s 2 of ds 1 ds 2, I call this equation number 16.
We also know that expected value of X of t and X of t plus tau can be expressed as limit
n tends to infinity 1 by n of summation of j equals one to n xj of t xj of t plus tau.
Hence, the double integral which we shown in the last slide which is h F x s 1; h F x s 2
can be expressed as limit n tends to infinity; 1 by n of summation of j equals 1 to n F j t
minus s 1 and F j t plus tau minus s 2 d s 1 d s 2 which can be further simplified as
double integral F x s 1 h f x s 2 expected value of F of t minus s 1 F of t plus tau minus s
2 ds 1 ds 2.
878
Which can be said as double integral h F x s 1 h F x s 2 auto covariance function of tau

plus s 1 minus s 2 ds on ds 2.
Now, since F of t is assume to be a stationary process expected value of X of t X of t plus

tau will be independent of time. Therefore, the auto covariance function C X of tau
which will be as same as the auto correlation function R x of tau since the process is also
a 0 mean process.
879
The auto covariance function are the auto correlation function can be given by the double
integral of the transfer function of C F of tau plus s 1 minus s 2 ds 1 ds 2, I call this
equation number 17.
Having said this, let us move towards the response spectrum let us say s of X omega be
the variance spectrum of the response process X of t and s F omega the variance
spectrum of load F of t.
Then the variance spectrum of X of t is define by the Fourier transform of the auto
correlation function which is given by S x omega is 1 by 2 pi minus to plus infinity not
correlation function minus E I tau omega d tau equation 18.
From the earlier equation; equation 17 givens an expression for C x of tau, let us
substitute this in equation 18.
880
So, in that case S x omega will become 0 to infinity h F x s 1 0 to infinity h F x s 2 1 by 2

pi minus to plus infinity, the correlation function of tau plus s 1 minus s 2 e minus i
omega tau d tau ds 2 ds 1.
So, in the above equation, let us substitute tau plus s 1 minus s 2 as theta, then d theta is
d tau hence S x omega will be given by 0 to infinity. The transfer function 0 to infinity,
the transfer function with respect to s 2 1 by 2 pi minus to plus infinity, the correlation
function in terms of theta e minus i omega theta d theta e i omega s 1 minus s 2 ds 2 ds 1.
So, this equation can be further simplified as 0 to infinity h F x s 1 ei omega s 1 ds 1 0 to
infinity h F x s 2 e minus i omega s 2 ds 2 and s of omega.
881
Which can be now written as h F x minus omega h F x plus omega sf omega which is S x
omega is given by this equation. This is true because e of minus ix star is as same as eix
and we all agree that the transfer function h F x t is a real function therefore, capital H F
x of minus omega will be 0 to infinity the transfer function e i omega t dt which can be
said as 0 to infinity h F x t e minus i omega t star dt which can also be said as 0 to
infinity h F x of t e i omega t dt of X star which can be said simply as H F x omega star
having said this.
882
Module - 03
Lecture - 03
Response Spectrum (Part - 2)
883
Sx omega can be HFX omega square of Sf omega; I call this as equation number 9. So,
equation 19 gives the relationship between the response spectrum Sx omega and the load
spectrum Sf omega. So, that is a very important relationship we arrived in this lecture
further there are some interesting features about equation 19. Equation 19 does not
contains information about phase shift phi between load and the response. You can see
the term is square therefore, the phase shift concept are the parameter is lost. So, it gives
information only about the amplification of amplitude that is very important let us try to
understand this graphically let us say I have F of t which can be a signal like this on a
time scale representing F of t.
Let us say this is my load I take an autocorrelation of this, the auto correlation function
typically comes like this say this is my C F of tau and ultimately this will give me the
plot of the transfer function in terms of omega and S F omega which can typically look
like this. If I apply this load to a system which a dynamic system which has got a mass
which is got a damping force, which is got also a restoring force and external excitation
is what we are applied here if this my dynamic system, whose response looks like this on
a time history. The system has a property which is transfer function, which can be this
way and this can be H FXtau, the system will also have the response whose
autocorrelation is given by this plot ultimately the system will have a response.
884
Which is get amplify for a given damping for various values of omega, which is the mod
value of H FXomega. This will now lead to the response of the system in spectral
ordinate which is Sx omega which we call as response spectrum. So, this becomes my
load spectrum and this becomes my response spectrum and this becomes my transfer
function which gives only the information about the amplitude and not about the phase
shift between the response applied my response obtained and the force applied on the
given system.
In addition mean value and variance are also important. So, mean value of the response
is given by mx is H FX0 of mf which we already derived and the variance is minus to
plus infinity H FX0 omega square Sf omega d omega I call this equation as equation
twenty therefore, from the response spectrum.
885
One can compute several statistical quantities which are important for assessing the
response.
For example standard deviation of the response can be readily obtained from the variance
that is from equation twenty for the response function be the response of a linear system
transfer function H FX omega applied or.
Let us say subjected to a stationary load process f of t sigma x square which we wrote
earlier as Fx omega square Sf omega d omega is now valid, the right hand side of this
886
equation is to be computed numerically. Now as an application problem to dynamical
systems if damping in the system is very small then for damping to be very small than
unity the transfer function is very narrow.
Which will be focused or which will be epicentered around the resonance frequency
omega r where omega r is omega as omega n. There is excitation frequency and the
natural frequency of the system matches; this implies a very important statement that
main contribution to the integral in equation 21, comes around the interval closer to
omega r that is very important statement.
Let us try to understand this graphically, let us say I tried to plot the ratio of forcing
frequency to a natural frequency, let us try to plot this closely in the range of beta equals
one which is resonating, let us try to plot in the y axis h omega the absolute values we
call amplitude amplification.
Say this is point 1 by k this is let is say 1 by k this is 10 by k this is 100 by k. Let us say
the curve starts from one gets risen and goes to the narrow band here and then falls down
steeply this is for zeta equals 0.01 typically. Then look for other zetas zeta 0.1,0.5 and
zeta equals 1.0.
887
So, friends in the above plot you can see that there is a narrow band focus at resonance
which is the main contribution of the integral and H omega is simply 1 by k the dynamic
amplification of factor which we also discussed in the last lecture.
Therefore if the response spectrum varies slower than the transfer function, then it is
possible to replace the response the load spectrum by S0.
Which is s load spectrum at omega r hence sigma x square is now going to be S 0 minus
to plus infinity F Fx omega square d omega, this procedure of replacing the input
spectrum by a constant is called white noise approximation.
888
Let us look at a typical feature of the response spectrum, consider a weekly dampened
dynamic system which will be; obviously, narrow banded. So, the response spectrum will
become narrow banded for a weakly damped system. This will be dominated largely by
H FX omega square hence with the white noise approximation sigma x square is S 0
minus to plus infinity H FX omega square d omega which is equation 22.
Let us see the summary what we learnt in this lecture.
889
We are able to connect the load history to the response history of a linear system, we also
said when the load process is a 0 mean process, response will follow same nature further
for a weakly damped dynamic systems, response spectrum can be approximated by white
noise approximation, where the spectral energy will be epicentered around the resonance
frequency only.
We will continue this discussion in the next lecture by explaining more about the
response spectrum then we will also discuss the importance and example of stochastic
process in analysis of offshore structures.
Thank you.
890
Module - 03
Lecture - 04
Return Period & Stochastic Process (Part - 1)
When you talk about computer methods of structural analysis applied to offshore
structures, we all now understand that offshore structures encounter loads which belong
to are originate from a stochastic process or a random process. In the previous few
lectures we discussed about salient characteristics of random process importantly, one
designer is interested to know what would be the period within which or after which a
load amplitude will reoccur on a given structure, this is what we call as return period,
Return period and stochastic process have a very close association. So, in lecture four
now we will talk about return period and more details about stochastic process.
891
Let us say Z be a random variable, p be the probability of z exceeding z which can be

