Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 345–362

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Tectonophysics

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tecto

Review Article

Final amalgamation of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt in NE China:

Paleo-Asian Ocean closure versus Paleo-Pacific plate
subduction — A review of the evidence
Simon A. Wilde
The Institute for Geoscience Research, Department of Applied Geology, Curtin University, PO Box U1987, Perth, Western Australia 6845, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) evolved through complex closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean from the
Received 15 January 2015 Neoproterozoic to the late Phanerozoic. This caused the Chinese cratons to collide with Eurasia and led to the
Received in revised form 15 May 2015 formation of the world's largest Phanerozoic orogenic belt. Ocean closure commenced in the west and was com-
Accepted 18 May 2015
pleted in the east near Changchun. Closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean in NE China was along the Solonker–Xar
Available online 28 May 2015
Moron–Changchun–Yanji suture and this was likely completed in the Late Permian, although associated activity
Keywords:
continued into the Triassic. There was an overlap in the latest Permian–Early Triassic between terminal activity
Central Asian Orogenic Belt associated with Paleo-Asian Ocean closure and the onset of tectonism associated with subduction of the Paleo-
Paleo-Asian Ocean Pacific plate. This switch in geodynamic setting occurred at ~ 260–250 Ma, and is reflected by a relaxing of
Paleo-Pacific subduction north–south directed compression and the onset of east–west directed processes related to Paleo-Pacific subduc-
NE China tion. By the Early Jurassic, events associated with the westward advance of the Paleo-Pacific plate dominated,
leading to extensive development of I-type granites as far inland as the Great Xing'an Range. From ~140 Ma,
the Paleo-Pacific plate retreated eastward, resulting in an extensional setting in the Early Cretaceous, the
effects of which were enhanced by regional thinning of the lithosphere, commonly attributed to delamination.
Throughout this period, the eastern Asian margin was tectonically complex. The north–south oriented Jiamusi–
Khanka(–Bureya) block was rifted away from the eastern margin of the CAOB in the Late Triassic, but was then
re-united in the Jurassic by westward-advancing subduction that affected both the western and eastern margins
of the block. Accretionary complexes continued to evolve in the Cretaceous along the whole eastern margin of
Asia, with final accretion of the Nadanhada Terrane (part of the Sikhote–Alin accretionary terrane) with the
CAOB at ~130 Ma, followed by the emplacement of S-type granites.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
2. The CAOB in NE China. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
3. Subdivision of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt in NE China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
3.1. Erguna Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
3.2. Xing'an Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
3.3. Songliao Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
3.4. Liaoyuan Terrane. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
3.5. Jiamusi/Khanka Block. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
4. Closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean in NE China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
4.1. Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
4.2. Location. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
5. Paleo-Pacific subduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
5.1. Nadanhada Terrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
5.2. Jiamusi/Khanka Block. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
5.3. Evidence from the granitoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
6. Microcontinental blocks in the Chinese CAOB: what is the evidence? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
7. Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2015.05.006
0040-1951/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
346 S.A. Wilde / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 345–362

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

1. Introduction
The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) extends in a broadly east–
west direction for over 2500 km, from the Urals in the west to the Sea
of Japan in the east. It also extends from the margins of the Siberia
Craton in the north to the Tarim and North China cratons in the south,
a maximum distance of over 1100 km in the west, but reduced to less
than 500 km in the east (Fig. 1). It was earlier referred to as the Altaid
Tectonic Collage by Sengör et al. (1993) and is also known as the Central
Asian Foldbelt in Russia (Sorokin et al., 2011). The majority of the ex-
posed rocks formed between 550 Ma and 100 Ma; by arc accretion ac-
companied by the emplacement of huge volumes of granite in a
variety of tectonic settings (Chen et al., 2000; Jahn et al., 2000a;
Sengör et al., 1993; Wu et al., 2011). The presence of extensive areas
of juvenile crust (Jahn et al., 2000a–c; Wu et al., 2000) has challenged
the traditional view that most continental crust formed in the Precam-
brian. However, the extent of juvenile crust in the CAOB has itself re-
cently been challenged by Kröner et al. (2014), who argue that the
history of the belt goes back to the Mesoproterozic and that most of
the voluminous Phanerozoic granites were derived by reworking of
these rocks. Although Neoproterozoic rocks are widely distributed in
the Russian and Mongolian segments of the CAOB (Badarch et al.,
2002; Buslov et al., 2002; Rytsk et al., 2011; Turkina et al., 2007), they
are much less common in NE China (Wilde et al., 2015; Wilde and
Zhou, 2015).
In NE China, the southern part of the CAOB between the Erenhot–
Hegenshan suture and the North China Craton (NCC) (Fig. 2) is com-
monly referred to as the Xing'an–Mongolian Orogenic Belt (XMOB)

Fig. 1. Location of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) with respect to some of the main tectonic units of Asia, as interpreted by Sengör and Natal'in (1996).
Re-drawn from Sengör and Natal'in (1996) and modified from Wilde et al. (2015).
 S.A. Wilde / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 345–362
Fig. 2. The relation of the Solonker suture zone to the major arc–accretion complexes and the North China Craton in the type locality of the suture.
Modified from Xiao et al. (2003), Wilde and Zhou (2015) and Wilde et al. (2015).
(Xu et al., 2015), but excludes the Jiamusi–Khanka block to the west and
the Sikhote–Alin accretionary complex developed along the Pacific mar-
gin (Fig. 3).
2. The CAOB in NE China
The Solonker–Xar (or ‘Xra’ in several papers) Moron–Changchun su-
ture zone (Fig. 2) is widely reported in the literature to mark the junc-
tion between material that originally accreted to the Siberia Craton in
the north from the arcs that accreted to the Tarim and North China cra-
tons in the south (Sengör et al., 1993; Tang, 1990); thus defining the clo-
sure of the long-lived Paleo-Asian Ocean (Xiao et al., 2003, 2009). The
timing of closure along this complex suture zone is still debated, al-
though there is a growing consensus that it occurred in the late Permian
to Early Triassic (Li, 2006; Wilde et al., 2015; Wu et al., 2007b; Xiao et al.,
2003, 2009).
