Science of the Total Environment 912 (2024) 168822

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Science of the Total Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv

Review

A comprehensive review on the preparation of biochar from digestate

sources and its application in environmental pollution remediation
Zhou Fu a, Jianwei Zhao a, *, Dezheng Guan a, Yuxin Wang a, Jingliang Xie a, Huawei Zhang a,
Yingjie Sun a, *, Jiangwei Zhu b, Liang Guo c
a
School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Qingdao University of Technology, Qingdao 266520, China
b
Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
c
Key Lab of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Pyrolysis temperature, time, and heat­

ing rate are key factors affecting
biochar.
• Metal modifications increase the active
sites for adsorption and catalysis.
• Biochar improves anaerobic digestion
mainly by enhancing electron transport.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Editor: Qilin Wang The preparation of biochar from digestate is one of the effective ways to achieve the safe disposal and resource
utilization of digestate. Nevertheless, up to now, a comprehensive review encompassing the factors influencing
Keywords: anaerobic digestate-derived biochar production and its applications is scarce in the literature. Therefore, to fill
Characteristics of digestate this gap, the present work first outlined the research hotspots of digestate in the last decade using bibliometric
Biochar
statistical analysis with the help of VOSviewer. Then, the characteristics of the different sources of digestate were
Modification method
summarized. Furthermore, the influencing factors of biochar preparation from digestate and the modification
Anaerobic digestion
Resistance genes methods of digestate-derived biochar and associated mechanisms were analyzed. Notably, a comprehensive
synthesis of anaerobic digestate-derived biochar applications is provided, encompassing enhanced anaerobic
digestion, heavy metal remediation, aerobic composting, antibiotic/antibiotic resistance gene removal, and
phosphorus recovery from digestate liquor. The economic and environmental impacts of digestate-derived bio­
char were also analyzed. Finally, the development prospect and challenges of using biochar from digestate to
combat environmental pollution are foreseen. The aim is to not only address digestate management challenges at
the source but also offer a novel path for the resourceful utilization of digestate.

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: zhaojianwei@qut.edu.cn (J. Zhao), yjsun1971@126.com (Y. Sun).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168822
Received 5 September 2023; Received in revised form 21 November 2023; Accepted 22 November 2023
Available online 1 December 2023
0048-9697/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Z. Fu et al.
1. Introduction
Resource scarcity and environmental pollution are two major chal­
lenges facing us today. Anaerobic digestion technology offers an effec­
tive solution to environmental pollution, serving as a crucial pathway
for the treatment, resource recovery, and energy utilization of organic
solid waste (Neshat et al., 2017; Chozhavendhan et al., 2022; Zhang
et al., 2023a; Zhang et al., 2023b; Liu et al., 2022e). As of 2018, China
had around 39 million household biogas digesters and approximately
108,000 biogas plants, producing over 11 billion cubic meters of biogas
(Huang et al., 2022). While anaerobic digestion serves as an environ­
mentally friendly method for generating clean energy like biogas, it also
generates substantial residues known as digestate (Kaur et al., 2020;
Dutta et al., 2021; Zhao et al., 2023a; Zhao et al., 2023b; Liu et al.,
2021). It was reported that China produced >200 million tons of
digestate annually, and the production of digestate had sharply risen due
to the rapid expansion of anaerobic projects (Jin et al., 2016). Digestate,
due to its high organic matter and nutrient content (including nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium and carbon compounds) can be used as a fertil­
izer and soil conditioner (Qiao et al., 2020). However, the potential
presence of pathogens and heavy metals in digestate can limit this
application (Petrovič et al., 2021). Additionally, non-dissolving or
recalcitrant organic and inorganic compounds remain in the residual
anaerobic digestate (Wang and Lee, 2021). If not properly managed,
arbitrary disposal of digestate can lead to severe environmental pollu­
tion, impacting nearby crop growth, posing significant health threats,
and constituting a wasteful misuse of resources (Li et al., 2020; Xu et al.,
2022b). Therefore, a rational and effective approach to digestate man­
agement and utilization is urgently needed.
The characteristic of abundant organic carbon content in digestate
makes it an excellent source for producing biochar. Digestate-derived
biochar offers a new approach for the resource utilization of digestate
(Wang et al., 2022d; Chozhavendhan et al., 2022). It is found that
digestate-derived biochar not only holds cost advantages but also
demonstrates superior carbon quality and exceptional adsorption
properties compared to biochar produced directly from undigested
feedstocks (Maroušek et al., 2023; Stefaniuk and Oleszczuk, 2015; Ste­
faniuk et al., 2016). Bogusz et al. (2017) discovered that biochar pro­
duced from mixed-source digestate, including corn silage (55 %), straw
(15 %), sugar beet pulp (15 %), fruit residue (10 %), and manure (5 %),
through high-temperature pyrolysis exhibited enhanced adsorption ca­
pacity and removal ability for Cd2+ and Ni2+ in wastewater. Inyang et al.
(2010) found that anaerobically digested sugar beet pulp digestate-
derived biochar possessed higher pH, specific surface area, cation ex­
change capacity (CEC), anion exchange capacity (AEC), hydrophobicity,
and greater surface negative charge compared to undigested sugar beet
pulp biochar. Yao et al. (2011) reported that sugar beet tailings
digestate-derived biochar produced via slow pyrolysis at 600 ◦ C
exhibited higher yield, larger specific surface area, and enhanced
phosphate removal capacity (approximately 73 % removal rate)
compared to original sugar beet tailings biochar. Liu et al. (2022a)
discovered that adding kitchen waste digestate-derived biochar to an
anaerobic co-digestion system with sludge enhanced methane produc­
tion (432.2 mL/g) more effectively than coconut shell or corn straw
biochar. This might be attributed to the richer functional groups, greater
porosity, and fragmented structure of kitchen waste digestate-derived
biochar, enabling it to play a more substantial role in enhancing
anaerobic digestion systems. With its significant attributes, including
extensive surface area, pore size, excellent adsorption performance, and
alkaline pH, digestate-derived biochar presents promising prospects. In
recent years, the preparation of biochar from digestate has received a lot
of attention from scholars. Catenacci et al. (2022) focused on the pro­
cesses for char production from anaerobic digestate and the biochar and
hydrochar applications including agricultural application, pollutants
adsorption, energy recovery, electrochemical technologies, and cata­
lysts production. Wang et al. (2023b) focused on the thermochemical
2
Science of the Total Environment 912 (2024) 168822
treatments on digestate and the biochar and hydrochar applications
including land application, fuels, adsorbents, additives, recalcitrant
compound degradation/removal, etc. The above literatures have well
promoted the development of biochar technology from digestate.
However, an overview of digestate based on the bibliometric method is
rare. In addition, the mechanisms of digestate-derived biochar in envi­
ronmental management especially in enhanced anaerobic digestion of
organic matter, heavy metal remediation, aerobic composting, anti­
biotic/resistance gene removal, and phosphorus recovery from digestate
liquor have rarely been systematically outlined.
Therefore, to address the aforementioned research gaps, this work
primarily delves into the key influencing factors for preparing biochar
from digestate—namely, digestate feedstock, pyrolysis temperature,
calcination time, and pyrolysis rate—by combining the fundamental
characteristics of digestate. Additionally, this research investigates
methods for modifying digestate-derived biochar. Finally, a compre­
hensive and systematic overview of the applications of digestate-derived
biochar is provided. The aim is to not only address digestate manage­
ment challenges at the source but also offer novel pathways for the
resourceful utilization of digestate. This work provides valuable insights
for expanding the applications of digestate-derived biochar, holding
practical significance.
2. Statistical analysis of bibliometrics
In this study, we utilized the Web of Science core dataset and
employed search terms such as “biogas residue,” “digestate,” and
“digestive residues” to retrieve literature related to digestate published
from January 1, 2013, to December 31, 2022. A total of 5758 relevant
publications with 18,767 keywords were effectively retrieved.
According to bibliometric theory, the number of publications can
indicate the scientific community’s attention to a specific research field,
reflecting the research level, development speed, and progress in that
area (Yang et al., 2021b). Citation frequency serves as a crucial indicator
for measuring paper importance and academic influence. Fig. 1a depicts
the annual distribution of publications and changes in citation frequency
regarding digestate literature over the past decade. From Fig. 1a, it is
evident that the number of publications related to digestate has
exhibited a growing trend from 2013 to 2021, with the highest peak
observed in 2021 with 966 publications. The publication counts for
2022 slightly decreased compared to 2021, which might be due to
varying journal review timelines and publication constraints, resulting
in delayed effects. Conversely, the citation frequency of digestate liter­
ature has consistently increased over the years. Overall, these trends
indicate significant research achievements in the field of digestate over
the past decade, with widespread attention from scholars worldwide on
issues related to digestate management and subsequent applications.
Utilizing the keyword analysis function in VOSviewer, 18,767 key­
words are extracted from a total of 5758 relevant publications in the
field of digestate over the past decade. With a minimum co-occurrence
set at 50 times, 184 keywords are identified that met the criteria and
conducted the following visual analysis, as illustrated in Fig. 1b. The size
of the circles in Fig. 1b represents the volume of relevant literature,
while the thickness of lines connecting circles signifies the closeness of
relationships between keywords, with different colors indicating distinct
categories (Concari et al., 2022). These 184 keywords were categorized
into four clusters, displaying high levels of interconnectedness.
The red cluster, designated as Cluster 1, primarily contains keywords
such as “digestate,” “biochar,” “pyrolysis,” “manure,” “compost,” and
“recovery.” Centered around digestate, this cluster showcases various
pathways and utilization effects of digestate from diverse perspectives.
Cluster 2, depicted in blue, incorporates keywords like “anaerobic
digestion,” “co-digestion,” “methane production,” and “sewage-sludge.”
Focusing on anaerobic digestion and co-digestion processes, this cluster
highlights the methane production from different source materials.
Cluster 3, marked in green, encompasses keywords like “biomass,”
Z. Fu et al.
“waste,” “residues,” “rice straw,” “wheat-straw,” and “ethanol.”
Centralizing around biomass, this cluster illustrates the different prod­
ucts obtained from various source materials during the biogas produc­
tion process.
Cluster 4, represented in yellow, involves keywords like “biogas,”
“energy,” “management,” and “life cycle assessment.” Revolving around
biogas, this cluster presents the multifaceted role of biomass energy in
biogas production.
In Fig. 1c, the distribution of digestate research across various dis­
ciplines is depicted. It reveals that ecological and environmental sci­
ences, energy and fuel, engineering, agronomy, applied microbiology,
and other technology subjects are the top six hot disciplines in digestate
research. This reflects the interdisciplinary and comprehensive nature of
the digestate research field.
According to the findings, a total of 123 countries/regions globally
have contributed to 5758 publications in the digestate field. Fig. 1d
showcases the top 25 countries and regions in terms of publication
volume. China stands out as a leader in this field, with its publication
volume accounting for 22.8 % of the total. The European Union’s 27
member states collectively contribute 3437 publications, representing
59.7 % of the total. This indicates that Europe, driven by rapid devel­
opment in biogas engineering and ecological concepts post-
industrialization, is taking a significant lead in digestate-related
research among other continents.
Fig. 1. Statistical analysis of digestate bibliometrics (a Distribution of annual number of digestate publications and changes in citation frequency, 2013–2022; b
Distribution of hotspots of digestate keywords, 2013–2022; c Distribution of top 10 disciplines of digestate research, 2013–2022; d Top 25 countries and regions in
terms of number of citations in digestate literature, 2013–2022).
3
Science of the Total Environment 912 (2024) 168822
3. Characterization of digestate
Digestate refers to the major by-product produced during the
anaerobic digestion process of organic residues, which is a semi-stable
solid mixture comprising partially degraded organic matter, Macro-
and microelement, minerals, and microorganisms (Dutta et al., 2021;
Wang et al., 2022a). Digestate contains not only a high percentage of
nitrogen, but also macronutrients and trace elements, which can meet
the growth needs of plants. Therefore, digestate can be used as an
effective fertilizer for crops. On the other hand, the organic matter
(humic acids, proteins, etc.) in digestate can contribute to the turnover
of soil organic matter and act as a soil conditioner affecting the bio­
logical, chemical and physical properties of the soil (Makádi et al.,
2012).
However, in recent years, as anaerobic technology has advanced, the
composition of anaerobic fermentation feedstocks has become increas­
ingly complex, resulting in significant variations in the physicochemical
properties of digestate. Both the feedstock and the digestion process
parameters influence the characteristics of digestate. Table 1 summa­
rizes the characteristics of digestate from common organic solid waste
anaerobic digestion processes. Notably, digestate generally exhibits a pH
of around 7 to 9, indicating neutral to slightly alkaline conditions, with a
total nitrogen content ranging from 1.6 % to 4.35 %. This highlights the
presence of abundant organic matter, nitrogen, and phosphorus nutri­
ents within digestate.
The resource utilization of digestate holds significant importance for
Z. Fu et al. Science of the Total Environment 912 (2024) 168822