simply given by 1 minus F z of z. I call this as equation 1.
Assume that we can make series of observations of z, now once you make series of
observations mean value of the observations to the first time observed or maybe
measured value of z exceeds z is called as return period.
Let us elaborate this more in detail, return period is indicated as R bar of small z which is
given by 1by probability which is 1 by 1 minus Fz of z equation number 2.
892
Now, the above equation can also be understood as an average of 1 over p trials of an
event, this should be conducted before an event of probability p occurs.
Now, R bar of z refers to the number of observations and these are assumed to be
statistically independent that is an important statement.
Suppose if one is interested to express return period in terms of time, then one need to
know about the time interval between the successive observations. If the observation
interval is delta t then one can express return period in terms of time which can be given
by Rz is delta t R bar z which I call equation 3.
893
Interestingly the observation interval must be chosen sufficiently long that is an

important statement why because, individual observations should be approximately
independent. Let us apply this for an example case and see what happens. Let us take for
example; a design load has probability of 10 power minus 2 of being exceeded during
one year.
So, probability of exceedance of the design load in one year is taken as 10 power minus
2, which is a commonly used scenario in analysis of offshore structures. Suppose if we
894
could define F of t as the relevant load process, which is considered in the design
provision and zeta denotes the corresponding load level.
Then probability of zeta z exceeding zeta is 0.01 mathematically is it not where z is now
the maximum of F of t, 0 less than or equal to t less than or equal to one year.
Because the probability of exceedance of this value of 10 power minus 2 is for one year;
hence return period of exceedance of zeta then becomes R bar of z 1 by probability of z
exceeding zeta is 1 by .01 which is 100 years. So, the reference period in the above
example is one year and return period of exceedance is 100 years.
895
Friends it is important to note the following time varying loads like wave loads wind
loads etcetera cannot be considered as stationary over an extended period of time
therefore, this implies that quantities such as yearly maxima must be calculated using
what we call long term statistics.
One can also estimate return period can also be estimated based on the risk associated
that is a second component. What you have learnt in the first component was return
period calculated based on probability of exceedance. Let us now see how to estimate
896
return period based on risk associated, we will take an example of an earthquake event.
Let us say there are different levels of earthquake considered for design of strategic
structures like offshore structures design basis earthquake, which has got t10 percent risk
at occurrence of about 50 years. Maximum credible earthquake which is 2 percent risk at
occurrence of 50 years.
So, now, I want to estimate return period based upon the risk level. So, return period can
be given as 1 minus 1 minus 1 by T to the power n. So, let us substitute the risk is 0.1
that is 10 percent 1 minus 1 by T to the power 50 which amounts T the return period as
475 years. Similarly for 2 percent risk 1 minus 1 over T of 50 which gives me T as 2500
years. So, friends these example simply illustrates depending upon the risk admittance in
a given design return period can be as close or as far away as 2500 years.
897
Module - 03
Lecture - 04
Return Period & Stochastic Process (Part - 2)
Now interestingly I have a question to ask.
898
If the return period of an event is computed, I would like to connect the return period
with the service life of the structure. In both, the earlier cases return period was
connected either to the probability of exceedance of the event or it is connected to the
risk level. We all agree that random loads act on offshore structures are essentially
associated with something called mean return period. We also know that loads in design
or classified as characteristic loads, which are generally associated with a pre accepted
level of probability of exceedance.
In that case the mean return period is expected number of years, between a given
seasonal maximum to occur. Let us say for example, say return period is 50 years what
does it mean? It means that the characteristic load which already has a given level of
probability of exceedance.
Now, is expected to occur or let us say return only once in 50 years.
899
So, the inverse of return period as we saw in the last slide is the probability that, this
extreme value will be, exceeded in any one year. Say for example, return period 100
years, say this is for wind load probability that the characteristic value of this load will be
exceeded.
In any, but our interest does not our interest is to know the probability of the design load
exceedance during let us say service life of the offshore platform. Now since 1 by R it is
900
the probability of characteristic load which will be exceeded in any one year for the
service life of the platform of small n years probability that.
It will not exceed probability that it will not be exceeded during n years is given by this
equation 1 minus 1 by R raised to the power n, where n is the service life of the platform.
But we are not interested in this we are interested in estimating the probability of
characteristic load which will be exceeded at least once in the lifetime of the platform.
This can be given by Pn is 1 minus 1 by R to the power n. Let us take an example let us
say return period of any event is about 50 years, service life of the platform small n is
about 20 years this is actually capital R therefore, probability of 20 is 1 minus 1 by 50
raised to the power of 20 which comes to be 0.33.
So, friends it is very important to know that even though the return period his 50 years,
which is far above the service life of the structure the probability of this load exceeding
within service life is about 33 percent which is fairly a good number. So, it is very
important in a stochastic process return period plays a very vital role in understanding
the consequences of this value being exceeded within the service life of a given platform,
this is much more important in design of strategic structures like offshore structures.
Having said this, will move our discussion further to understand the details about
stochastic process more interestingly.
901
Let us now ask a question in general what do you specifically say by a stochastic
process. Stochastic process can be defined as follows, quantity x of t is called a
stochastic process if x of t is a random variable for each value of t, in an interval a and b.
How stochastic process can be useful in analysis. Let us consider an offshore system or
offshore platform which is essentially a dynamic system because of various reasons: one
load is time variant like for example, wind load wave load etcetera to just now we saw
response is also time variant 3 system also shows various nonlinearities.
902
So, you want to perform the dynamic analysis. We have seen in different modules how to
conduct computer methods for static analysis, but for a given dynamic system I want to
perform dynamic analysis it can be done essentially by two ways. Firstly, one can do a
deterministic analysis, which requires load time history as an input it should be
completely known. Alternatively one can do stochastic analysis, where only statistical
concepts are used to specify the loads. There are various examples of stochastic
modelling which we will discuss in the next lecture, let us quickly see the executive
summary of this lecture.
We learnt something about return period, we understood that for a stochastic process
return period plays a vital role, we also said return period can be computed in three ways:
one based on probability of exceedance of an event, two based on risk possessed by the
event, also based on the service life of the system. We also understood that stochastic
analysis is an alternative for dynamic analysis.
Since offshore platforms are time variant in the response and loads, dynamic analysis
becomes important. Therefore, stochastic processes need to be understood which is aim
and objective of this module of this course, where we will also give you some computer
programs to estimate the fatigue failure based upon the stochastic processes.
Thank you.
903
Module - 03
Lecture - 05
Stochastic Modelling (Part - 2)
We are now continuing with the lectures on module 3, which is talking about stochastic
processes. In the last lecture, we discussed about the details on estimating return period.
We also explain how return period is a vital factor in stochastic process in general and
random or stationary process in particular. In this lecture we will try to throw more light
on; how do they do actually a stochastic modelling by taking an example.
904
To reconnect we already said that dynamic analysis can be carried out by two ways;
namely, a deterministic analysis which demands load time history as an input in
complete form. Alternatively; one can also do stochastic analysis where statistical
concepts are used to specify loads. Therefore, as we all agree the input loading which an
offshore structure encounters is a random process which can be defined as a stochastic
process under specific characteristics.
If you nearby to specify the loads, using a statistical concept; then I can do a stochastic
analysis which can be an alternative to a detail deterministic analysis in form of
estimating response when the input load is given which we already said they can be
connected by a transfer function which forms or which follows a typical form or a
proportionate form as that of a dynamic amplification factor.
Now, interestingly; wave loads or classical examples which can be described in statistical
terms for example, if you look at the Pierson Moskowitz spectrum which is considered as
one of the important input as wave loading. It deals essentially with two parameters
significant wave height and zero mean crossing time period which are essentially a part
of statistical analysis of a given data which is random in nature.
905
Once wave load can be expressed in statistical terms, then the response of the system
will also be described in statistical terms. Let us take an example let X of t be the sea
surface elevation which is actually your real and a good example of a random variable.
Now, let us make a statement; a stochastic process is an abstract notion which is more or
less similar to that of random variable. Interestingly; similar to that of random variable in
stochastic process, what we observe physically or the outcomes of the study we called
this as realization. So, the term realization is physical outcome of that of the stochastic
process which is in more or less a similar sense to the tough outcome of a typical random
variable. Let us take an example. Let us say a real time history of sea surface elevation
looks so complex let us try to plot a typical sea surface elevation.
906
Let us say the x axis gives time in seconds and the y axis gives sea surface elevation eta
in meters. Sea surface elevation is actually referred as eta in meters. So, the figure looks
very complex. Sea surface elevation has high randomness. So, this can be overcome or
this complexity can be addressed; by assuming the time history as a realization of
Ergodic stochastic process. I think we clearly know what is ergodic? What is stochastic?
Now. So, the complexity the time history can be addressed more or less in a simple form,
by considering realization values of ergodic stochastic process.
907
It has got an assumption, what is an assumption we make here? The assumption implies
that; the statistical information about the process is in fact; contain in each single
realization of the process, that is actually ergodicity; that is what we have discussed in
the last lectures as well.
So, what is the second implication of this? The cumulative distribution function, we can
refer this as CDF which is expressed as F of x t of x often ergodic process X of t is
estimated by determining the relative amount of time that realization X of t of X of t
assumes values lesser than or equal to the value X mathematically F of X of t X is limit
T tends to infinity T of x of t less than or equal to x of that of t equation number 1.
In this case T denotes record length. The term T of x of t less than equals x actually
denotes the total amount of time during which T where x of t is less than or equal to x.
So, x of t is a sample x is a value determined. So, x of t less than or equal to x is the
realization of that sample over a record length T. So, that is how we express this
mathematically.
908
Graphically; if I say this is my plot and they assume that may record length is between
these two points, this me record length T and of course, this is x of t and this value is
actually x. So, what we are looking at is x of t lesser than or equal to x. So, it is actually
this value. So, this is my delta T 1, because the x of t is less than or equal to x. Similarly
this is again my delta T 2. So, these are all the time intervals from the recording T which
satisfies the condition T the x of t less than 2 equal to x.
I continue this record, similarly with the same style which is extended over a time and
the record continues. So, I can keep on estimating the values lesser than delta T n
etcetera. So, this is the contribution, what I have marked here? What I have marked here?
What I have marked here is the contribution fulfilling this expression over a record
length of T. So, once I include this that my record length t will change to this. Maybe let
us say it will here, now this becomes my capital T.
So, in a given value of x of t over time history; I can always fix up a known value x and
try to find the realization of x of t less than or equal to x over the given record length T.
So, that is what we are trying to do graphically.
909
This what we explain mathematically in the previous case? This is what you explained
mathematically in the previous case. Having said this; let us now look into few
terminologies which are important in stochastic process. Let us talk about cumulative
distribution function which is F of x of x of a random variable x F of x of t 1 of x is
actually expressed as limit N tends to infinity N of x t 1 less than equal to x by N I call
this equation number 2.
The next one is probability density function, which is p d f denoted by small f of x x and
is given by small f of x x is d F x x by d x also F of x x s is minus infinity plus infinity f
of x y s d s this statement is also true for stochastic processes.
910
The mean expected value, what we call as mean value of x which is denoted by M x is
given by expected value of x; which is actually equal to integration minus to plus infinity
f of x x t x.
Now, if x can assume any finite number of values like for k equals 1, n then M x is given
by k equals 1 to n x of k p k where p k is probability x equals x k.
Interestingly, friends M x you can also be expressed as an average of all outcomes. So,
let us insist the word realized values, because realization is an outcome of a given
911
process all outcomes say for example, x 1, x 2, x j therefore, we can say the vector x j j
equals 1 to infinity of x or the outcome. In that case the mean value is simply the limit N
tends to infinity 1 by N of summation of j equals 1 to N x j which is a classical equation
for finding the mean of a given data.
Interestingly friends, if you look at equation 6 and equation 8. So, if you look at by
comparing, equation 6 and equation 8, it actually gives two ways of expressing the mean
value is it not. Let us try to connect these two.
912
Module - 03
Lecture - 05
Stochastic Modelling (Part - 2)
Now, let us assume N experiments have taken place, what are experiments in this case?
913
Observations of a value for realization have taken place and the outcomes which is
nothing but realized values or realization of observations be expressed as the x 1, x 2 and
x N where N is greater than equal to n. It means you pick up the threshold value and only
observe when, the values exceeding here, because X can assume only values of let us say
x 1, x 2, x n in the n groups. So, for the observed outcome let x k be the group value. Let
N k denote the number of outcomes of this group.
Then 1 by N summation of j equals 1 to N x j which is the mean of that value can be now
said as k equals 1 to n, because I am looking for only the n group and the realized values
are x k and I am going to say I am going to check only within the group and find the
mean value. So, the mean is now redefined slightly in a different manner you can always
find the mean for a given variable, if you are looking only for the realized values within
a specific group.
So, this can also be further extended as limit N tends to infinity 1 by n summation of j
equals 1 to N x j can be summation of j equals 1 to small n x k p k. We already know this
is true, because p k is actually as we saw is given by this expression N k by N. So,
probability of that values over the given data therefore, in general the expected value of
the random variable.
914
Let us say g of x is given by we are going for a generic expression now m g of x is