By contrast, the eastern limit of the CAOB is less clearly defined. Al-
though the north–south trending accreted terranes along the Pacific
margin are commonly excluded from the CAOB, the geological argu-
ment for this is based more on tectonic interpretation rather than
sound reasoning. Indeed events in the Nadanhada Terrane (Fig. 4), the
Chinese segment of the Sikhote–Alin accretionary complex, overlap in
time with significant geological events identified in the CAOB to the
west (Zhou et al, 2014). Furthermore, it remains controversial whether
the combined Bureya–Jiamusi–Khanka block (Fig. 3), that lies inboard of
the Pacific margin terranes, is actually part of the CAOB or a separate
crustal fragment that also owes its location to Paleo-Pacific subduction
(Wilde et al., 1999; Wu et al., 2007a; Zhou et al., 2010b). By implication,
it has commonly been assumed that the CAOB should be defined as the
series of terrane amalgamations that resulted from closure of the Paleo-
347
Asian Ocean, thus excluding events related to Paleo-Pacific subduction.
However, if this is incorrect and re-evaluated, then it may also be appro-
priate to include several terranes within the Japanese Islands as part of
the CAOB, since they are generally agreed to have been located close
to the Asian continental margin in the Mesozoic (Jahn et al., 2000b;
Kojima, 1989; Sun et al., in press).
Another controversial issue is the view that the CAOB contains nu-
merous Precambrian microcontinental blocks of mainly Neoproterozoic
age (Fig. 2) (Jahn et al., 2000a). Although Neoproterozoic rocks are
widely distributed in the Russian and Mongolian parts of the CAOB, as
mentioned earlier they appear to be of limited extent in the CAOB of
NE China, with many of the blocks now considered to be composed
largely of accreted arc volcanic rocks and associated sediments (Wu
et al., 2007b). This then brings into question the nature of the faults sep-
arating these blocks (Wilde et al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2011b,), commonly
considered to be fundamental crustal fractures.
One important aspect of the CAOB is the extensive development of
granitoids. They make up ~60% of the exposed area in NE China, espe-
cially within the Great Xing'an Range (J.H. Zhang et al., 2008, 2010;
Wu et al., 2003a,b), and in this regard are similar to the distribution in
Archean granite-greenstone terrains (e.g. Yilgarn Craton, Cassidy et al.,
2006). Late Neoproterozoic granitoids have been identified in the
Chinese segment of the CAOB, and are present in the Erguna and Xing'an
blocks (Ge et al., 2011; Wu et al., 2011; Zhou et al., 2011b), and also in
the Bureya block in the Russian Far East (Wilde et al., 2006) (Fig. 3).
Permo-Carboniferous granites are present in most terranes (Wu et al.,
2011), but the most voluminous and widespread are Jurassic and
Cretaceous granitoids. The Jurassic granites are dominantly fractionated
I-types that resulted from melting of juvenile crust, generated from
mixtures of lower crust with underplated basaltic material, followed
348 S.A. Wilde / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 345–362
Fig. 3. Major tectonic units and sutures in the eastern Central Asian Orogenic Belt.
Modified from Zhou and Wilde (2013).
by further fractionation (Wu et al., 2003a,b). They are considered to
have been produced by subduction in a compressional environment
(Wu et al., 2011) and, because they post-date closure of the Paleo-
Asian Ocean, the driving force has been considered to be Paleo-Pacific
subduction. This again questions the view that events associated with
the Pacific plate should be excluded when considering the evolution
of the CAOB. The Cretaceous granitoids include both S- and A-types
and are interpreted to have formed in an extensional environment
(Wu et al., 2007a,b, 2011). They thus reflect wider events affecting
north–east China, where extensive delamination has been proposed
(Menzies et al., 1993; Windley et al., 2010; Wu et al., 2005). Again,
this has been variously related to movement of the Paleo-Pacific Plate
and as such further emphasises the difficulty created by excluding
such motion from the evolution of the CAOB.
In this paper, the evidence with respect to both the closure of the
Paleo-Asian Ocean and Paleo-Pacific subduction on the evolution of
the CAOB within NE China is critically reviewed, together with an eval-
uation of the evidence for microcontinental blocks in the northeastern
Chinese part of the CAOB.
3. Subdivision of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt in NE China
Before discussing the main issues, it is necessary to set the scene
with a brief outline of the main tectonic units present in the Chinese
portion of the eastern CAOB. As with most crustal entities in China,
there are numerous different ways in which the CAOB has been
subdivided and also a range of names given to the same units. The sim-
ple scheme followed here is based on the recognition of five major ter-
ranes (Fig. 3) which are, from west to east, the Erguna block, the Xing'an
block, the Songliao block (also referred to as the Songnen block), a
Paleozoic accretionary complex along the northern margin of the
North China Craton (NCC), known collectively as the Liaoyuan Terrane,
and the combined Jiamusi/Khanka block (which links with the Bureya
block in Russia). The Erguna, Xing'an and Songliao blocks are commonly
referred to as the Xing'an–Mongolian Orogenic Belt (XMOB) in the
Chinese literature (Wu et al., 2004; Xu et al., 2015). Along the Pacific
margin to the east lies the Sikhote–Alin accretionary complex (Fig. 3).
Most of this is located in Russia, with the small portion in China com-
monly referred to as the Nadanhada Terrane (Fig. 4). Because this is re-
lated to Pacific-plate subduction, it is generally excluded from the CAOB,
but will be important in the following discussion.