the sustainable development of large-scale biogas projects. However, a

(Petrovič et al., 2021)

(Petrovič et al., 2021)
substantial amount of digestate has become a challenge that hinders the

(Grigatti et al., 2020)

(Grigatti et al., 2020)
(Cheong et al., 2020)

(Zhang et al., 2014a)

(Wang et al., 2023c)

(Kabaivanova et al.,

(Kabaivanova et al.,

(Wang et al., 2021)

(Wang et al., 2021)
application of anaerobic digestion technology (Li et al., 2020). Improper

(Cao et al., 2019)

(Cao et al., 2019)

(Cao et al., 2019)

(Stoumpou et al.,
handling of digestate can lead to the accumulation of nitrates, phos­
phorus, and heavy metals, causing water and soil pollution (Ponnusamy
Reference

et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2020). Therefore, developing low-cost methods

2020)

2022)

2022)
to treat digestate poses a severe challenge to the traditional biogas in­
dustry. Incineration and landfilling are common methods for solid waste
disposal, also applicable to digestate, but these approaches come with
high environmental risks and low resource utilization efficiency (Luo
carbon
Fixed

2.54

14.9

21.6

20.2
et al., 2020).
/%

–
–
–

–
–

–
–
–
Considering the nutrient-rich composition of digestate, it can be used
as animal feed, crop fertilizer, and more (Song et al., 2021; Ham­
merschmiedt et al., 2021). For instance, Xu et al. (2017) indicated that
solids
Total

24.8

9.63
/%

34

fermented digestate can be used as raw materials for feeding pigs, and
–

–
–
–

–
–
–
–
the addition of ≤15 % fermented digestate to diet of pigs can increase
NH4+-

(g/kg)

the weight gain. However, because of many inputs derived human and
0.234
0.244

0.177

0.175
4.7

animal wastes, digestate’s high salt content presents challenges when

N

–
–
–

–
–

–
–
–
–
using it as fertilizer directly without proper treatment, as it could in­
34.3–53.5

40.3–56.5

42.6–50.6
crease soil salinization risks and negatively impact on the crop growth
20.331
15.942
22.72

34.83

and the ecosystem. Moreover, excessive addition of heavy metals to

31.3
30.2

31.9
/%
TC

livestock feed can lead to excessive heavy metal content in manure, and
–

harmful compounds such as parasites, pathogenic microorganisms, and

55.2–80.1

heavy metals are also present in organic household waste and sludge
57.87
60.18

74.38

60.21

63.46

(Bernardo et al., 2020; Eid et al., 2017). These factors contribute to the
58.8
50.1

85.1

78.4

79.8
/%
VS

–
–

risk of elevated levels of harmful substances in digestate. Therefore,

there are certain safety risks associated with the application of digestate
0.248
0.318
0.44
0.35

0.39
1.35
1.09

as animal feed, crop fertilizer, etc., which should be paid attention to

0.2

0.3

0.4
/%
S

process of digestate treatment in the future.

0.49
0.53

0.23
1.15
1.18

3.67

2.84

In recent years, thermal transformations such as pyrolysis and hy­

1.8
/%
K

–
–
–

drothermal carbonization (HTC) have been widely applied to a wide

range of biomass and solid wastes because of their ability to achieve
0.93
0.51

2.07
1.01
0.86

0.39

0.94

0.71
/%

significant reduction, non-hazardousness and resource recovery. For

P

–
–
–

higher-quality organic solid waste, the HTC combined anaerobic

2.228
1.571
3.49
4.35
3.58

fermentation process can fully realize high-value utilization (He et al.,

3.5
1.6

1.9

2.1

2.0
/%
TN

2022). Moreover, HTC does not require a drying step and has a higher
biochar yield compared to pyrolysis. However, the preparation of solid
8960
(mg/
COD

688

591

fuels through hydrothermal treatment is unlikely to have an advantage

L)

–
–

–
–
–

–
–

–
–
–
–

in terms of product competition due to the low quality of the digestate.

Pyrolysis technology is more thorough in reducing and eliminating
Anaerobic digestion process

Thermophilic wet digestion

organic pollutants than hydrothermal technology, and the biochar pre­

Thermophilic (55 ◦ C) dry
Mesophilic fermentation
Mesophilic fermentation

pared has a wide range of applications (Wang et al., 2023c). Therefore,

Thermophilic (55 ◦ C)
Mesophilic dry-batch

utilizing digestate to produce biochar could be a crucial pathway to

Mesophilic (35 ◦ C)
Wet fermentation

Wet fermentation

mitigate its environmental impact. Currently, research on converting

fermentation

fermentation

fermentation

digestate into biochar through high-temperature pyrolysis, based on the

digestion

composition of digestate, is attracting considerable attention and

becoming a novel direction for its resource utilization (Dutta et al.,
–

–
–

2021; Liu et al., 2022c; Kumar et al., 2021).

48.05
35.66
31.08
Physicochemical properties of different types of digestate.

35.8

28.7

15.7
Ash
/%

4. Analysis of key factors in the preparation of biochar from

–
–
–

–
–

digestate pyrolysis

4.1. Types of digestate feedstocks

Moisture
content

80.27
87.84
85.62
/%

The feedstocks for the preparation of biochar from digestate tend to

–
–
–

–
–

–
–

be diversified, mainly including straw digestate, livestock manure

7.32–7.69

digestate, sludge digestate, food waste digestate and energy crop

digestate. However, the source of digestate feedstock plays a key role in
7.81

7.62

7.88
8.4
8.9
pH

the physical and chemical properties of biochar (Cao et al., 2019).

–
–
–

–
–

–
–

Numerous investigations have shown that the surface morphology,

functional groups, hydrophobicity, stability and other properties of
Organic domestic

Chicken manure

biochar are affected by the variation in the content of cellulose, hemi­

latifolia plant
Sludge+ typha

Swine manure
Raw materials

Kitchen waste
Kitchen waste
Kitchen waste

Energy crops

Cow manure
Wheat straw

Wheat straw

cellulose, lignin and inorganic elements in different feedstocks (Ji et al.,

Pig manure
Food waste

2022; Ahmed and Hameed, 2020; Das et al., 2021). Generally, feed­
waste
Table 1

Sludge

Straw

stocks with high cellulose and hemicellulose content tend to promote the
formation of oxygen-rich groups on biochar. In contrast, source