expected value of g of x.
Which can be given as minus to plus infinity g of x f of x x d x where g is an appropriate

function, whose integral exist; that is very important otherwise; you cannot be estimate
or evaluate this integral. Now by substituting g of x equals x minus m x square; now I
can also find the variance of X which can be given by variance of X are also expressed
as sigma X square is expected value of X minus M x square which is again expressed as
minus 2 plus integrity x minus M x square f of x x d x.
915
And we know that sigma X which is a standard deviation, which is actually a square root
of variance is a good measure of spread or variability of outcomes of X. Further, we can
also say sigma X square is again expected value of X minus M x square which can be
said as expected value of X square minus 2 m x x plus M x square which can be said as
expected value of X square minus M x square.
916
And hence sigma x square is limit N tends to infinity 1 by N of summation of j equals 1
to N of x j square minus 1 by N of j equals 1 to N of x j the whole square extending this
logic.
One can also find the coefficient of variation. Actually this is expressed as V x it is
actually a dimensionless quantity, this is used as a measure of statistical fluctuations or
what other ways we call as uncertainties is given by sigma x by M x for non zero mean
process.
So, interestingly a small V x, that is coefficient of variation means; there are relatively
small statistical fluctuations around the mean value. So, that is what we understand by
expressing or determining V of x. So, friends let us reiterate this statement which we
already made.
917
So, stochastic process is defined as the quantity X of t is called as stochastic process if X

of t is a random variable for each value of t in an interval which is designated say a and
b. Let us quickly take an example of a stochastic process.
Assume X as a random variable, this is assumed to be normally distributed there are

different forms of distribution available in statistics.
Mean value of the variable is m and standard deviation is greater than 0 the probability
density function pdf is given by for your normal variate we know this equation, but still
918
let us write this 1 by root pi sigma exponential minus half x minus m by sigma the whole
square.
If g of t is a known real function which is defined between the interval minus infinity to
plus infinity that is exist between minus infinity to plus infinity, then g of t cos omega t
where omega is a positive constant. Hence, X of t is also true as X g of t which is again a
stochastic process defined for minus infinity to plus infinity. Now realization X of t of
this process is actually given by
919
The product of g of t with an outcome X of the random variable X mathematically X of t
will be X g of t.
Hence, if g of t is cos omega t, then various realization would also be harmonic function
of the same period, but with different amplitudes hence the mean of value this expected
value of X g of t is expected value of X g of t is nothing but m g of t and sigma X of t a
square root of expected value of X g of t square minus M g of t square which can be
expected value of X square g of t square minus m square.
G of t square which can be said as square root of expected value of X square minus m
square g of t which is actually equal to sigma g of t therefore, for each given value of t g
of t is constant that is X of t is X g of t is also normally distributed, because we have
assumed y normal variate this is true if g of t is not zero and hence,
920
The pdf of X of t is given by f of X t X which is 1 by root 2 pi sigma g of t mod the

exponential of minus half X minus M g of t by sigma g of t the whole square.
So, friends in this lecture we understood the example of stochastic process. Modelling
we understood estimating of or estimation of mean value by two different methods. We
have also understood certain terminologies one classical and interesting terminology C v
coefficient of variation which is very interesting for us to know the uncertainty or
fluctuations statistical fluctuations around the mean. We have also understood that how X
921
of t and g of t can be mapped and we estimate the statistical parameters which are
important. So, why we are looking for statistical parameters, because stochastic analysis
is an alternative which uses statistical parameters for analyzing instead of deterministic
analysis.
In the next lecture we will take up an example of fatigue prediction, because is an