3.1. Erguna Block
The Erguna block (Fig. 3) was traditionally considered to be com-
posed of late Proterozoic to Paleozoic volcano-sedimentary strata and
granites (HBGMR, 1993). Although, recent zircon U–Pb isotopic studies
have established that many of the so-called Precambrian gneisses are
 S.A. Wilde / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 345–362
Fig. 4. Simplified tectonic map of NE China showing crustal blocks and major sutures, with emphasis on the Solonker–Xar Moron–Changchun suture that marks the closure of the Paleo-
Asian Ocean in NE China.
Modified from Wu et al. (2002).
deformed early Paleozoic (506–540 Ma) intrusions (Miao et al., 2007),
there are Neoproterozoic granitoids present locally within the Erguna
block. Granitoids with ages ranging from 927 ± 13 Ma to 792 ± 5 Ma
have been recorded as a minor component in the north-western part
of the block (Wu et al., 2011), whereas a suite of granitoids ranging in
composition from syenogranite to granodiorite, both here and further
to the south, were dated by Tang et al. (2013) and record ages between
851 ± 6 Ma and 737 ± 5 Ma. Zhou et al. (2011a), identified a granitic
gneiss (interpreted as a paragneiss) from the Mohe Complex in the
northeastern part of the block with a prominent zircon population at
~ 828 Ma, considered to be of local derivation. Several workers have
recognised widespread younger granites with ages around 470 Ma
(Ge et al., 2005, 2007a; Sui et al., 2007; Wu et al., 2011). However,
most undeformed granites were emplaced during the Triassic or Early
Jurassic (Wu et al., 2011). Supracrustal rocks constitute the Mohe Com-
plex of Zhou et al. (2011a) (previously referred to as the Xinghuadukou
‘group’ by the HBGMR, 1993, or the Mendulihe ‘group’ by Wang, 1996).
They consist of garnet–sillimanite (khondalite) metasediments inter-
leaved with carbonates, amphibolites, and granitic gneisses. Detrital zir-
cons in the khondalites are as old as ~1370 Ma. The whole sequence was
metamorphosed to amphibolite/granulite facies at ~495 Ma (Zhou et al.,
2011a). Crust formation ages of 1680–1060 Ma (HBGMR, 1993) have
been suggested by Nd isotopic data from the associated granites,
which are considerably older than those obtained from similar rock-
types in the Xing'an and Songliao blocks (Wu et al., 2003a,b).
349
3.2. Xing'an Block
The Xing'an block lies to the southeast of the Erguna block (Fig. 3)
and is made up of the Great Xing'an Range and the Halar Basin.
Traditionally, the Great Xing'an Range was thought to consist of abun-
dant Paleozoic granites, together with Mesozoic granites and related
volcanic rocks, possibly overlying Precambrian basement (HBGMR,
1993; IMBGMR, 1990). Evidence for this basement comes from the
Xinghuadukou area (Fig. 3), where granitic gneisses record ages of
1837 ± 5 Ma and 1741 ± 30 Ma (Sun et al., 2013a). In addition, other
granitic gneisses and amphibolites from the Xinghuadukou Complex re-
cord Neoproterozoic magmatic ages of ~ 770 Ma (Zhou et al., 2011b).
The Xilinhot Complex (Fig. 2) contains ~ 1390 Ma granitic gneisses, as
recently reported by Sun et al. (2013a), although other components
are considerably younger (Shi et al., 2003). With regard to the Phanero-
zoic granitoids, recent work (Wu et al., 2011) has shown that Paleozoic
examples are rare. The Great Xing'an Range granitoids reveal three
phases of magmatism (Wu et al., 2011): (i) local, deformed ~ 450 Ma
(Ordovician) quartz diorite and granite; (ii) Permo-Carboniferous gran-
ites in the north of the block, ranging in age from 360 to 250 Ma; and
(iii) Cretaceous granites emplaced between 145 and 120 Ma (coeval
with volcanic rocks) (J.H. Zhang et al., 2008). Supracrustal basement
rocks of the Xinghuadukou Complex were originally considered to be
Precambrian in age and consist of khondalitic sediments, amphibolites
and felsic gneisses, metamorphosed to granulite-facies at ~ 495 Ma
350 S.A. Wilde / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 345–362
(Zhou et al., 2011b), similar to comparable sequences in the Erguna
block. However, they were formed from Paleozoic protoliths (Miao
et al., 2004, 2007) and are not Precambrian in age. There are also early
Paleozoic limestones and late Paleozoic clastic sediments in the
Xinghuadukou area. In the northern part of the block at Duobaoshan,
an Ordovician island arc has been identified (Ge et al., 2007b; HBGMR,
1993). Mesozoic volcanic rocks are widely distributed throughout the
block (Ge et al., 2005, 2007b; J.H. Zhang et al., 2008; Wang et al.,
2006; Wu et al., 2002; Wu et al., 2003a,b).