4
Z. Fu et al.
materials with high lignin content may lead to a highly aromatic
structure within the biochar (Das et al., 2021; Hassan et al., 2020; Ortiz
et al., 2020).
In their work, Wang et al. (2021) discovered that under identical
conditions, biochar produced from straw digestate exhibited a larger
specific surface area when compared to biochar derived from pig and
chicken manure digestate. Furthermore, the biochar produced from
straw digestate had a higher carbon content, but a lower hydrogen
content. Yu et al. (2016) compared the specific surface area of biochar
from two different feedstocks, swine manure digestate and straw
digestate, and the results showed that the specific surface area of swine
manure digestate-derived biochar prepared by pyrolysis at 550 ◦ C for 2 h
was significantly smaller than straw digestate-derived biochar. These
may be due to the fact that straw digestate is enriched with more lignin
and cellulose. Studies have shown that feedstocks with more lignin,
cellulose and hemicellulose are more likely to form pores and higher
surface area during pyrolysis (Cong et al., 2022). Usually, lignin-rich
digestate-derived biochar has higher carbon content, larger specific
surface area and stronger aromaticity, which is favorable for pollutant
removal (Huang et al., 2019). Biochar prepared from biomass with high
lignin content has higher yield and the higher heating value (HHV).
Usually, the HHV of biomass components follow the order, lignin >
cellulose > hemicellulose > ash (Kumar et al., 2020). To sum up,
digestate with higher lignin content can be preferred for the preparation
of biochar.
4.2. Pyrolysis temperature
Pyrolysis refers to the thermal decomposition of dried biomass under
anaerobic or oxygen-deficient conditions at temperatures ranging from
300 to 900 ◦ C. During this process, isomerization, cleavage of chemical
bonds, and small molecule aggregation reactions occur (Cha et al.,
2016). Pyrolysis is a thermal disposal technique that simultaneously
accomplishes the treatment of complex waste components and the
production of high-value added products. It offers advantages of low
energy consumption and minimal emissions (Ding et al., 2016). Previous
studies indicates that pyrolysis was effective in achieving high conver­
sion rates when applied to digestate, with most of the digestate being
transformed into resources such as biochar for beneficial utilization
(Neumann et al., 2015). Temperature, as the most critical control vari­
ables in the pyrolysis process, has a significant effect on the yield and
quality of pyrolysis products. Generally, pyrolysis temperature is an
important factor affecting the yield of biochar, with the increase of
temperature gases such as CH4, CO, and CO2 are emitted more, and the
bound water and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the biomass are
gradually decomposed and precipitated to form biochar with porous
structure (Yuan et al., 2015). To further investigate the effect of pyrol­
ysis temperature on the biochar yield of digestate, Liu et al. (2020)
conducted an experimental investigation using kitchen waste anaerobic
fermentation digestate, and it was shown that the yield of biochar
showed a decreasing trend with increasing pyrolysis temperature, from
44.26 % at 400 ◦ C to 36.13 % at 800 ◦ C. Alghashm et al. (2018) prepared
biochar from kitchen waste digestate, and when the pyrolysis temper­
ature was increased from 400 ◦ C to 600 ◦ C, the yield of biochar from
digestate decreased from 70.35 % to 66.02 %. This trend may be
attributed to the continuous increase in temperature, leading to the
gradual gasification and secondary decomposition of organic substances
within the biochar, formed from initial decomposition (Al Afif et al.,
2020). Consequently, this results in a decreasing biochar yield.
The porosity and specific surface area of biochar are also affected by
the pyrolysis temperature. Numerous studies indicate that as the py­
rolysis temperature increases, the porosity of biochar increases,
accompanied by an enlargement of its specific surface area. This phe­
nomenon is primarily attributed to the release of substantial heat from
the feedstock during heating, causing gaseous products to escape from
the solid phase. This process results in the expansion and disordering of
5
Science of the Total Environment 912 (2024) 168822
internal pores within the feedstock, subsequently leading to an
augmentation in both surface roughness and porosity (Liu et al., 2020).
Table 2 presents the structural characteristics of biochar derived from
various digestate feedstocks at different pyrolysis temperatures. How­
ever, it is not always the case that higher pyrolysis temperatures result in
larger specific surface areas of biochar. In certain scenarios, biochar
produced through high-temperature pyrolysis exhibits lower specific
surface areas. Liu et al. (2022b) found that when the pyrolysis temper­
ature increased from 800 ◦ C to 1000 ◦ C, the specific surface area of food
waste digestate-derived biochar decreased from 76.72 m2/g to 68.95
m2/g. Wang et al. (2021) prepared biochar from pyrolysis of straw
digestate, swine manure digestate and chicken manure digestate,
respectively, and the results showed that when the pyrolysis tempera­
ture increased from 550 ◦ C to 600 ◦ C, the specific surface area of biochar
prepared from straw, swine manure, and chicken manure digestate
decreased from 36.2869 m2/g, 31.7341 m2/g and 30.8243 m2/g to
32.9237m2/g, 29.2719m2/g and 29.2335m2/g, respectively. This phe­
nomenon may be caused by the high temperature that causes part of the
pore structure of the digestate-derived biochar to begin to collapse and
gradually melt, the formation of the liquid phase in the pore space is
filled and thus leads to a reduction in the specific surface area.
In addition, the pH of digestate-derived biochar varies with pyrolysis
temperature. It is shown that the pH of biochar increases with pyrolysis
temperature, and at 400–600 ◦ C, >80 % of the unstable component
carbon in the biochar was converted to difficult-to-degrade aromatic
carbon with increasing temperature (Das et al., 2021). Cong et al. (2022)
found that the pH of digestate-derived biochar gradually increased with
increasing temperature, and when the pyrolysis temperature increased
from 300 ◦ C to 700 ◦ C, the pH of the sludge digestate-derived biochar
increased from 7.05 to 9.29. The increased pH may be due to the
decomposition and volatilization of nitrogen compounds and sulfides in
the digestate at 700 ◦ C. Alghashm et al. (2018) prepared biochar from
food waste digestate and the pH of digestate-derived biochar increased
from 9.19 to 12.52 as the pyrolysis temperature increased from 400 ◦ C to
900 ◦ C. This may be related to the polymerization or condensation re­
action of aliphatic compounds on the surface of biochar (Stefaniuk and
Oleszczuk, 2015). Studies have shown that at lower pyrolysis tempera­
tures the functional groups on the surface of biochar are mainly domi­
nated by hydroxyl, phenolic hydroxyl groups and carboxyl groups, but
with increasing pyrolysis temperatures, the functional groups on the
surface of biochar continue to deoxygenate, dehydrate and condense to
form carbonyl and quinone groups and other functional groups (Zhang
et al., 2019). As the temperature rises, the organic components in bio­
char begin to decompose in large quantities, while the increase of
inorganic components, i.e., the ash content. Ash in biochar is rich in
mineral elements such as potassium, calcium, sodium, and magnesium,
as well as carbonates that become alkaline when dissolved in water.
Generally, a higher ash content in biochar corresponds to a higher pH in
the biochar (Zheng et al., 2022). In addition, the increase in pH may be
caused by the enrichment of alkaline inorganic components and the
elimination of organic matter in biochar. As the temperature increases,
acidic functional groups such as carboxylic acids in the biomass matrix
are eliminated, leading to an increase in the concentration of alkaline
functional groups, which increases the pH of the digestate-derived bio­
char (Al-Wabel et al., 2013).
In summary, within a certain temperature range, the increase in
pyrolysis temperature leads to an augmentation in the specific surface
area, porosity, carbon content, thermal stability, pH, and ash content of
digestate-based biochar. However, the yield, polarity, and acidic oxygen
functional groups decrease with the elevation of pyrolysis temperature.
By analyzing the effect of different pyrolysis temperatures on the per­
formance of digestate-derived biochar in the literature, pyrolysis tem­
perature in the range of 550 ◦ C to 900 ◦ C is recommended for digestate-
derived biochar production depending on the properties of digestate-
derived biochar, such as specific surface area, pH, etc.
Z. Fu et al. Science of the Total Environment 912 (2024) 168822

Table 2
Structural characteristics of biochar at different digestate feedstocks and pyrolysis temperatures.
Types of digestate Pyrolysis temperature Yield Specific surface area Average pore size Micropore volume Reference
(◦ C) (%) (m2/g) (nm) (cm3/g)

Wine lees digestate 300 – 2.442 1.195 0.0016 (Cong et al., 2022)
500 4.452 1.189 0.0029
700 5.531 1.191 0.0028
Mushroom digestate 300 – 2.102 1.191 0.0011 (Cong et al., 2022)
500 6.631 1.190 0.0036
700 70.271 1.176 0.0553
Sludge digestate 300 – 2.493 1.196 0.0010 (Cong et al., 2022)
500 3.122 1.191 0.0021
700 29.874 1.183 0.0237
Food waste digestate 400 70.35 17.91 – – (Alghashm et al., 2018)
500 68.25 19.05
600 66.02 21.68
Pig manure digestate 400 85.51 10.7435 – – (Wang et al., 2021)
500 84.58 22.6527
550 84.46 31.7341
Chicken manure digestate 400 86.73 10.3792 – – (Wang et al., 2021)
500 86.61 24.2949
550 86.47 30.8243
Straw digestate 400 86.96 12.8362 – – (Wang et al., 2021)
500 82.23 27.392
550 81.37 36.2896

4.3. Pyrolysis time 4.4. Heating rate

Studies have shown that pyrolysis time affects the yield and
carbonization of biochar, and longer residence time during pyrolysis
leads to more carbonized biochar with less unstable organic matter,
which is less susceptible to microbial attack (Leng and Huang, 2018).
Furthermore, at the same pyrolysis temperature, the yield of biochar
tends to decrease with an increase in residence time (Zhang et al.,
2015a). In a work examining the influence of residence time on the
specific surface area and pore characteristics of biochar, Lu et al. (1995)
reported that within the range of 500–900 ◦ C, both specific surface area
and pore area increase with longer residence times. However, when the
residence time exceeds 2 h, both specific surface area and pore area start
to diminish. Particularly, at high temperatures, a residence time
exceeding 2 h leads to a rapid reduction in both specific surface area and
pore area. Li et al. (2018) explored the effect of different pyrolysis time
on biochar from digestate and found that the adsorption of ammonia
nitrogen by biochar increased firstly and then decreased with the in­
crease of pyrolysis time. In addition, the maximum adsorption capacity
was reached at the pyrolysis temperature of 550 ◦ C and pyrolysis time of
2 h (Li et al., 2018). The reason for this may be since under the short
pyrolysis time, the digestate is not sufficiently pyrolyzed, resulting in
incomplete carbonization. This may result in a small specific surface
area of the biochar, which could not have enough ammonia nitrogen
adsorption sites, and ultimately lead to a lower ammonia nitrogen
adsorption capacity. Excessive pyrolysis time, on the other hand, may
result in a decrease in surface organic functional groups of the biochar,
which can also have adverse effects on the adsorption of ammonia
nitrogen.
However, it has also been shown that pyrolysis temperature is the
most important process parameter in determining the characterization
of the resulting biochar compared to heating rate and residence time
(Tsai et al., 2018). The effect of residence time is usually dominated by
pyrolysis temperature, and it is sometimes difficult to give a direct
indication of the role of residence time on biochar stability (Leng and
Huang, 2018). In conclusion, strictly control the anaerobic conditions
and pyrolysis temperature, and appropriately prolong the residence time
can help the formation of good spatial structure of digestate-derived
biochar.
Heating rate plays an important role in the pyrolysis process because
the rate of change in heat affects the properties of the pyrolysis products,
especially the biochar, such as porosity, surface area, volatile compound
content and biochar yield (Rangabhashiyam and Balasubramanian,
2019). It has been shown that as the heating rate increases, the biochar
yield decreases while the gas production increases, suggesting that the
higher heating rate promotes the cleavage of organic components and
volatiles in the biochar to form gaseous products (Li et al., 2021). Py­
rolysis can be categorized into three types based on the rate of heating:
slow pyrolysis, fast pyrolysis and flash pyrolysis (Fahmy et al., 2020).
Slow pyrolysis usually occurs in slow heating rate (5–7 ◦ C/min), with
high biochar yield (<35 %) and low yield of bio-oil and syngas (Feng and
Lin, 2017). In this process, long residence time (several hours or days)
results in a fully pyrolyzed biochar product with highly stabilized car­
bon, which does not undergo microbial degradation over long periods of
time (Mukherjee et al., 2022). The main characteristic of fast pyrolysis is
thermal degradation at high heating rate (300 ◦ C/min) with short resi­
dence time (<5 s), so that lignocellulosic components and organic
matter decompose rapidly during thermal treatment. This conversion
provides the high bio-oil yield (75 %) followed by low yield of syngas
and biochar (Feng and Lin, 2017). Flash pyrolysis is performed at high
temperature process using higher heating rate (1000 ◦ C/s) and shorter
residence time (30 ms-1.5 s), and the product is mainly bio-oil (<70 %)
(Feng and Lin, 2017). Considering the stability and yield of biochar,
slow heating rate is always the favorable option.
In conclusion, the characteristics of biochar prepared from digestate
are affected by the raw material of digestate, pyrolysis temperature,
pyrolysis time, heating rate and other factors. Pyrolysis temperature in
the range of 550–900 ◦ C, slow heating rate (5–7 ◦ C/min), long reaction
residence time, and digestate feedstock with high lignin content are the
preferred choices to enhance the stability and yield of biochar.
5. Modification of biochar from digestate
After anaerobic digestion, the complex and three-dimensional
structure of lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose interconnection is
broken to a certain extent (Chen et al., 2019). Although digestate-
derived biochar exhibits larger specific surface area, pore volume, and
a highly chemically stable molecular structure, pure digestate-derived
biochar still possesses certain limitations and has room for