important application in offshore structures. We will talk about fatigue prediction in
couple of lectures and give lot of example problems and also coding the mathematical
coding to estimate fatigue predictions.
922
Module - 03
Lecture - 06
Fatigue Damage 1 (Part - 1)
Friends, let us continue with the discussion on module 3, where we are discussing about
the stochastic process.
923
In lecture 6, today we will talk about Fatigue damage estimates which is one of the
important methodology of estimating failure phenomenon in complaint offshore
structures. Now, let us try to understand what do we mean by fatigue if any material
essentially it is metallic is subjected to harmonic stress cycles of a constant amplitude
which is larger than a threshold value the threshold value actually depends on the
material because every material has a threshold value of acceptance of stress value.
So, if any material is subjected to harmonic stress cycles of a constant amplitude, which
is larger than a threshold value then, there is a connection between the stress experienced
by the material and the number of cycles which is required to fracture the material. So, a
relationship is between the stress experienced by the material and the number of cycles
required to fracture the material.
924
We call this relationship as S-N relationship this is expressed as N S to the power m is k I

call this is equation number 1.
So, in this case N denotes the number of cycles to fracture the material, S denotes the
stress range that is very interesting it is not a single value at which the material fracture,
but there is a range m and k are actually material constants. Usually, m varies anywhere
from 3 to 5 for marine steel, we will talk about this slightly later in more detail. We
925
estimate the fatigue damage a common hypothesis applied in the literature is Palmgren -
Miner’s Rule.
What is this rule state? This rule states that for a load history of duration t with different
stress amplitudes, it is assumed that the accumulated damage is given by D T which is
summation of n j to capital N J is summation equation 2, Where the n j is number of
cycles in the time history associated with the stress range S j, that is the stress range lies
in the bandwidth of S j minus delta s by 2 to S j plus delta s by 2 for a suitable discretion
length delta s, capital N J is actually equal to K S j minus m which is the number of
stress cycles to fracture with stress range S j, fracture is assumed to occur when the
following condition is satisfied.
926
It says that, it should be equal to unity the above hypothesis an assumption it says that
that n j load cycles consumes a part of the ‘lifetime’ of the material. This is expressed as
accumulated damage which is D T, the second assumption it says that the accumulated
damage in this model is linear.
Let us say that the X of t is a response time history which denotes as stationary, narrow
banded process which represents the Van - Mises stresses in a section of a member which
is lightly damped.
927
So, to start with we assume that X of T is a 0 mean process in that case, let N bar of a
denote the number of stress cycles with amplitude between the range a and a plus d a that
is S is going to be now equal to 2 a which is a part of the process X of T during the time
T. Therefore, friends we now understand that N bar a d a is also a random variable.
The accumulated damage, as given by the existing hypothesis is followed by the same
equation call equation number 3, where N a is K stress range to the power of this load,
which also becomes a random variable the expected value is given by D of t the expected
928
value of this which is further said as integral 0 to infinity expected value of N tilde a d a
by N a which I say as equation 4.
929
Module - 03
Lecture - 06
930
Now, the expected value of N tilde a d a is actually the expected number of stress cycles
with amplitude between a and a plus d a, which occurs during time t hence the expected
value of n tilde a d a is now expressed as V x plus of 0 t f x p a d a where f x p a d a is
the relative number of peaks with amplitude between a and a plus d a.
V x 0 plus T is the total number of peaks which is equal to the number of stress cycles
during the time T. Therefore, d of T is V x 0 T, integral 0 to infinity f x p a d a by N of a
which expressed as V x 0 T internal 2 a to the power m by K f x p a d a I call this as
equation 5.
931
For a narrow - band process, which is also Gaussian in nature f x p of a is given by a by

sigma x square exponential minus a square by 2 sigma x square now substituting that
value in question 5. So, substituting equation 6 in equation 5, we get D of T is V x 0 by 2
minus m K sigma x square integral 0 to infinity, a m plus 1 exponential minus a square
by 2 sigma x square d a. I call this as equation number 7.
Which can be simplified as V x 0 T 2 root 2 sigma x m by K gamma function 1 plus m