3.3. Songliao Block
The Songliao block (Fig. 3) is mostly obscured and largely overlain by
the Mesozoic to Cenozoic Songliao Basin. Borehole data indicate the base-
ment beneath the Songliao Basin is largely composed of Paleozoic–Meso-
zoic granites and Paleozoic volcanic strata (Gao et al., 2007; Pei et al.,
2007; Wu et al., 2001a), with minor ~1.8 Ga Mesoproterozoic granitic
gneisses (Pei et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2006) that may represent a tectonic
slice of the NCC (Wu et al., 2011). The block also contains the southern
section of the Great Xing'an Range in the west and the Lesser Xing'an
and Zhangguangcai ranges in the east. In the southern Great Xing'an
Range, granites range in age from Carboniferous to Cretaceous (Wu
et al., 2011). In the Zhangguangcai Range, Mesozoic granites are abundant
(Wu et al., 2000, 2001a), but some Paleozoic granitoids are also present
(Liu et al., 2008; Wu et al., 2011). The Jurassic granitoids of the Great
Xing'an, Lesser Xing'an and Zhangguangcai ranges are mostly highly frac-
tionated I-types (Wu et al., 2002, 2003a,b). In the northern part of the
Zhangguangcai Range, amphibolite-facies metamorphic rocks have been
named the Dongfengshan Complex (HBGMR, 1993). In the south near
the Solonker suture zone (see later discussion), the Hulan ‘group’ is com-
posed of both early Paleozoic and Permian metasediments assembled in
an accretionary complex (Wu et al., 2007b). Deposition of the Hulan
‘group’ is constrained by a ~285 Ma detrital zircon age. No Precambrian
rocks have been identified in the southern part of the Songliao block
(JBGMR, 1988), although Paleozoic strata are widely distributed,
consisting of mica schist, phyllite, slate, quartzite and meta-sandstone
that yield detrital zircon ages ranging from 2690 to 500 Ma, with a dom-
inant peak at ~520 Ma (Zhou et al., 2012). In the Yanbian area, a tectonic
mélange has been identified (Shao and Tang, 1995), with chaotic assem-
blages of marble, basalt, chert and deformed pillow lava set in a
serpentinised matrix. The Songliao Basin occupies an area of about
260,000 km2 and is the most important petroleum producing region in
China (Feng et al, 2010).
3.4. Liaoyuan Terrane
The Liaoyuan Terrane is located along the northern margin of the NCC
and constitutes the southern margin of the CAOB in China (Fig. 3). It con-
sists of the Bainiaomiao arc adjacent to the craton and the Ondor Sum
subduction–accretion complex to the north (Fig. 2), separated by the
Xar Moron Fault (Xiao et al., 2003). It was accreted to the NCC in the
early Paleozoic by southward-directed subduction and was considered
to be composed of Precambrian and Paleozoic sedimentary and volcanic
rocks, with abundant granites (JBGMR, 1988; Zhang et al, 2013). Howev-
er, recent data establish that the Seluohe Group, previously considered
to be Precambrian in age (JBGMR, 1988) is composed of deformed
Paleozoic–Mesozoic strata (Zhang et al., 2007; Y.B. Zhang et al., 2008). Re-
cent work on the granitoids (Wu et al., 2011) has established that the
oldest are late Permian in age, but that the majority were emplaced in
the Jurassic and Cretaceous.
3.5. Jiamusi/Khanka Block
The Jiamusi and Khanka blocks were originally considered to be dis-
crete crustal units separated by the Dunhua–Mishan Fault (Fig. 3). The Jia-
musi block extends north to the Heilongjiang (Amur) River that marks
the Chinese/Russian border, across which it is named the Bureya massif
(Natal'in and Borukayev, 1991; Wilde et al., 1997, 2000). The majority
of the Khanka block is located within Russia (Fig. 3). The traditional
view of the Jiamusi block was that the basement rocks were either Arche-
an (Dang and Li, 1993) or Proterozoic (Cao et al., 1992; Ren et al., 1987;
Yang et al., 1986) in age. They were initially subdivided into two compo-
nents, the Mashan and Heilongjiang ‘groups’; now referred to as ‘com-
plexes’. However, subsequent work has indicated the sequence is not
stratigraphic but a series of tectonic slices. The rocks of the Mashan Com-
plex are predominantly khondalitic metasediments that were metamor-
phosed to granulite-facies at ~500 Ma (Wilde et al., 1997, 1999, 2000,
2001, 2003). They are intimately associated with deformed granitoids
that were also originally considered to be Archean–Paleoproterozoic in
age, but U–Pb zircon analyses reveal they were emplaced between 530
and 515 Ma (Wilde et al., 1997, 2003) and underwent granulite-facies
metamorphism at ~500 Ma (Wilde et al., 1997). Undeformed granites
in the area were originally considered to be Neoproterozoic, however,
later work has established they were emplaced in the Permian between
270 and 254 Ma (Huang et al., 2008, 2009; Wilde et al., 1997; Wu et al.,
2000, 2001b, 2011). The Heilongjiang Complex is a high-pressure meta-
morphic assemblage composed of interleaved blueschist, greenschist,
amphibolite, ultramafic rocks, marble, quartzite and quartzo-feldspathic
clastic sediments. It was metamorphosed to epidote blueschist facies in
the Early Jurassic and is considered to have been thrust over rocks of
the Mashan Complex (Wu et al., 2007a; Zhou et al., 2009).
The Chinese part of the Khanka block is poorly exposed, with outcrop
restricted to three small areas: at Hulin in the west, Mt Huoshi in the cen-
tral part, and at Hutou in the east. The basement rocks were considered to
be Precambrian in age during regional mapping (HBGMR, 1993) and
were believed to form part of the Mashan and Heilongjiang ‘groups’ of
the adjacent Jiamusi block. The rocks consist of khondalitic
metasediments, marble, graphitic schist and granitic gneiss. Recent
work has confirmed their continuity with the Jiamusi block, with granitic
gneisses recording protolith ages of 520–515 Ma and high-grade meta-
morphism affecting all rocks at ~500 Ma (Wilde et al., 2010; Zhou et al.,
2010a). Detrital zircon ages extend back to the earliest Neoproterozoic
(Zhou et al., 2010a), but no rocks of Precambrian age have been recorded.
As in the Jiamusi block, the metasedimentary rocks were intruded by
Permian granitoids. However, in addition, Cretaceous granites have also
been recorded (Wilde et al., 2010), possibly associated with the develop-
ment of the Nadanhada Terrane to the east along the Pacific margin (see
later discussion).
4. Closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean in NE China
This is a topic of considerable debate and a variety of scenarios have
been proposed. Although the general consensus is that final suturing
took place between the late Permian and Early/Middle Triassic (Chen
et al., 2000; Dobretsov et al., 1990, 1995; Şengör and Natal'in, 1996;
Sengör et al., 1993; Xiao et al., 2003, 2009; Zonenshain et al., 1985),
not all workers agree. Furthermore, the precise location of the terminal
suture is also still debated. The uncertainty is fuelled by the general lack
of outcrop and the fact that the eastern CAOB is characterized by the as-
sembly of numerous arcs, accretionary complexes and ophiolites that
resulted from the closure of several transient oceans (Badarch et al.,
2002; Dobretsov, 2003; Dobretsov et al., 1995; Khain et al., 2003;
Mossakovskii et al., 1993; Şengör et al., 1993), hence the large number
of faults, thrusts and sutures throughout the area makes it extremely
difficult to determine the exact sequence of events. This is not helped
by the fact that different workers have postulated different connections
for sutures away from their particular area of study.
4.1. Timing
Estimates of the time of closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean range from
Late Silurian/Devonian (Yue et al., 2001; Zhao et al., 1996) to Cretaceous
 S.A. Wilde / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 345–362
(Nozaka and Liu, 2002), with some workers favouring the Middle to
Late Devonian (Xu and Chen, 1997), the Late Devonian to early Carbon-
iferous (Hong et al., 1994; K. Li et al., 2014; Shao, 1991), the late Permian
(Hsu et al., 1991; Şengör et al., 1993; Xiao et al., 2003), the late Permian
to Early/Middle-Triassic (Chen et al., 2000; Eizenhofer et al., 2014; Jian
et al., 2010; Miao et al., 2008; Xiao et al., 2009), or the Middle to Late Tri-
assic (Badarch and Orolmaa, 1998; Xiao et al., 2009). Such a huge varia-
tion is partly explained by the state of geological knowledge of the CAOB
at the time the work was undertaken; by the questionable reliability,
appropriateness and interpretation of some of the earlier geochronolog-
ical data; and because multiple collisions occurred throughout the evo-
lution of the CAOB, so that identifying the latest suture requires
application of a spectrum of geological techniques and not the use of
just one parameter. To this end, Xiao et al. (2003) presented a well-
reasoned explanation of why closure occurred in the late Permian–
Early Triassic and the reader is referred to this and their subsequent
publication (Xiao et al., 2009, and references therein) for a more exten-
sive discussion of earlier views on this topic.
As noted above, there is growing support for final suturing at, or
just after, the end-Permian, although a number of recent papers
have argued against this. Zhao et al. (2013) examined the paleomag-
netic signature of over 680 Silurian to Permian sedimentary and vol-
canic samples from central–eastern Inner Mongolia (Nei Mongol)
and, when compared with published data from the North China Cra-
ton and Mongolia, they reasoned that the Silurian to Permian poles
from all three areas showed they had been together since the pre-
Late Devonian, and the authors concluded that the Paleo-Asian
Ocean had closed prior to this time. However, because of the errors
on paleopoles, it is unlikely that paleomagnetic data can identify
and resolve the opening and closing of small transient oceans that
constituted much of the CAOB. Furthermore, as earlier argued by
Xiao et al. (2009) with respect to paleomagnetic data from the Sibe-
ria and Tarim cratons and the southern Kazakhstan arcs, these areas
were always in close proximity from at least 500 Ma and the Tarim
and Siberia cratons may well have been oriented longitudinally at
virtually the same latitude. Both Xiao et al. (2009) and Zhao et al.
(2013) agree that there was later rotation of the various blocks and
this was likely accompanied by large-scale movement on strike-slip
faults. Orogen-parallel strike-slip faults and thrusts are common in
the southern CAOB (Fig. 2) and establishing their timing is critical.
Many are considered to have developed in the late Permian, and, if
they were post-orogenic (Laurent-Charvet et al., 2003), they cannot
be used to determine the time of closure. However, if they were syn-
orogenic, then they would confirm the late Permian as the time of
closure (Xiao et al., 2009). Based on a study of magmatic rocks in
the Baolidao complex north of the Solonker suture zone, Chen et al.
(2009) suggested that collision occurred between 296 and 234 Ma.
Subsequently, K. Li et al. (2014), have argued that closure of the
Paleo-Asian Ocean took place before the late Carboniferous in the
Bayanvvula area of central Inner Mongolia, based on the view that
certain felsic volcanic rocks of late Carboniferous age are post-
collisional. However, the study region is hundreds of kilometres
north of the Solonker suture and there is no evidence to say it is in
any way related to terminal tectonic activity in the CAOB.
4.2. Location
Locating the terminal suture in a long-lived oceanic archipelago that
involved double-sided subduction, the extensive development of island
and continental arcs, accretionary prisms and ophiolites — and is rela-
tively poorly exposed — is not an easy task, especially when there are
abundant orogen-parallel strike-slip faults and suture zones. Such is
the case with the CAOB. However, a series of geological criteria can be
applied that collectively help to resolve the problem, the crucial factor
being the age or timing of each specific event. The key is to identify
the youngest components consistent with closing of an ocean.
351
Identifying and determining the age of ophiolites, continental margin
sequences, and magmatism are important factors; as too is the identifi-
cation of any younging trends and changes in the geochemistry of the
magmas. Additional information comes from a change in sediment re-
gime from marine to terrestrial and any variation in the faunal or floral
assemblage. All these factors have been applied to at least parts of the
CAOB and the balance of evidence has led to the conclusion that closure
occurred in the late Permian to Early/Middle Triassic (see Xiao et al.,
2003, 2009 for more detailed explanation) and that the location was
the Solonker–Xar Moron–Changchun–Yanji suture (e.g. Li, 2006; Wu
et al., 2007b).