6
Z. Fu et al.
improvement. To enhance the physicochemical properties of digestate-
derived biochar, numerous researchers have employed various
methods to modify its characteristics. Studies indicate that modification
of biochar can significantly enhance its activity and increase its potential
application in environmental remediation (Mohan et al., 2014). The
modification mechanism of biochar is shown in Fig. S1. Biochar modi­
fication can be categorized into physical, chemical, and biological
modification, with chemical modification being the most common
approach. Depending on the modifying reagents employed, chemical
modification includes acid treatment, alkaline treatment, modification
with metal salts or metal oxides, organic reagents, nanomaterials,
oxidizing agents.
5.1. Acid modification
The common acid-modifying reagents mainly include HNO3, H2SO4,
H3PO4, HCl, citric acid, acetic acid and so on. The acid modification can
be accomplished in two ways: (1) the raw materials are mixed with acid
reagents and then pyrolyzed to synthesize biochar (Kumar et al., 2022);
(2) the raw materials are pyrolyzed to produce biochar, and then soaked
the biochar with acid reagents (Dong et al., 2017). Acid modification is
the most commonly used method to alter the surface properties of ad­
sorbents. Acid modification primarily involves promoting the dissolu­
tion of soluble substances and generating a substantial amount of gas,
thereby increasing the porosity of biochar, enlarging its specific surface
area, and consequently enhancing its adsorption capacity (Cheng et al.,
2021). In addition, oxygen-containing functional groups formed by acid
modification play an important role in adsorption (Hu et al., 2018). For
example, HNO3 can increase the amount of -COOH on the surface of
biochar, and H3PO4 and H2SO4 can introduce functional groups such as
-SO3H, -P=OOH and -P=O (Jin et al., 2018; Xiong et al., 2018; Cheng
et al., 2017). Ma et al. (2023) employed HCl solution for the modifica­
tion of digestate-derived biochar. In comparison to the unmodified
biochar, the HCl-modified biochar exhibited a rougher surface, an
increased specific surface area, and a more enriched and oxygen-
functionalized porous structure. Furthermore, the acid-modified bio­
char demonstrated higher efficiency in the degradation of pollutants.
Sheng et al. (2022) used citric acid reagent to modify biochar from
digestate, and the modified biochar from digestate showed excellent
adsorption capacity for tetracycline, with an adsorption capacity of
58.25 mg/g, and the adsorption performance was increased by 6 times
compared with that of the original digestate-derived biochar. However,
acid modification also has certain drawbacks. Studies have shown that
modified by acid washing not only removes minerals (K+, Ca2+, Mg2+,
Fe3+, Al3+, etc.) from the ash in the biochar, but also releases potentially
toxic substances (VOCs, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, etc.) that can
be harmful to the microbial community as the biochar ages (He et al.,
2021a; Wang and Wang, 2019).
In conclusion, acid modification increases the specific surface area of
biochar and enriches the surface functional groups of biochar, but it also
causes negative impacts on the environment. Therefore, the above
possible problems should be considered when acid modification is car­
ried out.
5.2. Alkali modification
In addition to acid modification, alkaline modification is also a
commonly employed strategy. In comparison to acid modification,
alkaline modification contributes to the improvement of H/C (stability),
N/C (alkalinity) and lower O/C (hydrophilicity) of biochar (Kumar
et al., 2022). Common alkaline modifying agents include NaOH and
KOH. Alkali modification can be divided into two methods. In one
method, alkali reagents are mixed with raw materials and then pyro­
lyzed to synthesize biochar (Balahmar et al., 2017). In another method,
biomass is mixed with alkali reagent and then pyrolyzed to synthesize
biochar under the anoxic conditions (Dong et al., 2017). Alkaline
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Science of the Total Environment 912 (2024) 168822
modification can increase the porosity, specific surface area, and
oxygen-containing functional groups (such as -OH) of biochar (Peng
et al., 2023). Alkaline modification similarly enhances the adsorption
performance of digestate-derived biochar. Yu et al. (2016) used KOH to
modify swine manure digestate-derived biochar and straw digestate-
derived biochar, and the experimental results showed that the modi­
fied swine manure digestate-derived biochar and straw digestate-
derived biochar both exhibited well ammonium adsorption perfor­
mance in liquid fraction of digestate with the adsorption capacities of
26.82 mg/g and 19.16 mg/g, respectively. Wongrod et al. (2018b) used
KOH to modify sewage sludge digestate-derived biochar, and the results
indicated that the modified digestate-derived biochar increased the
adsorption capacity of As (V) by four times compared to unmodified
biochar. However, if a careful washing procedure (column washing) is
not implemented, a strong release of inorganic and organic compounds
occurs in the biochar after KOH treatment, altering the adsorption
properties and affecting As (V) adsorption. It was shown that KOH
modification effectively enhanced the adsorption capacity of digestate-
derived biochar, but also promoted As (III) oxidation, especially in the
case of incomplete washing (Wongrod et al., 2019). Therefore, contin­
uous and adequate washing of KOH-modified digestate-derived biochar
is crucial.
5.3. Metal salt solution, metal oxide modification
The common metal salt and metal oxide modification reagents
include FeCl3, MgCl2, AlCl3, ZnCl2, FeSO4, MgO, etc. The modification of
metal salts or metal oxides can be accomplished in two ways: (1) the raw
materials are mixed with metal salts or metal oxides and then pyrolyzed
to synthesize biochar; (2) the raw materials are pyrolyzed to produce
biochar, and then soaked the biochar with metal salts or metal oxides
(Wang and Wang, 2019). The addition of metal salt reagents or metal
oxides can increase the metal element content in biochar, and the doping
of metal elements can lead to significant changes in the properties of
biochar. For instance, FeSO4/FeCl3 modification can generate γ-Fe2O3 or
Fe3O4 on the surface of the biochar thus making the biochar magnetic
and contributing to the recycling of the biochar (Wang and Wang,
2019). ZnCl2 modification can be used as a dehydrating agent to lower
the carbonization temperature, inhibit tar production and promote
stomatal formation and fiber expansion, leading to an increase in the
pore structure and specific surface area of the biochar (Liu et al., 2015).
It has been shown that metal oxides or metal salts modified biochar has
good electrostatic attraction, precipitation and anion exchange capacity
(Wu et al., 2019).
Metal salt solution, metal oxide modification similarly enhances the
adsorption performance of digestate-based biochar. Liu et al. (2019)
produced a magnetic digestate-derived biochar loaded with MgO by
pyrolysis through chemical co-precipitation of MgCl2/FeCl3 on mixed
digestate from the garden and vegetables. It was found that the
adsorption of PO3−4 by the modified digestate-derived biochar at 600 C
◦
was about 70 mg/g and it was about 3.5 times higher than that of the
unmodified biochar, and the maximum adsorption capacity was up to
149.25 mg/g. Xia et al. (2016) experimentally found that the maximum
specific surface area of digestate-derived biochar was prepared by
mixing swine manure digestate with ZnCl2 solution pyrolysis, and its
surface area was increased by 4.2 times compared with unmodified
digestate-derived biochar, and it had the maximum capacity of
adsorption for As3+.
Modification with metal oxides or metal salt solutions can lead to the
partial blockage of pores in biochar. However, the specific surface area
of metal oxides is higher than that of low-specific-surface-area biochar
(Trakal et al., 2016). Therefore, for biochar with low specific surface
area, modification with metal oxides or metal salt reagents can increase
its specific surface area. On the other hand, high-specific-surface-area
biochar may experience a reduction in specific surface area due to
pore blockage. In addition, metal modification may cause the risk of
Z. Fu et al.
leaching of metal ions. Study has shown that metal-modified biochar
could cause pollution of water bodies by shedding metal ions (Du et al.,
2023). Moreover, functional agents used for metal-modified biochar
could release secondary pollutants such as metal ions, which has the
negative impact on the environment (Yang et al., 2021a).
5.4. Organic reagent modification
The common organic modifying reagents include chitosan, poly­
ethyleneimine, methanol, glutaraldehyde, urea, etc. Organic reagent
modification can be divided into two ways: In one method, organic re­
agent is mixed with raw materials and then pyrolyzed to synthesize
biochar (Qiao et al., 2020). In another method, biomass is mixed with
organic reagent and then pyrolyzed them to synthesize biochar (Kumar
et al., 2022). Organic reagent modification plays an important role in
altering the properties of biochar and can cause changes in many aspects
of biochar properties. Firstly, organic reagent modification can effec­
tively increase the abundance of functional groups on the surface of
biochar. It has been shown that chitosan can increase the content of -OH
and -NH2 functional groups on the surface of biochar after modification
due to the abundance of -OH and -NH2 (Shi et al., 2020). The cross-
linking reaction during the modification of polyethyleneimine also in­
troduces nitrogen-containing groups (Liu et al., 2015). In addition,
organic reagents can change the elemental composition of biochar and
affect the aromaticity, polarity and hydrophilicity of the biochar surface
(Liu et al., 2015; Shi et al., 2020). Qiao et al. (2020) prepared modified
biochar by mixing urea with digestate and then pyrolyzing it. The results
showed that the addition of urea introduced nitrogen-containing func­
tional groups into the biochar, which could strengthen and promote the
interaction between the biochar and CO2, and thus significantly
improved the CO2 uptake of biochar from digestate. The maximum CO2
uptake (1.22 mmol g− 1) of the biochar prepared by pyrolysis was ach­
ieved when the mixing ratio of urea and digestate was 1:1. It has also
been shown that organic reagents can promote the dissolution of
harmful compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and di­
oxins in biochar and reduce the environmental risks of biochar (Lyu
et al., 2016).
5.5. Nanomaterial modification
Nanomaterials such as metal nanoparticles, graphene, graphene
oxide, carbon nanotubes, and magnetite nanoparticles are characterized
by large specific surface area and high capacity for the adsorption of
pollutants, but they are costly and have some environmental risks
(Anjum et al., 2019). The modification of biochar by nanomaterials has
the characteristics of reducing the environmental risks and economic
costs of nanomaterials, inhibiting their agglomeration, and preventing
them from being oxidized by air, while retaining the excellent properties
of nanomaterials (Zhu et al., 2018). Nanomaterial modification can be
divided into two ways: (1) the biomass feedstock is mixed with nano­
particles and then pyrolyzed in the presence of nitrogen to synthesize
biochar; (2) the raw materials are pyrolyzed to produce biochar, and
then impregnated the biochar with nanoparticles (Hassan et al., 2020).
Studies have shown that biochar modified with nanomaterials usually
exhibits great improvement in terms of functional groups, specific sur­
face area, pore size distribution, surface active sites, catalytic degrada­
tion, and ease of separation, and has a strong pollutant removal capacity
(Tan et al., 2016). Wang et al. (2023d) used nanomagnetite to modify
digestate-derived biochar, and it was found that the specific surface area
of digestate-derived biochar was increased by about 81.8 % after the
modification. The larger specific surface area provided more attachment
sites for microorganisms, facilitated the enrichment of microorganisms,
favored the rapid establishment of direct interspecies electron transfer
(DIET), and promoted the production of methane. Fu et al. (2017)
loaded nano-Cu onto digestate-derived biochar, and the modified
digestate-derived biochar was experimentally found to have a larger
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Science of the Total Environment 912 (2024) 168822
specific surface area and pore volume. Additionally, the tetracycline
could form complexes with Cu (II) and attach to the biochar, further
improving the adsorption and degradation efficiency of tetracycline in
water.
5.6. Oxidizer modification
The principle of oxidative modification involves oxidizing the sur­
face substances of biochar and forming oxygen-containing functional
groups on the biochar surface, thereby enhancing its adsorption capacity
for pollutants (Wang et al., 2019). The common oxidizing agents are
H2O2, KMnO4, etc. Typically, oxidation-modified biochar is prepared by
soaking the biochar in oxidizing agents, followed by filtration, washing
and drying (Hassan et al., 2020). Wongrod et al. (2018a) used H2O2 to
modify the biochar from sewage sludge digestate, and the results
showed that the modified biochar had a strong adsorption capacity for
Pb in water. Jiang et al. (2018) modified swine manure digestate-
derived biochar with KMnO4, and it was found that the modified
digestate-derived biochar had a larger specific surface area and pore
volume, which were increased by 11.225 and 4.31 times, respectively,
compared with that before modification. Moreover, the digestate-
derived biochar modified by KMnO4 formed the structure of MnOx,
which produced a strong adsorption effect on heavy metals and antibi­
otics through the combination of the oxidation state of Mn (such as Mn3+
and Mn4+) and different phases (such as β-MnO2, δ-MnO2, etc.) (Jiang
et al., 2018).
Different types of modification approaches have indeed increased the
biochar’s specific surface area and pore volume, as well as enriched the
variety and concentration of functional groups. However, these modi­
fications also come with certain drawbacks. Among them, the advan­
tages and drawbacks of each biochar modification methods are shown in
Table 3. Alkaline modification leads to higher surface aromaticity ratios
and higher nitrogen to carbon ratios but lower oxygen to carbon ratios
compared to acid modification (Kumar et al., 2022). It is important to
note that acid or alkaline solution needs to be handled after modifica­
tion, which complicates the biochar preparation process. Oxidizer
modification can increase the oxygen-containing groups on the surface
of biochar. However, the cost and handling of oxidizers limit their
application. To promote recycling of the oxidizer solution would be a
way to reduce costs. Compared with other chemical modifications,
metal or metal oxide modifications are mainly used to increase the
active sites for adsorption and catalysis. However, studies have shown
that metal-modified biochar could cause pollution of water bodies by
shedding metal ions (Du et al., 2023; Rajapaksha et al., 2016). There­
fore, further research measures should be taken to improve the stability
of metal ions on biochar. To sum up, when considering the modification
of biochar, various factors need to be taken into account, including costs,
byproducts, and the efficiency of pollutant remediation.
6. Applications of digestate-derived biochar
6.1. Promotion of anaerobic digestion processes
Biochar, as a carbon-rich material, has the advantages of high carbon
content, high cation exchange capacity, large specific surface area, and
good stability compared to other carbon materials (Lee et al., 2017;
Rizwan et al., 2016; Zhao et al., 2022). Biochar used to enhance
anaerobic digestion performance is mostly exogenously added, and the
common feedstock for biochar production includes straw, wood, and
livestock manure. In comparison with exogenous biochar, digestate-
derived biochar offers geographical advantages. Digestate-derived bio­
char can be directly produced from digestate and utilized within local
biogas systems, thereby further enhancing anaerobic digestion. This
approach promotes system circularity, cost savings, and reduction in
greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions (Li et al., 2022a; Zhao et al., 2021b).
Moreover, digestate-derived biochar is easier to obtain than other
Z. Fu et al. Science of the Total Environment 912 (2024) 168822