by 2, where gamma x denotes a Gamma function, which is a standard tabulated function
932
whose values are available in the statistical table. For example, you want to find gamma
n plus 1 is n factorial for n equals 0 comma 1 comma 2 and so on.
After, estimating the cumulative damage one is interested to know how to estimate the
Life time of the structure it can be estimated as below, it is very simple we need to
substitute D of T as unity that is the hypothesis. So, substitute D of T as one in equation
8. In equation 8, is what we see here substitute this value equals 1. So, I should say then
in that case because equation 8 involves T, I am interested to find out t I substitute this
equal to 1 and find T.
So, by readjusting I can write the equation for T as, K V x 0 T 2 root 2 sigma x to the
power m gamma function 1 plus m by 2 equation 9, also V x 0 inverse there is an inverse
sign here, is actually T z which is called 0 mean crossing period and now t which is the
life time estimate is given by K T z 2 root 2 sigma x m gamma 1 plus m by 2. So, this is
my equation forgetting the Lifetime estimate of the structure.
933
So friends, let us look at the summary what we learnt in this lecture. We understood how
to compute the fatigue damage, what is the hypothesis which is used to compute the
accumulated damage when the material is subjected to stress cycles of low amplitude
you can establish a relationship between the stress range S and the number of the cycles
N which is famously called S-N curve relationship. This relationship is available for
variety of marine steel in offshore structures in various International course.
So, in the next lecture we will take up an application example problem and try to
estimate the fatigue damage given on different members based upon the material
capacity. We will do couple of problems with an application problem in offshore
structure. We will also discuss the computer code, how to estimate this damage using a
simple procedure.
934
Module - 03
Lecture - 07
Friends, let us continue with the next lecture. Where, we will do some problems on
fatigue damage estimates for a stochastic process. What you see on the screen here is
stress range versus number of counts is a typical stress bin as you see N is the number of
counts.
935
So, what we want to do in this problem is we want to calculate the service life of the
platform offshore platform which experiences stress cycles as indicated. so the stress
cycle is causing tether tension variation which can result in a damage. The variation is
simulated is simulated for let us say 3600 seconds for the s n curve take m value as 3 and
take log a value as 12.262, This is as per the international code for offshore structures
DNV Recommended Practice C203 and we have taken the values from table 2-3.
So, let us try to solve this problem. Let us understand the question first. We have to
calculate the service life of the platform that is important. You have to calculate the
service life of the platform. The platform undergoes stress cycles the stress range and the
number of cycles are given in the figure this stress cycle amplitude reversal is crossing
tether tension variation and the total duration T, is 3600 seconds. In the minus rule we
need the value of m. And the DNV practice code taken for offshore structure gives me
the value of m and log a directly from a specific table.
936
So, let us say we want to include the fatigue damage, we want to calculate the value n
equation is log N is equal to log a minus m log S. Now for a stress range of 50 let us
compute for a stress range of 50 Newton per mm square let us compute this so log n is
equal to 12.262 that is my log a value minus 3 is my m value and log 50 there all log to
the base 10 they are not Napier’s logarithm that is log to the base 10 which gives me the
value of log N as 7.165.
If we calculate this if you want to find N then is 10 power 7.165 which can be 1462
4801.7 cycles. Now the fatigue damage n D is given by small n by capital N small n in
this case is 2 so 2 by 1462 4801.7 which gives me as 1.367 10 power minus 7. So this we
did for one specific case of 50, Similarly, I can do for 75, 100, 125, 150,175, 200 and
250. And then find the cumulative damage, let us do that.
937
So, stress range let us open a table n small n and d which is n by capital N. So, let us say
stress range what you see from the figure is 50, 75, 100 etcetera. Let us do that 50, 75,
100, 125, 150, 175, 200 and 250 that is what we have till 250. So, for N we just now
calculated 1462 480101.7 and small n for 50 is 2. So, it is 2 and D is 1.3675 10 power
minus 7.
Similarly for 75, we substitute the same equation which is log N is equal to log a minus
m log s we will use the same equation calculate n for the stress range 75 which gives me
4333274. 59. Again for 75 the stress range the number of counts is 2, so this gives me D
value as 4.6154 10 power minus 7. Similarly let us do for 100, I get this value as
1828100.22 and for 100 the stress value is number of counts is 0.5, so this value becomes
2.7351 10 power minus 7 for 125, I get the N value as 935987.31 and for 125 the number
of counts is 1.0 so I get this as 1.068 10 power minus 6.
And for 150 I get N value as 541659.32 and the value is 0.5 and this is coming 9.23 10
power minus 7 and for 175 N value is 341103.25. I believe you are calculating using this
equation in parallel and for 175, we can see the number of counts is 1.0, we have taken
1.0 and this becomes 2.931 into 10 power minus 6 and for 200 substituting this equation
it is 228512.53 this is 0.5 and this is 2.188 10 power minus 6 and for 250 this value
becomes 414 and the value is 1.0 and this is 8.547 into 10 power minus 6.
938
Now I can find the cumulative damage which is sum of this which is equal to 1.653 10
power minus 5.
Now, I want to estimate the service life which will be we know that the fatigue damage
calculated for 3600 seconds is actually 1.653 into 10 power minus 5 that is what we in
the slide here. Therefore, fatigue damage for 1 second will be 1.653 into 10 power minus
5 by 3600, therefore fatigue damage in one year equivalents will be given by this is for 1
second therefore 1.653 10 power minus 5 divided by 3600 into 60 60 into 24 into 365
which comes to 0.14480.
So, we know that the fatigue damage is 0.14480 in one year if you remember the
hypothesis we can calculate the service life only when you equate this damage to unity
whereas, this is not unity. Therefore, in simple terms service life is calculated by
extrapolating this damage to unity if I do that then service life can be computed as 1 by
0.14480 which will be 6.906 year. So what we can say here is damage is equivalent to 1
in 6.906 years which would be the service life of the platform. So, that is the first
problem we had the problem with the stress cycle is given to us.
The number of counts is known to me we have been asked to use a specific curve from
the code, we are asked to compute the service life. So, what we did is we use this
equation computed for a specific stress range computed the value of N, then found out
the damage for a value. So, now we did this for all the stress ranges computed d sum
939
them up and found out the cumulative damage once cumulative damage is known this is
for a record length of 3600 seconds. We can see here the simulated time is for 3600
seconds. So, if we did that we found out the damage for 1second from that we formed the
damage for one year we multiply it for 60 seconds 60 minutes 24 hours 365 days forward
the value.
As per the hypothesis, we know that this damage should be equal to unity. So, fatigue
damage is 0.14480 in one year. Therefore, equivalent damage will be extrapolating this
number to unity which will get us 6.906 years which is actually the service life of the
platform. So, that is a very clear illustrative example where the stress count and the stress
bin are given. We will take up one more problem where the stress bin is not given, but
the time history of the amplitude variation is given.
So, let us say this is my problem 2, example 2 says the stress time history how we can
say time history the x axis I have time and in the y axis I have stress in Mega Pascal. So,
the stress time history of a steel jacket platform is given the platform is provided with
some arrangement which is called Cathodic protection.
If you really wanted to know what are the anti corrosive treatments which are done for
offshore platforms. I would request the readers to go through an NPTEL course on ocean
structures and materials offered by iit madras I was the course coordinator. So, in that set
940
of lectures in module 2 we discussed very clearly; what are various treatment methods to
protect offshore platforms.
Let us say the example problem has a provision of Cathodic protection and the value
says take m as 4 and log a has 14.971 this is as per DNV recommended practice C203,
Table 2-2. Because these values of m and log a are different because this platform has a
Cathodic protection treatment enabled in the design. So, what is required is calculate the
fatigue damage, one can very easily note here that the problem is subjected to or the
platform is subjected to a stress range duration of about 8 seconds.
In the earlier example, it was for 3600 seconds. So, we should know also the duration of
the stress cycle so it is 8 seconds is this is problem because it varies from 0 and goes till
8 so, we need to calculate the fatigue damage. So, what I did to compute the fatigue
damage I am going to use a procedure called Rainflow count method. This is useful to
estimate the stress cycles
In the earlier example, the stress cycles were completely and readily given to you, but in
this example the stress cycle is not given, but only the stress variation and time that is
stress history is given. So, we need to conclude the stress cycle I can use rain flow count
method this is one of the easy methods by which you compute the stress cycle say how
we are doing it.
941
So, what we did is I rotated this figure there is a figure available here I rotated this figure
this line actually this point B is somewhere here please note that. So, this is my range I
want to make an alteration here remaining all are but this point B is shifted up please
note that so the problem has I changed point B is somewhere here A C everything is fine.
So, I rotate this figure by 90 degree so if you do that I get a picture like this from this I
want to now count the rain flow cycles path by path. Let us see how do we do it by path
let us write down the path, let us then enters the cycles then also the stress range. Let us
take the path AB, so path AB if you see the stress range of AB the stress range of AB is
from minus 2 to 1 so it is 3.
If you look at the cycle A and B vary by a distance of 0.0 and 1 so I should say this is
0.5, similarly I do for BC which is again for C B C B and C the time variation is again an
average of 0.5, but the stress value from B to C is actually from here to here by 1 and
minus 3 which becomes similarly let us take the path C D C D the path C D varies from
2 to 3. So, therefore the variation is 0.5 the stress value of C and D is from 5 and minus
3. So, that becomes 8.
Now let us go to D G this is tricky D starts from here. So the rain drops cross countering
to G E, it drops back again and goes to G. So, rain flow imagine a rain particle or a rain
water droplet falls a D it rolls down touches G and come here.
So, it is rolling from D E and then E to G so I should say the path is D G, D G, but for
computing the stress cycle I will consider only D E, because after E it falls down. So D
E, D E the stress cycle is only this much which is 0.5 for computing the stress range I
start from D it falls in G.
So, let us go to D and come to G so minus 4 and 5 that gives me 9, then there is a path
missed out here which is E F. So, I write E F, E F. Now E F will also returned back.
Therefore, E F though E and F has only a gap of 1 which is 0.5 I take this as 1.0 because
E F will roll back again and the value between E and F E and F for example, this and this
is 1this is 3. So, that becomes four then I go for G H which is 0.5 and G H G and H 4 and
minus 4 that becomes 8.
Then H I is the last one which is again 0.5 and H I, H is at 4 and I is at minus 2 so, that
becomes so we have compute this stress range, but what I wanted is the stress cycle
which is called stress bin. So, from this I want to now find out the stress range and the
942
number of cycles let us do that. So, I take this table back again to the next cycle. So, let