However, it is not that simple, and there is still disagreement as to
the connection between the various faults away from individual study
areas. In the west, to the north of the Tarim Craton, the closure is consid-
ered to be marked by the Southern Tianshan suture (Alexeiev et al.,
2015; Xiao et al., 2003; Yin and Nie, 1996). However, there is controver-
sy as to whether the northern margin of the Tarim Craton was passive
(Allen et al., 1992; Chen and Shi, 2003; Gao et al., 2009; Wang et al.,
1995; Xiao et al., 2009) or active (Charvet et al., 2007) in the late Paleo-
zoic. This is further complicated by the fact that there is currently no ev-
idence of a suture along the northern edge of the passive margin
sequence, although this may have been obliterated by Cenozoic activity
(see Xiao et al., 2009 for a more detailed discussion, and also Alexeiev
et al., 2015). Furthermore, the evolution of the southern Tianshan is
likewise controversial, especially with regard to the direction of subduc-
tion. It is not the intention to discuss the intricacies of the various de-
bates here; the purpose is simply to highlight that major uncertainties
still exist.
Farther to the east, to the north of the North China Craton, detailed
work has been undertaken in several key areas and this is where the
main evidence has been acquired to support the view that the Solonker
suture marks the terminal closure event within the southeast Paleo-
Asian Ocean. However, although Xiao et al. (2003) support this model,
they show the Xar Moron Fault as a separate structure located over
50 km south of the Solonker suture zone (Fig. 2). It is therefore difficult
to envisage how the Solonker suture can pass eastward into the Xar
Moron Fault (Li, 2006; Wu et al., 2002, 2007b) if these two sutures are
unrelated in the Solonker region. Indeed, the Solonker suture is itself a
very complicated structure that extends for at least 700 km and is up
to 60 km wide. Xiao et al. (2003) refer to rocks in this suture zone as
the Erdaojing accretion complex, marked to the south by the Linxi
Fault and to the north by the Xilinhot Fault (Fig. 2). It is composed of
ophiolites, blueschists and melanges containing blocks of quartzite,
marble, dolomite, blueschist and mafic and ultramafic rocks, considered
typical of accretionary wedges. It has been interpreted as a northward-
younging accretionary complex that formed as a result of the retreat of a
south-directed subduction zone beneath the northern margin of the
North China Craton (Xiao et al., 2003). A detailed geochemical and geo-
chronological study (Jian et al., 2010) of the Solonker suture zone near
Mandula, approximately 300 km WSW of Sonid Youqi (Fig. 2) identified
a progressive sequence of events that included pre-subduction exten-
sion at 299–290 Ma, subduction and forearc spreading at 294–280 Ma,
ridge–trench collision at 281–273 Ma, forearc–continent collision at
271–260 Ma and finally post-collisional slab breakoff at 255–248 Ma.
In Inner Mongolia to the north of the Solonker suture, there is evidence
of northward-directed subduction beneath arc and accretionary com-
plexes that extended southward into the Paleo-Asian Ocean from the
Devonian to Permian (the Baolidao and Hegenshan complexes that de-
veloped to the south of the Uliastai active continental margin, see Jian
et al., 2012) (Fig. 2). Y. Li et al. (2014) postulated that accretion and col-
lision occurred in this region at ~264 Ma, whereas southward subduc-
tion beneath the North China Craton resulted in ongoing accretion
from 280 to 230 Ma.
A ~ 630 km-long deep seismic profile across the Solonker suture
zone was undertaken as part of the SinoProbe Project (Zhang et al.,
2014) and reveals a broad divergent symmetry, with north-dipping
352 S.A. Wilde / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 345–362
thrust systems to the south of the Solonker suture zone and south-
dipping reflectors to the north of the suture zone; consistent with geo-
logical observations across the region. However there are no convincing
traces of fossil subduction zones in the underlying mantle.
There is thus abundant evidence that the Solonker suture does in-
deed represent the closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean in the southeastern
CAOB, including the following: a) it contains the youngest ophiolites of
the four main ophiolite belts that extend across the region (Xiao et al.,
2009); b) lower to middle Permian marine clastic rocks are present in
the area, indicating the ocean was still open at this time (Li, 2006).
North of the Xar Moron River, there is a change from marine to terrestri-
al facies in the Permian strata, consistent with deposition in a remnant
ocean rather than in an extensional rift (Li, 2006). There are also Perm-
ian radiolarian (Fan, 1996) and bryozoan fossils distributed locally in
strata along the Linxi Fault (Wang and Fan, 1997); c) the Linxi Fault
also marks the boundary between Permian biogeographic provinces,
with Angaran flora to the north and Cathaysian flora to the south (Li,
2006; Shi, 2006; Wang and Liu, 1986). However, early–middle Permian
Cathaysian flora have recently been reported to the north of Hegenshan
(Z.G. Zhou et al., 2010); d) there is mixing of the Angaran and
Cathaysian flora in the late Permian strata south of the Kedanshan
ophiolite in the Ondor Sum subduction–accretion complex (Huang,
1983) and also in the Yanbian area of Jilin Province, just south of the
Dunhua–Mishan Fault (Peng, 1997; Shi et al., 2003), suggesting a clos-
ing of the broad oceanic realm that once separated the Siberia and
North China cratons: importantly, this is not evident in the early Perm-
ian strata; e) there is general support from seismic sections (Xiao et al.,
2003; Zhang et al., 2014), if post-collisional thrusting to the south is in-
corporated into the modelling; and f) magmatism to the south and
north of the Solonker suture indicates a change from Andean-type
settings to post-collisional and extensional settings in the Triassic. In-
deed, Middle to Late Triassic S-type granites are present within the su-
ture zone itself (Chen et al., 2000). There are also extensive Late
Triassic A-type granites across the region that have been related to
post-orogenic delamination (Wu et al., 2002).