Table 3
Advantages, drawbacks and suitable conditions of chemical modification methods.
Modification Advantages Drawbacks Suitable conditions Reference
methods

Acid modification Improve the porosity of biochar, increase
the specific surface area, and introduce
acidic oxygen-containing functional groups
Alkali modification Increase the porosity of biochar, increase
the specific surface area, introduce
hydroxyl functional groups; increase the H/
C, N/C and lower O/C of biochar
Metal salt solution, Increase the active sites for adsorption and
metal oxide catalysis of biochar and has good
modification electrostatic attraction, precipitation and
anion exchange capacity
Organic reagent Enrich the functional groups on the surface
modification of biochar; promote the dissolution of
harmful compounds in biochar and reduce
the environmental risk of biochar
Nanomaterial Show great improvement in terms of
modification functional groups, specific surface area,
pore size distribution, surface active sites,
catalytic degradation and ease of separation
Oxidizer Oxidize the surface material of biochar and
modification form oxygen-containing functional groups
on the surface of biochar
Microporous walls corrode due to acidic
treatment; as biochar ages, it releases
potentially toxic substances
KOH modification requires an
unavoidable washing process, and the
pore size is prone to collapse at high
pyrolysis temperatures
Block part of the pores of the biochar,
and the high specific surface area
biochar will be reduced due to the
blockage of the pores
Chitosan-modified biochar is subject to
ionic inhibition
Biochar modified with metal
nanoparticles, leaching of metal ions
easily leads to secondary pollution
The adsorption capacity of oxidant-
modified biochar varied with the target
pollutant and exhibited a low
adsorption capacity for methylene blue
Chen et al. (2021) mixed biochar with 0.2 (Sajjadi et al.,
mol/L H2SO4 in a thermostatic oscillator 2019; Chen et al.,
for 24 h at 60 ◦ C at 200 r⋅min− 1 and the 2021; Lu et al.,
ratio of biochar to acid reagent was 1:50. 2021)
Lu et al. (2021) mixed dried eucalyptus
powder with 40 wt% H3PO4 solution for 10
h, and the impregnation ratio was 1:2, then
dried and pyrolyzed it.
Yu et al. (2016) immersed 1 g digestate in 1 (Xu et al., 2022a;
g/L KOH solution for 24 h, then dried and Kumar et al.,
pyrolyzed it. 2022; Yu et al.,
Xu et al. (2022a) mixed 10 g biochar with 2016)
500 mL KOH (80 g/L) in a magnetic stirrer
for 24 h.
Wu et al. (2019) mixed 50 g biochar with 1 (Wu et al., 2019;
M MgCl2 solution, then dried and pyrolyzed Trakal et al.,
it. 2016; Long et al.,
Long et al. (2019) impregnated the biochar 2019)
in 1 mol/L metal salt solution for 24 h and
the impregnation ratio was 3 g:1 g.
Qiao et al. (2020) mixed urea with (Gao et al., 2022;
digestate and then pyrolyzing it. The Shi et al., 2020;
optimal weight ratio of urea and digestate Qiao et al., 2020)
was 1:1
Fu et al. (2017) dissolved biochar (2.16 g) (Akhil et al., 2021;
in 250 mL of 27 mmol/L CuCl2⋅2H2O Tan et al., 2016;
solution with stirring and then added 250 Fu et al., 2017)
mL of 54 mmol/L Cu nanoparticles
Wongrod et al. (2018b) placed 2 g biochar (Xu et al., 2022a;
in 20 mL 10 % H2O2 solution and oscillated Wongrod et al.,
at 25 ◦ C for 2 h 2018b)
Xu et al. (2022a) mixed 10 g biochar with
100 mL KMnO4 (0.5 g/L) in a magnetic
stirrer for 24 h

carbon materials and can be effectively utilized as a waste resource.