us say I want to compute the stress range. So stress values are anywhere varying from
minimum is 3 and maximum is 9, minimum is 3 and maximum is 9.
So, let us start putting the stress range from let us say stress range total cycles and the
path may not be very important let us say, stress range 10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,1 let us go back
here. Do we have anything on 10 here? We do not have anything on 10 therefore, let us
put 10 as 0 do we have anything on 9 here we have 1 on 0.5, we have 1 on 0.5 let us say
for 9 it is 0.5. Let us see that what do we have on 8, we have 8 this 1 is 8, this is also 8 so
0.5 and 0.5 so this becomes 1.0 Do we have anything on 7? We do not have anything on
7 so 0.
Do we have anything on 6? We have 1 on 6 here so which is 0.5 so let us say 0.5. Do you
have anything on 5? We do not have anything on 5. So, let us say this is 0 check, we have
anything on 4 yes we have we have this and we have this so, it becomes 1.5, so 1.5. See
do we have anything on 3? Yes we have 1 which is 0.5.
Do we have anything on 2? No; do we have anything on 1? No. We can fill up the path I
am not filling the path it is we already discuss the path here so it is only going to be
reputation there so we are not interested in doing that. So, I plotted this as a histogram
now. For example, you see 10 representing 0, 9 representing 0.5, this is actually 0.5, is it
943
not. So, 8 representing 1, 7 there is nothing, 6 representing 0.5. Again 5 is 0, 4 goes to
1.5 this is 1.5 and 2, 1, 1, 0.
So, in this previous problem you got the stress bin directly is an input for the problem
whereas, in the second problem we used the rain flow common method from the stress
history and computed the stress bin like this.
Once we found this then we can find the value of N so, we know log N will be log a
minus m log S. Let us do it for one case let us take this as 9 so, S is 9 Newton per mm
square because they are in Mega Pascal. So, log N you know in the problem please see m
is 4 and log a is 14.917. So m is 4 and log a is 14.917 ok so let us use that. So, log N is
equal to log a which is 14.917 minus 4 log 9 all these are log to the base 10. So like this
you know N, you will get log N as 11.10. Therefore, N will be 10 to the power of 11.10
which we will get as 1.259 10n power 11.
So, I can now estimate the fatigue damage for this specific case D as 0.5 because that is
the value you can see here 0.5 at 9 at 9 it is 0.5. So, 0.5 by 1.259 10 power 11 which
gives me 3.97 into 10 power minus 12 this is for a specific value of s equals 9. So, for s
equals 9 we computed. Similarly, one can do for 8, 7, 6, 5 etcetera. So, let me give the
values here so stress range 9. So, I write here stress range in Mega Pascal N small n and
D let us compute this.
944
So, 9, 8, 6, 4 and 3 we have only these values remaining all are zeros here I am not doing
that for 9 we just now computed N is 1.259, let us entered that here 1.259 10 power 11
and N we know is 0.5 that is small value 0.5. Therefore, we computed D as 3.97 10
power 12 minus 12 sorry so, 3.97 10 power minus 12. Similarly for 8 you can compute
the N value which comes to 2.017 10 power 11, 8 has a value of 1 so, enter 1.
So 1 by this that is this is actually equal to small n by capital N which is 4.958 into 10
power minus 12 for 6 we compute N value as 6.374 10 power 11 and for 6 the value is
again 0.5 the small n D is 7.845 10 power minus 13 for 4 N is calculated as 3.227 10
power 12 and for 4 the value is 1.5. so 1.5 by this will give you 4.649 10 power minus 13
and for 3 N value is 1.019 10 power minus and for 3 the value is again 0.5. So, n by N
will give you 4.903 10 power minus 14. If I make a sum the cumulative damage that
comes to 1.02283 into 10 power minus 11, I want to now compute the service life.
So, the service life is very simple we already know the equation, the stress history the
stress history is given for 8 seconds. Therefore, the fatigue damage calculated for 8
seconds is actually you can see here 1.02283 10 power minus 11 1.02283 10 power
minus 11. So therefore, fatigue damage for 1 second is actually 1.02283 10 power minus
11 by 8 which gives me the value for 1 second.
So, in a year the damage could be 1.02283 10 power minus 11 by 8 this is for 1 second I
multiply this by 60 60 24 and 365, I get the years which is approximately 4.03 10 power
945
minus 5 for one year. So, the fatigue damage is 4.035 in one year. If you want to find the
service life equate that to 1 and find out the service life I leave this to you if you really
want to find the service life.
You please find out what would be the service life in the same style what we did for the
last example. So, the difference in this study or the second example with that of the
earlier one is second example gave you only the time history which you see here, where
as the previous example, you already had the stress cycle directly so there is a difference.
So, in this example you had this stress time history, we did the rain flow counting found
out the calculation, made a table, found out the cumulative damage, plotted the stress
time history, found out n, small n and damage cumulative. Once we did that we found
out the damage in one year, from that one can also find the service life of the given
system. So, 2 examples one stress history is given other stress time history is given stress
bins are calculated from rain flow count method.
946
Module – 03
Lecture – 07
Fatigue Damage 2 (Part – 2)
We will do one more example which can be different from this for a trial for you to
understand. I will just show this example for you, so problem number 3, let us say there
is again a stress variation of a tubular joint.
A stress time history, you can see here a stress time history time and stress time history
of a tubular joint which has cathodic protection is given take M value as 4 and log a
value for cathodic protection as 14.917 which is advised by DNV recommended practice
C203 table 2 2 which we also dealt in the last example.
So, interestingly I can rotate this figure do the rain flow counting find the path and try to
get this stress cycles and find the cumulative damage and do this, let me do the problem
here directly. So, I am going to enter here the path the cycles and the stress range. So, A
B, it varies from 0 to 10. So, I would say the stress range is 10 and cycle is A B which is
0.5 because this is actually 1. So, 0.5; similarly B C 0.5; stress value is 15.
947
You can see B C from 10 to minus 5, C D 0.5 20 DG starts from D drops at E, then goes
to G. So, DG 0.5 because D and G are only 0.5, but the stress value is from minus 25 to
15 that is 40 EF, EF has got a reverse cycle. So, 1.0 that is 0.5 into 2; 1.0 and EF is 5 and
minus 20. So, 25 GL again G drops at H goes at J drops at L. So, I get the full path GL
which is 0.5 because G and H are at 0.5, but the value is minus 25 to plus 25 which is
going to be 50, then H; I will have 1, again the reverse cycle will be 15, then JK will
have again have 1 reverse cycle which is 40 because J and K minus 20 and plus 20; 40
and LM; LM is a full cycle 0.5, 25 and 20, 50 MN which is again 0.5 of 30 because M is
minus 25 and N is 5, 30 and lastly NO 0.5 which is 5.
So, I can directly get the stress range once I get the stress range I can plot the stress bin
as see in the figure, for example, if you look at the stress range of 5 it is 0.5. So, 5 it is
0.5 and 10 if you look at 10 is again 0.5.
So, 10 is again 0.5. So, one can plot the stress bin directly once I have the stress bin I can
calculate the N value. So, we know the equation log N is given by log a minus M log S.
So, I now write down the values for all the stress range stress range N; N and D which is
N by capital N stress range is 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 and 45, 50, I write down the
enter the N values 1.32 10 power 12 capital N, you can see is 1.32 small N is 0.5 from
the figure you can see that.
948
Therefore this is going to be 3.78 10 power minus 30. So, for 10; 8.26 10 power 10; 0.5
6.05 10 power minus 12 and for 15 N is 1.63 10 power 10 and for 15 it is 1 0.5 and this
is 9.19 10 power minus 11 and for 25 162737185, this is 0.5 20 is 0.5 and this becomes
9.68 10 power minus 11 and for 25 the N value is 2114657151 and this is 1.0; that is for
25 and this value becomes 4.72 10 power minus 10 and for 310197 triple 938 that is
what I get from N and the value is 0.5 for 30 which becomes 4.90 into 10 power minus
10 and for 35; the value is 55046260 seven which is 0 35; there is no value there is no
value for 40, this is 322671074 is 1 0.5 and its value is 4.65 10 power minus 9 and for 45
it is 0 because 45 has no stress value and 50; 132166072 and the value is one and.
This is 7; 0.5 6 into 10 power minus 9; I make the sum find the cumulative value which
is 1.3373 10 power minus 8, once I know this the total duration is for fourteen seconds
you can see here, it is for 14 seconds. Therefore, the stress history is for fourteen seconds
and the damage estimated D is 1.3373 into 10 power minus 8. Therefore, for one second
I can find which is 1.3373 10 power minus 8 by 14 which amounts to some value
therefore, I want to find for one year it can be 1.3373 by 14 into 10 power minus 8 into
60, 60, 24, 365, I get this value as 0.030124 which is actually not equal to 1. I want to
find the service life to find the service life I must equate to this and I leave that exercise
to you for this problem the service life is estimated as please check the answer is
estimated as 1 in 33.196 years or 1 in 33 years please check this answer.
So, friends the summary is; we did 3 numerical examples in this particular lecture, we
understood; how to estimate the fatigue damage service life of a given system how to use
the different constants different constants from D N V code to calculate the fatigue
estimates if the stress history is given. We can directly get the cumulative damage if the
stress history is not given, but the stress variation time history is known I can use rain
flow counting method to try to get this.
So, friends we will do one more lecture in estimating the fatigue damage of thetas in a
new generation offshore platform we will use the computer coding to find out the stress
damage and then the service life of the structure in next class.
949
Module - 03
Lecture - 08
Fatigue Estimate of Offshore Platform (Part - 1)
So, friends welcome to the 8th lecture in module 3. We are continuing to discuss the
fatigue estimates in the last couple of lectures we discussed the methodologies of the
estimating fatigue damage in offshore platforms.
950
Let us quickly revisit what we learnt in the last two lectures. Fatigue is low amplitude,
large cycle issue, offshore platforms have fatigue issue a major concern, we will take up
an example and show you today, and how this is important. Now to estimate fatigue
damage we have seen two techniques, one if stress histogram is known, one can try to
plot the n values estimate, n values from the histogram, and find the damage, find the
cumulative damage, then estimate the service life. The second technique is if stress time
history is known.
Then use rain flow count to obtain the stress histogram, then follow a same method as we
have here, and ultimately one can find the service life for a cumulative damage equal to
unity.
951
In today’s lecture we will see the application of this problem in offshore platforms.
Offshore platforms have special issues, when they are compliant type structures many of
you have a background of understanding different types of offshore platforms.
Let us see quickly what is a compliant type offshore structure; compliant type is a
platform, which is designed with high buoyancy force, let us take a floating body with
large buoyancy force the buoyancy force exceeds the weight of the body. So, the
difference between buoyancy and weight is balanced by tendons or tethers with high
initial pretension.
So, the body or the platform is anchored to seabed with high initial pretension tethers and
we call the system as tension leg platform. In the same order there is a recent phenomena
of offshore triceratops, it is a new generation platform which has advantages of both TLP
and spar platforms. Let us quickly see some brief overview of triceratops before we
understand fatigue prediction on triceratops.
952
So, complaint offshore structures have special issues related to fatigue life estimates.
Damage in compliant platforms is generally assessed through fatigue unlike fixed