The above is just a brief summary of the abundant evidence that sup-
ports the view that closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean occurred along the
Solonker suture in the late Permian to Early/Middle Triassic. However,
the location of the eastward continuation of the Solonker suture zone
remains controversial. Several workers considered the Hegenshan-
Heihe suture, marking the boundary between the Xing'an and Songliao
blocks (Figs. 2, 3), to represent the eastward extension (Guo, 1991;
Nozaka and Liu, 2002; Sengör and Natal'in, 1996; Sengör et al., 1993;
Tang, 1990; Zhang and Tang, 1989). However, the ‘ophiolite’ at
Hegenshan has been re-interpreted as a compound body (Jian et al.,
2012), composed of an early Carboniferous Alpine-type peridotite in
the north and a Cretaceous harzburgite in the south. There is also evi-
dence that the Erenhot–Hegenshan basin opened-up along the Uliastai
continental margin prior to the Devonian and then closed in the late
Carboniferous (Zhang et al., 2015). Activity along the Hegenshan–
Heihe suture thus does not extend into the Permian. There is also
other evidence for pre-Permian oceanic closure in the eastern CAOB.
Wang et al. (2015) report a study of Late Devonian and early Carbonif-
erous volcanics and alkali granites in central Jilin Province, close to the
southern margin of the CAOB. They conclude that arc–continent or con-
tinent–continent collision occurred in the late Silurian–Early Devonian,
followed by post-collisional extension. These studies highlight the com-
plex nature of activity throughout the history of the Paleo-Asian Ocean,
with the opening and closing of several transient oceans.
Instead of a north–east deflection of the Solonker suture to join-up
with the Hegenshan–Heihe suture, Li and Wang (1983) and Wang
and Liu (1986) postulated that it extended eastward to join with the
Xar Moron–Changchun suture, and then continued eastward toward
the Jiamusi block. An alternative view was that the suture zone swings
south–east from Changchun toward Yanji in order to explain the distri-
bution of ophiolites in central and eastern Jilin Province (Huang, 1991;
Shao and Tang, 1995). In this area, structures within the CAOB lie buried
beneath the Songliao Basin and so they cannot be traced directly. Wu
et al. (2007b) studied the Hulan ‘group’ in central Jilin Province, deter-
mining that it is composed of both early Paleozoic and Permian
metasediments assembled in an accretionary complex, and cut by a
syn-collisional granitoid with a U–Pb zircon age of 248 ± 4 Ma.
This supports the south-easterly swing of the main suture (Fig. 4) and
is also in agreement with paleobotanical data from the Xar Moron–
Changchun segment that show the suture marks the boundary between
Permian Angaran cool temperate flora to the north and Cathaysian trop-
ical flora to the south (Huang, 1983, 1991; Sun et al., 2013b; Wang and
Liu, 1986). The weight of evidence thus suggests that suturing along the
Xar Moron–Changchun segment occurred in the late Permian (Wu et al.,
2007a,b).
As the combined Solonker–Xar Moron–Changchun–Yanji suture
is over 2500 km long, it is pertinent to question whether closure
was coeval along its length and how the geometry of the Paleo-
Asian Ocean may have changed during closure. Li (2006) shows the
ocean in the early Permian as a narrow body of water of almost con-
stant width extending the full length of the eastern CAOB from the
Tarim Craton in the west to the edge of the Jiamusi block in the
east, implying closure at a broadly similar time along its whole
length. Faunal data, however, suggest that the Tianshan–Solonker
segment in the west closed with a scissor-like motion (Shen et al.,
2006). Xiao et al. (2009) supported this view, suggesting that closure
was diachronous, being completed between the middle/late Permian
and Middle Triassic in the west and by the Late Triassic in the far east,
although S. Li et al. (2014), argue that it may have been earlier than
that. This eastward younging is similar to events in the north-
eastern CAOB, where closure of the Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean in
Russia commenced in the Triassic in the west but was not completed
until the Early Cretaceous in eastern Mongolia and Siberia
(Khanchuk et al., 2015; Zonenshain et al., 1990).
As is evident from Fig. 3, the combined Jiamusi–Khanka block is ori-
ented north–south and thus lies at a high-angle to the Songliao block
and to the structural grain in this and other blocks to the west. The man-
ner in which the Jiamusi–Khanka block relates to the above scenario
therefore requires careful evaluation. Traditionally, it has been accepted
as marking the eastern limit of the CAOB, although it is not generally in-
cluded in the Xing'an–Mongolia Orogenic Belt (Xu et al., 2015). Howev-
er, recent studies have questioned its incorporation as part of the CAOB,
with evidence indicating it underwent a separate Mesozoic history (Wu
et al., 2007a; Zhou et al., 2009). Because this is related to activity associ-
ated with Paleo-Pacific subduction, it will be examined in more detail
below.
5. Paleo-Pacific subduction
As mentioned earlier, although it is not always specifically stated,
there is a general tendency to exclude events associated with Paleo-
Pacific subduction from discussions on the evolution of the CAOB in
NE China, restricting it to events associated with development and clo-
sure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean. However, there are exceptions (e.g. Li,
2006; Wu et al., 2007a, 2011; Zhou et al., 2010b,c) and there is a grow-
ing appreciation that the Pacific plate may have played a significant role,
especially from the Early Triassic onwards (Sun et al., 2013c, in
revision), in the evolution of the CAOB. The possible effects of Paleo-
Pacific subduction will be examined, working westward from the
present-day Pacific margin.