Numerous studies have been conducted to apply different digestate-
derived biochar to anaerobic digestion systems of various organic
wastes such as livestock manure, food waste, sewage sludge, etc., as
shown in Table S1. By summarizing and analyzing the current literature
on the digestate-derived biochar enhanced anaerobic digestion process,
it can be seen that the enhancement of anaerobic digestion process by
digestate-derived biochar is mainly manifested in the aspects of
improving methane production, alleviating ammonia nitrogen inhibi­
tion, and promoting microbial growth. Because of the high surface area,
high electrical conductivity, rich elemental composition and surface
functional groups, biochar in the anaerobic digestion system mainly
enhances the digestion process by improving the buffering capacity of
the anaerobic system, immobilizing microorganisms, strengthening
electron transfer, and alleviating inhibition, and its mechanism is shown
in Fig. 2.

6.1.1. Enhancing the buffering capacity of anaerobic digestion systems

The addition of digestate-derived biochar improves the buffering
capacity of anaerobic digestion. High anaerobic digestion loads easily
lead to acid accumulation, and the decrease in alkalinity is directly
related to the increase in volatile fatty acids (VFAs). The excessive
accumulation of VFAs during anaerobic digestion can lead to a decrease
in system pH below the optimal growth range (6.8–7.5) for methano­ Fig. 2. Mechanism of digestate biochar to promote anaerobic digestion.
genic bacteria. As a result, the metabolic capacity of methanogenic
bacteria is compromised, leading to reduced methane production and performance (Meng et al., 2020). Furthermore, the substantial specific
even potential system failure (Zhao et al., 2021a). Due to its alkaline surface area, intricate pore structure, and polar functional groups of
nature and the presence of alkali and alkaline earth metal elements on its digestate-derived biochar can effectively improve the alkalinity and
surface, biochar tends to exhibit alkaline properties when dissolved in buffering capacity of anaerobic digestion systems. Li et al. (2022b)
water. This property delays the rate of pH reduction in fermentation employed kitchen waste digestate to produce biochar and subjected it to
solutions, leading to increased efficiency and content of methane gas iron modification. The findings revealed that the addition of iron-
production. Consequently, biochar can enhance anaerobic fermentation modified biochar promoted the biological transformation of organic

9
Z. Fu et al. Science of the Total Environment 912 (2024) 168822

compounds and VFAs. Digestate-derived biochar alleviated the degree of

acidification in high organic load anaerobic digestion systems, leading
to a rapid restoration of system stability. This enhancement further
facilitated the efficient progress of methane production. Liu et al.
(2022a) investigated the impact of digestate-based biochar on the
anaerobic co-digestion of sludge and kitchen waste. Their findings
indicated that compared to coconut shell biochar and corn stalk biochar,
digestate-based biochar exhibited the highest daily methane production.
This observation suggests that digestate-based biochar enhanced the
conversion of organic matter to methane. The reinforcement can be
attributed to the alkaline groups digestate-based biochar carries, which
can neutralize fatty acids and thereby alleviate system acidification. This
underscores the significant role of digestate-based biochar in enhancing
the buffering capacity of anaerobic systems.

6.1.2. Immobilizing microorganisms

Biochar’s surface is characterized by abundant pore structures,
which provide a stable growth substrate for microorganisms within
anaerobic fermentation systems. The attachment and colonization of
microbial populations on the biochar surface can enhance microbial
adaptability during substrate-induced inhibition processes. This in turn
shortens the distance between syntrophic bacteria and methanogenic
archaea, facilitating DIET and the exchange of VFA or other metabolites.
Biochar allows microbial communities to rapidly proliferate and
reproduce, enriching the diversity of populations and increasing mi­
crobial numbers (Chiappero et al., 2020). Li et al. (2022a) added
digestate-based biochar to an anaerobic digestion system significantly
increasing the microbial abundance and diversity of population struc­
ture, and it was shown that digestate-based biochar promoted the
enrichment of Fastidiosipila and Proteiniphilum during anaerobic
fermentation and accelerated the rate of hydrolysis and acidification of
food waste. Wang et al. (2022c) found that the relative abundance of
Methanomassiliicoccus and Methanoculleus in the anaerobic digestion
system supplemented with biochar increased by 71.81 % and 59.6 %,
compared with that of the control group without biochar. Furthermore,
the presence of iron minerals in biochar promotes the degradation of
VFAs, leading to an increase in the abundance of Clostridia and Meth­
anosaeta, which are involved in the production of methane (Sugiarto
et al., 2021). This suggests that biochar derived from digestate can
enrich a more diverse microbial community, enhancing the efficiency
and stability of anaerobic digestion systems.
6.1.3. Enhanced electronic delivery
The favorable electrochemical activity of biochar enables it to serve
as a conductive material that enhances DIET among microbial species
(Chiappero et al., 2020). DIET allows electrons to be transferred more
efficiently from electron donors (fermentative bacteria) to electron ac­
ceptors (methanogenic archaea) through the carbon-based material. The
DIET process does not involve diffusion and redox reactions of transfer
mediums, but it is carried through the extracellular membrane and
transmembrane c-type cytochromes, as well as cilia with conductive
capabilities (McGlynn et al., 2015; Wegener et al., 2015). Therefore, it is
generally recognized as a more efficient mode of interspecies electron
transfer due to its rapid and directional characteristics (Li et al., 2017).
This process promotes methane production and enhances the efficiency
of anaerobic digestion (Qiu et al., 2019). The mechanism of this action is
illustrated in Fig. 3.
The enhancement of the DIET process through biochar has been
widely recognized, and many previous studies have utilized the con­
ductivity of biochar to improve the performance of anaerobic digestion
(Indren et al., 2020; Sun et al., 2022; Johnravindar et al., 2022). Biochar
enhances the DIET process mainly by enhancing the abundance of po­
tential DIET microorganisms and acting as an electron conductor. Li
et al. (2022b) found that digestate-derived biochar could promote
electron transfer between Syntrophomonas and Methanosarcina and
improve anaerobic digestion performance. Liu et al. (2022a) reported
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of the mechanism of enhancing electron transfer
by biochar.
that the addition of biochar promoted the growth of electroactive
Clostridium and other electroactive bacteria, thus digestate-derived
biochar could be used as an electron conduit to promote the DIET and
enhance methane production. This may be due to the high aromaticity in
biochar associated with electrical conductivity, increasing DIET activity,
promoting methane production, and improving the efficiency of
anaerobic digestion (Zhang et al., 2023c). Overall, the establishment of
the DIET mechanism during anaerobic digestion is conducive to the
strengthening of interspecific interactions, and ultimately to the
strengthening of the anaerobic digestion methanogenesis process.
6.1.4. Mitigation of ammonia toxicity inhibition
Anaerobic hydrolysis of organic matter such as proteins releases
ammonia nitrogen during anaerobic digestion. Ammonia nitrogen is
mainly present in the system as NH+ 4 and free ammonia (FAN) (Yenigün
and Demirel, 2013). Due to the fact that ammonia nitrogen is a funda­
mental element for the synthesis of amino acids, proteins, and nucleic
acids, an appropriate amount of ammonia nitrogen can support micro­
bial growth. However, excessively high concentrations of ammonia ni­
trogen can lead to inhibition of methanogenic activity in anaerobic
digestion, disrupting the smooth progress of the process (Jiang et al.,
2019). Biochar mitigates toxic inhibition of anaerobic processes mainly
by promoting DIET, microbial growth, adsorption, pH buffering, and
provision of nutrient salts (Cai et al., 2022). Among them, biochar can
effectively adsorb ammonia nitrogen through electrostatic attraction,
ion exchange, physical adsorption, surface complexation and precipi­
tation to alleviate the adverse effects of high ammonia nitrogen con­
centration on anaerobic digestion. Peng et al. (2023) found that the
addition of digestate-derived biochar to the anaerobic digestion system
could alleviate ammonia accumulation by adsorbing NH+ 4 /NH3, thus
reducing ammonia toxicity and effectively improving the anaerobic
digestion performance. Pan et al. (2019) investigated the effect of bio­
char on the anaerobic digestion performance of chicken manure, and the
experiments showed that biochar reduced the content of total ammonia
nitrogen and FAN by accelerating the conversion of macromolecules to