platforms. In fixed platforms strength is the major parameter whereas, in compliant
platforms it is the fatigue damage. In compliant structures the most important component
which deals with the fatigue assessment is the tether tension variation which is dynamic
in nature this is very vital because pull out of even one tether can result in high positive
buoyancy which can challenge the operability or functionality of the platform.
953
In the present study of the lecture, we are focusing on triceratops. Triceratops is a new
generation platform, it has got two important components which are interconnected one
is of course a top side which is the deck, which is connected to the buoyant leg the most
interesting part in this case is the deck and buoyant legs are connected through ball
joints.
Now the ball joints restrain transfer of rotation from the legs to the deck but behaves as a
rigid body in all translations the rotational responses of buoyant leg differ from that of
the deck.
954
The typical view of an offshore triceratops, as you see from this picture deck has all
facilities which are meant for offshore drilling production etcetera.
The buoyant legs are in groups which are otherwise briefly called as buoyant leg
structures which are BLS. BLS is connected to the deck through ball joints, and buoyant
legs are further connected to the seabed using tethers, which has very high initial
pretension, so four components the deck, the buoyant legs, the ball joint, and the tethers.
So, this makes triceratop which was a conceived idea in a very recent past.
955
Triceratops have lot of structural advantages, it has got best better motion characteristics
therefore, initial studies conducted in triceratops both numerically and experimentally
confirm that they are highly suitable for deep waters and ultra deep waters.
They also have improved dynamic characteristics in comparison to TLPs and spars. The
structure is more or less of a simple geometric form with simple station keeping
processes, it is very easy to install because the system is having high positive buoyancy.
Similarly it can be easy to decommission the system, it can be highly reusable and
relocated the structure has got a very high stability, at a very high or very low cost. So,
triceratops process have lot of advantages compared to TLPs and spars of course, they
are in the conceptual stage and no triceratops are actually commissioned for deep water
exploration even till today in the present lecture, we take one such new generation
platform as a case study.
We will take up a traiceratop, we will directly investigate the fatigue analysis of tethers,
and then estimate the service life of triceratop.
So, what we are trying to do is we impose the wave loads on the buoyant legs. The
buoyant legs will undergo degrees of freedom as per their choice usually 6 in number
surge sway heave roll pitch and yaw. So three translations and three rotations for
example, this is X axis Y axis Z axis, I called displacement along X as surge,
956
displacement along Y as sway, displace along Z as heave, rotation about X as roll
rotation about Y as pitch, and rotation about z as yaw, so 6 degrees of freedom 3
translational and 3 rotational.
Friends please note the translational degrees which are surge, sway and heave, will be
transferred from the buoyant leg to the deck. There are the rotational degrees like roll
pitch and yaw will not be transferred from the buoyant leg to the deck. Ball joints will
restrain transfer of these degrees of freedom from the buoyant legs to the deck whereas;
ball joints will allow transfer of these from the buoyant legs to the deck.
When a triceratop is subjected to wave loads, buoyant legs will undergo deformation or
displacements, in 6 degrees of freedom. Since the buoyant legs are connected to the
seabed you have seen tethers tension in the tether now varies with the dynamic history,
we called this as dynamic to the tension variation. So, we investigated a triceratop in a
very rough sea state condition and try to generate the dynamic tether tension variation
time history for a very rough sea state.
So, we are now trying to get a stress time history of your tethers. I want to reemphasise
that fatigue analysis can be conducted by two ways one, if we get a stress time history
from the stress time history, do rain flow counting method tried to get the stress
histogram from the histogram used minus rule, tried to find the cumulative damage and
estimate the service life.
The other method what we saw in the last lecture was the stress histogram is directly
obtained and given to you from the histogram try to get the damage. So, in the present
study the stress histogram is not given, but the stress time history which is directly
obtained from the study. Is investigated, and then the stress bins are calculated from the
stress time history directly.
957
So, a typical stress time history is what you see in the sketch is shown here is a typical
stress time history, so the variation is on time history in the X axis and the Y axis is the T
0 variation. Since the variation is respect to time we call this as dynamic tether tension
variation. Now there are three different colours the legend show variation in leg 1, leg 2,
and leg 3 independently.
So, one can very easily see here the T zero variation, in all legs are not uniform that is a
very important observation we have here all legs they are not uniform. So once I have
this history, from the history apply rain flow counting algorithm try to get the stress
histogram, from the histogram using a S-N curve equation get the cumulative damage
from the cumulative damage estimate the service life.
958
So, let us closely look at the stress history variation in a larger perspective the simulated
tether tension variation is shown in all the 3 legs separately. We can see here the red one
indicates tension at leg 3, the blue one indicates variation in leg 1, and the green one
indicates variation in leg 2. One can see the mean of all the three are not same, so they
are varying we will take up any one leg for our investigation and try to see how the
fatigue damage can be estimated now.
959
Module - 03
Lecture - 08
Fatigue Estimate of Offshore Platform (Part - 2)
I want to show you a simple video which was generated during the experimental
investigation to obtain this t 0 variation.
960
So friends, the video which is running on the screen is the video of a triangular deck
triceratops, the wave is attacking the buoyant legs the ball joints are placed here. And the
buoyant legs are getting displaced and rotation degrees are freedom, but the deck is still
remaining horizontal. The instrumentation is done on deck as well as buoyant legs to
estimate the t 0 variation on the buoyant legs. And this history variation is what we have
captured.
961
So, just for our indication looking at the stress variation in this curve, we can also try to
find out the maximum and minimum variation and the mean value in all the legs. So, in
the buoyant leg 1, 2 and 3 which are plot away different colours as you see in this
indication here has a different mean value. And comparing this mean value with the
initial pre tension t 0 initial value we have also estimated the percentage variation. The
percentage variation in this is also not equal, it means all the 3 legs undergo dynamic
tether tension variation they are not equal. So, when these legs variations are not equal, it
causes rotation of the deck which inducing roll or pitch motion to the deck
simultaneously.
Our investigation in this particular lecture is not the response of the deck, but the
response in terms of fatigue estimates for the t 0 variation on any one of the legs
typically whose time history is given to me. Let us pickup any one signal and do a
fatigue estimate then we will see how the service life can be estimated.
962
So, before we do that let us makes an important observations the variation and tension in
all legs are dynamic in nature. The peak in tension at any instant is one of the tethers
does not necessarily mirror in the other two tethers. The maximum variation varies
anywhere from 14.55 percent to as minimum as 8.6 percent. The tether with maximum
number of cyclic variation has 9 peaks in the simulation for about a period of 900
seconds. So, the length of the record what we are going to see here is 900 seconds.
963
The dynamic nature of tension variation is attributed to the dynamic nature of the wave
excitation it is important to observe that peaks in all tethers are not seen at the same time
instance this essentially due to the phase lag between the wave approach on each leg.
Since, the range of tether tension variation does not exceed 20 percent, it is guaranteed
that tethers will not pull out, but the cyclic variation of large in number, but low
amplitude can result in the fatigue failure. Therefore, the design is now investigated for
the fatigue failure whichever I am going to do now.
So, the stress histogram is to be required, we have employed the Rainflow counting
algorithm from the Rainflow algorithm, we have plotted the stress histogram. The
Rainflow counting algorithm as proposed by Matsuishi and Endo is one of the interesting
methods by which one can estimate the fatigue damage which is used in this presence
study.
964
There is the typical histogram what we got from the typical stress time history I repeat
again we pick up any one signal for example, in this case it is buoyant leg 1, we pickup
the stress history from the stress history we used the rainflow counting method got the
histogram where stress is plotted in the x axis and number of counts which is small n is
plotted in the y axis and the stress range is also given in terms of the values.
After which using DNV-RP-C203, we have estimated the capital N value from the
governing equation we already said the record length is for 900 seconds. We estimated
965
the cumulative damage and from the cumulative damage we estimated the service life of
the structure.
So, we all know the cumulative damage is given by this equation which we already saw
in the previous lecture.
So, for a given stress range the N value is estimated using the equation given in the
design code the small n is actually the count of the stress bin which we calculated from
966
the figure for example, a specific stress range as a specific count which we calculated the
small n is available and based upon the capital and small n we found out D.
Once we know D we can find the cumulative damage and then one can estimate the
service life by equating this damage to 1.
So, we got the service life as 1 in 9.47 years which I will show you now as a very clear
problem.
967
So, this is the typical stress variation which we got for a specific length we have taken
the record length for our analysis as 2000 seconds, we then plotted the stress range for
the number of counts from the figure directly.
968
Once we get this, we are able to get the small n and the capital N value for a specific
stress range.
I wish that, let us try to do the whole program though whole exercise by a computer
program. So, the MATLAB coding for estimating fatigue damage and service life is now
available on the screen this program actually estimates the fatigue damage and service
life of the structure ms excel file with stress variation is the input required for this
969
program in excel as format which reads the file directly then, it specifies the time for
which simulation is done.
It plots the stress histogram and then a typical output as Total Fatigue Damage and
Service life or as an output for this particular problem the Total Fatigue Damage is value
given on the screen now and the service life is estimated as 13.995 years which is from
the computer program. Whereas, we can see the stress bin which is plotted in this screen
now at this movement which was done by manual calculation, we can see the stress bin
plotted which is an output from the computer program and this figure as well as output
what we have here are exactly same.
So, this program actually computes exactly the stress bins which gives you the stress
range and equivalent number of n values So, this equation uses governing equation log N
is log a minus m log S log a for this problem is given as 15.835 and m is taken as 4 so
this is actually as per DNV- RP- C203 Table 2-3.
Let us say for example, one specific value the stress range is 31.632. Let us say 31.632
for 31.632 the capital n value is computed from the above equation which is log N is
equal to 15.835 minus 4 log 31.632 in this case it is log to the base 10 so log N is 9.834.
Therefore, N is 10 power 9.834 which gives me 6.83 10 power 9 small n from this figure
is found to be this is capital n and this is small n is found to be 1. So, now D is estimated
as small n by capital N which becomes 1.46 10 power minus 10 which is seen here.
970
Similarly, for various stress ranges similar n are calculated then capital N is calculated
from this equation and D is estimated as you see from this table which is a same
procedure what we had in the last example.
So, now the Total damage estimated is summation of i equals 1 to m n by n which is 4.53
into 10 power minus 6 for this problem so this was estimated for 200 seconds sorry 2000
seconds. Therefore, fatigue damage for 1 second is 4.53 10 power minus 6 by 2000. But I
do not want to know the damage, but I want to know the service life of the structure.
So, in a year the damage could be will be equivalent to 4.53 into 10 power minus 6 by
2000 this is for 1 second 60 60 24 and 365 which comes to 0.0714. So, friends we all
know that this d should be equivalent to one to estimate the service life. So, the fatigue
damage is 0.0714 in 1 year. Therefore, service life is 1 by 0.0714 which will be 13.99
years so let us say 14 years. So, the damage would be equivalent to 1 in 14 years which
is now amounting to the service life of the structure. So, the corresponding coding gives
you the service life estimate as 13.995 and the total fatigue damage comes to around this
value.
971
So as a summery, we have learnt how the fatigue damage estimate is estimated in