10
Z. Fu et al.
dissolved substrates, effectively alleviated ammonia nitrogen inhibition,
and improved the buffering capacity of the anaerobic digestion system.
In conclusion, biochar can effectively alleviate the toxicity inhibition
caused by ammonia nitrogen in anaerobic digestion systems, thereby
enhancing anaerobic digestion capacity. However, further clarification
is needed regarding the mechanisms by which digestate-derived biochar
mitigates the toxic effects of ammonia inhibition.
6.2. Remediation of heavy metals
In the process of rapid industrialization and development, heavy
metal pollution has become a significant ecological and environmental
issue that cannot be underestimated. Due to its well-developed porous
structure, abundant surface functional groups, and strong cation ex­
change capacity, biochar possesses significant advantages and potential
applications in heavy metal remediation (Qiu et al., 2021). Currently, a
considerable amount of research has focused on the remediation efficacy
of digestate-derived biochar for pollutants such as lead, cadmium,
copper, arsenic, mercury, and nickel in contaminated soils and water
bodies. The application and remediation effects of different types of
digestate-derived biochar on heavy metals are summarized in Table S2.
In general, biochar directly affects heavy metals mainly through
electrostatic action, complexation, precipitation, ion exchange, physical
adsorption, and redox action (Liu et al., 2022c). The mechanism of ac­
tion is shown in Fig. 4. Heavy metal ions can undergo various in­
teractions with the surface of biochar. They can exchange ions with
surface ions like Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+. They can also form co-precipitates
with metal hydroxides. Additionally, they can complex with functional
groups present on the surface, such as CO2− 3− 2−
3 , PO4 , SO4 and oxygen-
containing functional groups (e.g., -COOH, -OH). Moreover, since the
surface of biochar is often negatively charged, positively charged metal
ions like Hg2+, Cd2+ and Cu2+ are easily adsorbed onto the surface of
digestate-based biochar.
From the characterization analysis, Liu et al. (2022f) found that Hg2+
was attached to digestate-derived biochar mainly through pore
adsorption, electrostatic interactions and surface complexation. Ho et al.
(2017) successfully prepared biochar from sewage sludge digestate
under pyrolysis at 600 ◦ C for 90 min, and the adsorption capacity of six
heavy metals was in the order of Pb2+ > Cd2+ > Cu2+ > Zn2+ > Ni2+ >
Cr6+. Among them, the adsorption of Pb2+ was as high as 51.20 mg/g.
Liu et al. (2022b) pyrolyzed food waste digestate at 400 ◦ C–1000 ◦ C for
100 min to obtain digestate-derived biochar for heavy metal remedia­
tion of As (III) in water. It was showed that the digestate-derived biochar
Fig. 4. Mechanism of action of heavy metal removal by biochar.
11
Science of the Total Environment 912 (2024) 168822
prepared at 800 ◦ C had excellent performance and the maximum
adsorption capacity of As (III) was up to 69.03 mg/g as determined by
the Langmuir isotherm model. Characterization revealed that the
mechanism of action involved precipitation, redox, electrostatic effect
and surface complexation.
However, it has been shown that although the application of swine
manure digestate-derived biochar to the soil significantly reduced the
heavy metal content of the plants, it also increased the heavy metal
content of the soil due to the heavy metal richness of swine manure
digestate-derived biochar (Ayaz et al., 2022). Therefore, when using
digestate-derived biochar for heavy metal remediation, the type and
content of heavy metals in the biochar should be tested and considered
for possible problems such as heavy metal leaching.
6.3. Enhanced aerobic composting
Aerobic composting is a cost-effective and socially acceptable
method for treating solid or semi-solid biodegradable wastes. It can not
only effectively solve the environmental problems of waste, but also the
final compost product can be used to rehabilitate the soil and contribute
to the development of green economy (Ramzani et al., 2017; Yuan et al.,
2017; Zhao et al., 2021c). However, during aerobic composting, if good
ventilation and timely turning of the heap are not done, the heap will
locally agglomerate, resulting in an anaerobic zone, when the activity of
methanogenic bacteria will produce CH4. In addition, the heap may also
release H2S, NH3, VOCs and other malodorous substances, which not
only pollute the environment but also pose a serious threat to people’s
health (Chen et al., 2017; Yuan et al., 2023).
Recently, the selection of biochar as an additive in aerobic com­
posting has become a hot research topic due to its good physical and
chemical adsorption properties, stable porous structure and low cost. It
mainly affects the physical and chemical properties, GHGs emissions
and other factors in the composting process, thus improving the envi­
ronmental conditions of the pile, increasing microbial activity and
accelerating the decomposition process. It was shown that biochar cre­
ates a favorable microbial environment for nitrifying bacteria, aiding in
the conversion of ammonia to nitrate and thus reducing nitrogen loss
during the composting process (Wang et al., 2023a). Adding biochar can
also improve the porosity of the compost pile, increase oxygen con­
centration, and thereby inhibit the growth of methane-producing bac­
teria, leading to a reduction in CH4 production (Liu et al., 2017).
Additionally, biochar provides a suitable protective space and essential
nutrients (such as potassium, calcium, sodium, magnesium) for
Z. Fu et al. Science of the Total Environment 912 (2024) 168822

thermophilic microorganisms during the active phase (Lv et al., 2023).
This improves the composting environment and ensures the quality of
the compost product. In addition, biochar, with its strong adsorption
capacity and well-developed pore structure, can adsorb NH+ 4 to reduce
its availability, thereby reducing NH3 production and emissions (Qu
et al., 2022). Relevant studies have found that, compared with other
additives, the application of biochar to compost can significantly
shorten the warming time and effectively extend the duration of the
high-temperature period (Yuan et al., 2015; Czekała et al., 2016). Thus,
it is beneficial to increase the decomposition rate of organic matter in
compost feedstock. It can also effectively control the GHGs such as CO2,
CH4, N2O, and odor gases such as NH3 and H2S due to the strong
decomposition of carbon and nitrogen substances during aerobic com­
posting (Ouyang et al., 2022; He et al., 2021b).
In addition, the dosages of biochar could have an effect on the
composting process. Studies have shown that the impact of biochar on
reducing greenhouse gas emissions is significantly correlated with the
dosages of biochar added (Yin et al., 2021). Table 4 summarizes the
effect of biochar dosage on composting effectiveness. Notably, biochar
additions generally range from 0 to 25 % (w/w), with approximately 10
% being effective. In general, small doses of biochar had no significant
effect on reducing GHG emissions of compost. Awasthi et al. (2017)
found that the addition of 2–6 % biochar dosages had little effect on the
emissions of these greenhouse gases. In addition, adding excessive doses
of biochar could negatively affect the composting process. Liu et al.
(2017) found that adding >10 % biochar can lead to significant water
loss and heat dissipation in the compost, negatively affecting the com­
posting process.
The application of biochar in aerobic composting can also improve
the quality of compost products, particularly by increasing their nitro­
gen content. The addition of biochar can facilitate the transformation
and fixation of nitrogen, thereby enhancing the presence of nitrogenous
substances in the compost. It can serve as a nitrogen source and carrier,
providing favorable conditions for nitrogen’s biological cycling and
aiding in its absorption and utilization. Wang et al. (2022a) investigated
the effect of digestate-derived biochar on the mixed compost of swine
manure and wolfberry twigs composting, and it was found that
digestate-derived biochar could improve the composting environment
and increase the content of nitrogen in the final product. The loss of
nitrogen in the form of NH3 and N2O during composting decreased from
10.78 % to <5.73 % and from 0.34 % to <0.041 %, respectively, as
compared to the non-addition of digestate-derived biochar. Wang et al.
(2022b) found that the addition of digestate-derived biochar could
increase the temperature of food waste composting, accelerate the
degradation of aromatic proteins, and form humic acids quickly, which
led to rapid humification of the composting process. Furthermore, the
addition of food waste digestate-derived biochar reduced the total vol­
atile sulfur gas emissions by 15–20 %.
These studies have shown that digestate-derived biochar improves
the maturity and fertility of composted products and significantly
modulates the structure and function of microbial communities during
the composting process. Furthermore, the growth of anaerobic bacteria
was inhibited by the digestate-derived biochar, thus effectively reducing
GHGs emissions and nitrogen loss.
6.4. Removal of antibiotic/resistance genes
Antibiotics have a wide range of applications both in healthcare and
livestock and aquaculture due to their good antibacterial, antimicrobial
and bactericidal effects (Sengupta et al., 2013). According to statistics,
China’s antibiotic production and use in 2013 were about 248,000 tons
and 162,000 tons, of which 48 % was used for humans and the rest for
animal husbandry, the amount of use was 9 times that of the United
States and 150 times that of the United Kingdom (Zhang et al., 2015b).
However, due to the poor metabolism of antibiotics, 30 % to 90 % of
their residual components are excreted in their original forms and ulti­
mately enter water bodies, soils, and sediments, leading to accumulation
(Akhtar et al., 2021; Yuan et al., 2022; Chen et al., 2022). This accu­
mulation has significant impacts on the surrounding environment and
ecosystems. More importantly, long-term exposure to antibiotic stress
generates resistant bacteria and resistance genes (ARGs). They can
spread and diffuse in the environment in a variety of ways (Fig. 5a) (Du
et al., 2023), posing a risk of genetic contamination of public health,
food and drinking water, and posing an even greater hazard to ecosys­
tems and human health (Kunhikannan et al., 2021).
The digestate-derived biochar is considered to be an ideal material
for the removal of this new type of pollutant due to its large specific
surface area, obvious pore structure, rich functional groups, environ­
mentally friendly and efficient. The mechanisms of antibiotic adsorption
on biochar are mainly pore filling, hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen
bonding interactions, π-π electron donor acceptor interactions, electro­
static interactions, surface complexation, and ion exchange (Fig. 5b) (Du
et al., 2023). In addition, electrostatic interactions, π-π electron donor
receptor interactions, hydrophobic interactions, surface complexation,
and pore filling are the main mechanisms for the adsorption of ARGs on
biochar (Fig. 5b) (Shao et al., 2022). Yao et al. (2018) prepared

Table 4
Effect of biochar dosage on the effectiveness of compost.
Composting Periods Biochar Preparation Dosages Effectiveness Reference
feedstock conditions

Pig manure and 50 solid 500 ◦ C 2.5 %, 5.0 %, Biochar mitigated NH3 and N2O emissions and protected nitrogen (Wang et al.,
Lycium chinensis days digestate 7.5 % (dry 2022a)
branch filings weigh)
Food waste digestate 50 Food waste 600 ◦ C 6.25 %, 12.5 %, Biochar promoted the humification of the composting, decreased (Wang et al.,
and sawdust days digestate 25 % (dry the NH3 and volatile sulfur compounds emissions and it was 2022b)
weigh) recommended that 25 % biochar was added to reduce odor
emissions.
Food waste digestate 50 Food waste 600 ◦ C 6.25 %, 12.5 %, The group with 25 % biochar promoted the growth of nitrifying (Wang et al.,
days digestate 25 % (dry bacteria, and was beneficial for both nitrogen conversion and 2023a)
weigh) humification during the composting
Food waste digestate 42 Tobacco 450 ◦ C, 2 h 2.5 %, 5 %, 10 Biochar improved carbon degradation and humification rates and (Manu et al.,
and sawdust days stalk % (dry weight) adding 10 % biochar reduces NH3 emissions by 58 % and nitrogen 2021)
losses by 50 %.
Sewage sludge and 11 Rice straw 500 ◦ C, 2 h 5 %, 10 %, 20 % Biochar at 10 % and 20 % dosages strengthened the relationship (Du et al.,
sawdust days (wet weight) between enzyme activity and bacterial communities, further 2019)
increasing the contribution of functional bacterial communities to
composting.
Wheat straw and 58 Wheat straw – 2 %, 4 %, 6 %, 8 Biochar promoted the humification of the composting, decreased (Awasthi
sewage sludge days %, 12 %, 18 % the CH4, N2O and NH3 emissions and it was recommended that 12 % et al., 2017)
(dry weight) biochar was used in sewage sludge compost.

12
Z. Fu et al.
Fig. 5. (a) Sources of antibiotic resistance genes and pathways into the environment (Du et al., 2023) (b) Mechanism of antibiotic and resistance gene removal by
biochar (Du et al., 2023).
sugarcane digestate-derived biochar at 600 ◦ C and found that its
maximum adsorption capacity for sulfamethoxazole and sulfapyridine
was 54.38 mg/g and 8.60 mg/g, respectively. Jiang et al. (2018) used
swine manure digestate to prepare biochar. Among them, the biochar
from digestate modified with KMnO4 solution showed the maximum
removal of antibiotics with 83.76 % and 77.34 % for sulfadimethoxine
and tylosin, respectively.
Biochar was found to directly or indirectly influence the removal of
ARGs from the environment. Wu et al. (2020) found that β-cyclodextrin-
functionalized biochar significantly reduced all detectable ARGs
(including tetW, tetM, sul1, sul2, blaTEM, oxa1, qnrS, ermB and intI1) in
an anaerobic reactive system for wastewater under the combined stress
of heavy metals and dyes in the wastewater treatment system. Study has
shown that biochar affects the distribution of ARGs mainly by influ­
encing Firmicutes and Proteobacteria (Sun et al., 2018). Moreover, the
persistent free radicals in biochar and the produced ⋅OH can directly
destroy the structure of ampicillin resistance gene structure by oxidation
(Wu et al., 2022). Lian et al. (2020) found that the nano-biochar can
remove ARGs by adsorption and fragmentation (hydroxyl radicals
generated by persistent free radicals on nano-biochar play an important
role in the destruction of ARGs). In addition, biochar could improve
environmental factors (carbon sequestration, water, nutrients, soil
porosity structure) in soil and reduce the selective pressure of Cd and
hygromycin on plant endophytes, thus inhibiting the spread of ARGs in
13
Science of the Total Environment 912 (2024) 168822
the soil-plant system (Fu et al., 2021).
The above results suggest that in different environmental systems,
biochar can reduce the environmental risk of the spread of ARGs and
antibiotics by influencing system elements (including bacterial com­
munities and environmental factors) or by directly adsorbing and
destroying them.
6.5. Recovery of phosphate from liquid fraction of digestate
Most of the phosphorus currently used in global agriculture comes
from non-renewable sources, so phosphorus recycling will be key to
meeting the growing demand for agricultural fertilizers (Alberto et al.,
2021). Liquid fraction of digestate, as a recyclable agricultural waste
resource, is rich in phosphorus resources. The recovery of phosphorus
and other nutrients from liquid fraction of digestate can not only purify
water quality, but also realize the recovery and utilization of phosphorus
and other nutrients, and solve the problem of phosphorus shortage
(Wang et al., 2020).
The adsorption of phosphorus in liquid fraction of digestate by bio­
char is mainly affected by physical adsorption and chemical adsorption.
Physical adsorption is mainly due to the large specific surface area and
abundant pore structure on the surface of biochar, which provides
abundant adsorption sites for the adsorption of PO3− 4 and promotes the
physical adsorption of PO3−4 on the surface of biochar (Nobaharan et al.,
Z. Fu et al.
2021). Chemisorption is due to the extremely rich hydrogen bond, hy­
droxyl and other functional groups on the surface of biochar, which can
be hydrogen bonded and complexed with PO3− 4 , and promote the
adsorption of PO3− 4 on the surface of biochar (Luo et al., 2023). In
addition, metal ions (Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe3+, Al3+, etc.) bound on the surface
of biochar can not only serve as adsorption sites but also combine with
PO3−4 to form phosphate precipitation to achieve phosphorus removal
(Dai et al., 2020). Luo et al. (2022) used digestate-derived biochar to
recover phosphorus from liquid fraction of digestate. Under the optimal
conditions of OA-HCl leaching and precipitation of ammonium magne­
sium phosphate, the recovery rate of PO34-P was as high as 99.3 %.
Alberto et al. (2021) prepared biochar by mixing digestate with food
waste and cow dung and found that digestate-derived biochar could
adsorb 20 % of phosphate in liquid fraction of digestate. The application
of biochar for the recovery of phosphate from liquid fraction of digestate
is also a promising use of biochar.
7. Economy and environment
The economic viability of biochar production systems depends
largely on the feedstock, production costs and value generated (Mar­
oušek et al., 2023). The cost of digestate is low and during the produc­
tion of biochar, bio-oil and syngas (mainly CO2, H2 and CO) are
produced. Bio-oil is characterized by low calorific value, high viscosity
and water fraction, but it can be upgraded for utilization in a variety of
chemically and fuel lucrative applications, thus reducing the cost of
biochar production to a certain extent (Cavali et al., 2022; Cheng et al.,
2021). However, pre-treatment (drying), pyrolysis and modification of
the digestate can be costly and energy intensive.
Biogas from anaerobic digestion is often used to generate electricity
and heat in combined heat and power (CHP) plants (Monlau et al.,
2015). Nevertheless, the thermal energy available for biogas enhance­
ment may be much lower than the value needed to operate the drying
unit (González et al., 2020). The cost of capital investment is excessive
when considering the integration of anaerobic digestion and pyrolysis.
The high initial capital investment in these plants is a major inhibiting
factor. González et al. (2020) pointed out that unless additional financial
incentives are provided, a market for such power is not in any case
viable. From an energy point of view, the digestate conversion route
through HTC represents an innovative technology that enables the direct
utilization of digestate at high water contents without any drying (Wang
et al., 2023b). However, a study on the economic aspects associated with
digestate-derived hydrochar showed that the price of hydrochar pro­
duction was almost double that of natural gas (Suwelack et al., 2016).
Therefore, there is an ongoing necessity for specialized incentives and
further technological development to promote the commercial appli­
cation of biochar.
Regarding the environment, pyrolysis stabilizes harmful substances
and fixes heavy metals in digestate (Feng and Lin, 2017). In addition, the
use of biochar as an energy recovery medium can reduce the use of fossil
fuels, and the application of biochar as an adsorption medium may have
a lower environmental impact than other removal methods based on
fossil materials (Catenacci et al., 2022).
However, there are also potential environmental risks associated
with digestate-derived biochar. After anaerobic digestion, the charac­
teristics of the digestate are very different from the biomass before
digestion. During anaerobic digestion, microorganisms convert the
organic fraction into CO2 and CH4 (Tayibi et al., 2021). In addition,
many inorganic reagents are added to the digestate coagulation, dew­
atering and stabilization processes. These could result in the higher
concentration of inorganic matter in digestate than in feedstock. Study
has shown that the inorganic components in digestate affect the for­
mation, molecular structure and surface properties of biochar, which
further affects its performance as an adsorbent (Yang et al., 2023). In
addition, higher ash content may cause problems such as slagging,
scaling and corrosion of plant equipment (Catenacci et al., 2022). Due to
14
Science of the Total Environment 912 (2024) 168822
the mineralization of nitrogen during anaerobic digestion, ammonia is
produced, and higher ammonia concentrations combined with an in­
crease in pH facilitates the conversion of NH+4 to free ammonia (Guilayn
et al., 2020). This effect leads to an increased risk of ammonia volatili­
zation during digestate transportation and processing. In addition,
ammonia nitrogen entering the air from the digestate drying process
should be paid attention, because the drying process is often considered
an integral step in pyrolysis. During the drying process, the digestate
releases most of the ammonia nitrogen into the air. After pyrolysis of
digestate, combustion of syngas, bio-oil or biochar as fuel will be
detrimental to the natural carbon and nitrogen cycle (Peng et al., 2020).
Another problem with digestate pyrolysis is that the PAHs is inevitably
formed and presents on the surface of biochar (Wang et al., 2017). In
addition, HCN and heterocyclic-N are produced during the pyrolysis of
nitrogenous organic wastes (e.g. digestate), which may lead to second­
ary contamination (Zhang et al., 2014b).
8. Conclusion and prospect
The recovery of carbon materials from digestate can effectively
promote the efficient utilization of waste and the preparation of new
materials. Compared with other treatment technologies, the preparation
of biochar from digestate is worth promoting because it can realize its
harmlessness, minimization and resourcing while meeting the devel­
opment trend of high efficiency, greenness, recycling and sustainability.
Currently, experimental validations have been conducted on the use
of anaerobic digestion and pollutant adsorption by digestate-derived
biochar. However, there are still certain challenges and gaps to bridge
before the practical industrial application of digestate-derived biochar.
Therefore, in the future, attention should be focused on the following
aspects:
(1) Efforts should be directed towards the comprehensive utilization
of anaerobic digestion byproduct, digestate waste, through
research experiments. This will facilitate the transformation of
innovative outcomes in digestate-derived biochar production
technology.
(2) Due to the varied sources of digestate, there might be concerns
about excess salt content and heavy metal pollution. Biochar
produced from thermal decomposition of digestate may contain
certain levels of pollutants, which could pose leaching risks
during processing and application. Therefore, in the future, it is
important to prioritize the selection of digestate-derived biochar
feedstock and optimize manufacturing processes. Emphasis
should be placed on researching the safe and stable application of
digestate-derived biochar in the environment, aiming to reduce
or eliminate the potential release of toxic pollutants into the
environment.
(3) Currently, research on digestate-derived biochar has primarily
focused on its pollutant removal performance under laboratory
conditions, and effective validation for large-scale practical ap­
plications is still lacking. Therefore, in the future, it is necessary
to expand the scale of experiments and clearly define the appli­
cation prospects of digestate-derived biochar in actual treatment
scenarios.
(4) The digestate-derived biochar as an adsorbent should be further
studied, and research and discussion on environmental samples
with complex pollutant systems should be encouraged. The reli­
ability and stability of digestate-derived biochar as an adsorbent
need to be further clarified.
(5) Efforts should be made to optimize the process of preparing
biochar from digestate, and pay close attention to the treatment
and disposal of waste generated in the preparation process, as
well as metal ion leaching in the modification process of
digestate-derived biochar.
Z. Fu et al.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Zhou Fu: Conceptualization, Methodology. Jianwei Zhao: Funding
acquisition, Writing – review & editing. Dezheng Guan: Software.
Yuxin Wang: Validation. Jingliang Xie: Project administration. Hua­
wei Zhang: Project administration. Yingjie Sun: Supervision. Jiangwei
Zhu: Supervision. Liang Guo: Supervision.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported by the project of Taishan
Scholar Engineering Program (NO. tsqn202306235), China Postdoctoral
Science Foundation (No. 2023T160349 and No. 2019M660162),
Shanghai Key Lab for Urban Ecological Processes and Eco-Restoration
(SHUES2022A09), Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Biotrans­
formation of Organic Solid Waste (SERC2020C05).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168822.
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