triceratops, we have also learnt what is triceratop very briefly. So, new generation
platform which is conceived for ultra deep waters we have understood from the dynamic
t0 variation that is tether tension variation how one can compute the stress history and
then the stress histogram from the histogram find N, observe small n, find D and then
calculate service life.
We have also given the computer program to estimate the service life of the platform. So,
the lecture summarises and this is the last lecture what we have as for as module 3 is
concerned is very interesting that we should be able to give some tutorial solutions. So,
tutorial solution will be posted in the NPTEL website. There will be lot of numerical
examples which will be asked we solved numerical problems.
So, try to attend these problems and solve these tutorials for yourself practice I have
already given the list of references, please look in to the references read the papers
related to this and additional reading in terms of design codes, learning more about
fatigue damage, learning more about stochastic process is a very good homework for
you.
972
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SALE
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(044) 2257 5905/08

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INDEX

S. No Topic Page No.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:16)

In the second module we will pick up applications of these problems to offshore

(Refer Slide Time: 02:59)

(Refer Slide Time: 04:25)

Therefore, I can make a statement now to solve statically indeterminate structural

(Refer Slide Time: 06:28)

So, we should clearly understand; what is indeterminacy in terms of problem formulation

(Refer Slide Time: 16:07)

(Refer Slide Time: 00:17)

(Refer Slide Time: 00:21)

(Refer Slide Time: 00:34)

So, it is a number of independent components of joint displacements; the moment I say

So friends, we can see kinematic indeterminacy which is associated with stiffness

(Refer Slide Time: 04:40)

(Refer Slide Time: 05:13)

So, one is focused on static determinacy, other is focused on kinematic indeterminacy.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:22)

(Refer Slide Time: 13:01)

(Refer Slide Time: 13:14)

(Refer Slide Time: 13:30)

Then we discussed about indeterminacy. We spoke about two types of indeterminacy

(Refer Slide Time: 15:36)

Thank you very much.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:17)

(Refer Slide Time: 00:43)

(Refer Slide Time: 03:15)

(Refer Slide Time: 09:27)

(Refer Slide Time: 12:50)

(Refer Slide Time: 14:27)

(Refer Slide Time: 16:36)

(Refer Slide Time: 00:18)

(Refer Slide Time: 00:22)

(Refer Slide Time: 01:58)

So, my matrix is 1, 5, 2, 0, 4, 1, 0, 2, 1; this is my A matrix; let us find; try to find the

Alpha 2 3 minus 1 2 plus 3 determinant of 1 5 and 0 2 which will be minus 2 alpha 3 3 3

And hence A inverse is adjoint of A by determinant of a which can be 1 by 2 of 2 0 0

(Refer Slide Time: 08:20)

(Refer Slide Time: 10:12)

Therefore I can write this in matrix form 1, 5, 2, 0, 4, 1, 0, 2, 1 of x 1, x 2, x 3 as 2 5 and

(Refer Slide Time: 15:26)

Thank you very much.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:17)

Let us explain this by a set of algebraic equations.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:52)

then the above set of eqautions can be also grouped.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:09)

Let us see what is the advantage of doing this.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:51)

Let us write down y, we can see the size y is n into 1 A 1 is n by q, A 2 is n by n minus q,

(Refer Slide Time: 09:02)

(Refer Slide Time: 10:49)

Having said this, let y be A x. That is, y 1 y 2 y n should be a 11 a 12 a 1q then a 1q plus

(Refer Slide Time: 14:38)

(Refer Slide Time: 16:40)

(Refer Slide Time: 00:18)

(Refer Slide Time: 00:21)

(Refer Slide Time: 02:26)

(Refer Slide Time: 03:36)

We also know that B 12 which is actually inverse of A 12 will be 0, similarly B 21 is

(Refer Slide Time: 04:46)

Similarly, I can find A 22 inverse as 2 1 5 3.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:08)