5.1. Nadanhada Terrane
The Nadanhada Terrane in China (Shao et al., 1992) and the Sikote–
Alin terrane farther to the north–east in Russia form parts of a north–
south directed accretionary complex that developed along the Pacific
margin of Asia in the Triassic–Cretaceous (Fig. 3). The Nadanhada
 S.A. Wilde / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 345–362
Terrane consists of two main units: the Yuejinshan Complex and the
Raohe Complex. The Yuejinshan Complex is located adjacent to the
Jiamusi–Khanka block and consists of metamorphosed marine clastic
rocks (quartzite, quartz schist, quartz–mica schist, two-mica schist,
and marble), interpreted as continental slope sediments (Zhang et al.,
1997), in association with ophiolitic components consisting of
metabasalt, gabbro, and ultramafic rocks that include dunite, wehrlite
and clinopyroxenite. It was originally considered middle Paleozoic in
age (HBGMR, 1993), but the presence of Triassic to Early Jurassic sedi-
ments and dating of the greenschist-facies metamorphism at 188 ±
4 Ma (Yang et al., 1998) confirmed its accretion post-earliest Jurassic.
The Raohe Complex forms the majority of the Nadanhada Terrane
and is located to the east of the Yuejinshan Complex. It is composed
principally of limestone, chert, clastic sedimentary rocks and mafic-
ultramafic rocks. Middle to Late Triassic radiolarians have been recorded
in bedded chert, and Middle Jurassic radiolarians have been obtained
from siliceous shale (Kojima and Mizutani, 1987). Importantly, all
these units occur as blocks set in a weakly-deformed clastic sedimenta-
ry matrix and are thus olistoliths in an accretionary complex (Kojima,
1989; Shao et al., 1990). In a recent zircon U–Pb study of the Raohe
Complex, a gabbro from Guanmen recorded an age of 216 ± 4 Ma,
whereas a basalt from Dadai recorded an age of 167 ± 1 Ma (Zhou
et al., 2014). There is thus an age range from Late Triassic to Middle
Jurassic for the mafic–ultramafic components. The clastic sedimentary
‘matrix’ reveals a spectrum of detrital zircon ages ranging from ~2530
to 135 Ma (Zhou et al., 2014), indicating deposition as late as the Early
Cretaceous. This is confirmed by Sun et al. (in review), where a sand-
stone sample from near Changsheng contains zircons as young as
~ 140 Ma. The Raohe Complex is also intruded by undeformed Creta-
ceous granites with an age of ~ 125 Ma (Wu et al., 2011; Zhou et al.,
2014), which indicates magmatism took place soon after accretion of
the terrane.
5.2. Jiamusi/Khanka Block
The oldest component in the Jiamusi/Khanka block is the Mashan
Complex, which consists of khondalitic sediments, marbles and granitic
gneisses that were metamorphosed to amphibolite/granulite facies at
~500 Ma (Wilde et al, 1997, 2000). The oldest detrital and inherited zir-
cons extend back to ~1300 Ma (Wilde et al., 1997). Exposure is better in
the Jiamusi block and this will be used to describe all the salient features
of the combined block.
The Mashan Complex crops out in three locations: at Luobei in the
north, near Jiamusi in the central part, and around Mudanjiang in the
south (Fig. 5). In all three areas it is in fault contact with the Heilongjiang
Complex, an accretionary unit composed mainly of clastic and chemical
sediments, with minor basalt, all metamorphosed to blueschist facies
(Wu et al., 2007a; Yan et al., 1989; Zhou et al., 2009). Because of its lo-
cation close to the boundary between the Jiamusi and Songliao blocks
(Fig. 3), and the fact it has undergone high-pressure metamorphism,
the Heilongjiang Complex has been interpreted as marking the suture
between these two crustal units. Its location at the eastern termination
of the CAOB thus makes it imperative to determine the age of the rock
units and the time of metamorphism. In this regard, the age of the basal-
tic protoliths to the amphibolites and blueschists varies from ~260 Ma
at Yilan to ~ 220 Ma near Mudanjiang in the south (Zhou et al., 2009).
Detrital zircon U–Pb ages of mica schists from the Heilongjiang Complex
range from ~ 700 to 210 Ma, with the youngest age of 207 ± 3 Ma
constraining the maximum age of deposition (Zhou et al., 2010c). Meta-
morphism to epidote-blueschist facies took place in the Late Triassic to
Early Jurassic, constrained by the youngest detrital zircon age (Zhou
et al., 2009) and argon and Rb–Sr data on phengite and biotite giving
ages of ~ 185–175 Ma (Wu et al., 2007a). Importantly, the timing of
events in the Heilongjiang Complex match those recently reported
from the Nadanhada Terrane (Zhou et al., 2014), thus establishing
353
coeval activity related to Paleo-Pacific subduction on both the western
and eastern margins of the Jiamusi/Khanka block.
The main issue is how to explain a north-trending suture zone of
Late Triassic to Early Jurassic age in the eastern CAOB. Since it post-
dates closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean, the obvious solution is to invoke
Paleo-Pacific subduction, since the trends are sub-parallel. Wu et al.
(2007a) suggested that the original crustal block, composed of the
Mashan Complex and associated deformed granitoids, was not part of
the CAOB but an exotic block that was accreted as the result of Paleo-
Pacific subduction.
Zhou et al. (2009, 2010c) presented an alternative scenario based on
additional geochronological data. They interpreted the Jiamusi/Khanka
block as originally forming the eastern part of the Songliao block
(hence also of the CAOB), based on the similarities of ages of inherited
zircons in the basaltic rocks and mica schists of the Heilongjiang
Complex with those to the west in the CAOB. The geochemistry of the
Heilongjiang basalts indicates both E-MORB and OIB components
(Zhou et al., 2009), suggesting derivation in a rift, and thus implying
the opening of a seaway between the Songliao and Jiamusi blocks in
the Permo-Triassic. This may have been in response to an episode of
ocean plate retreat or to a change in plate orientation. It was followed
by re-docking of the Jiamusi and Songliao blocks between ~ 210–
180 Ma as the result of renewed westward-advancing subduction.
Other scenarios have been proposed to explain the location and geo-
logic features of the Jiamusi/Khanka block, most of which are related to
the earliest rocks (Mashan Complex) and the time when they
underwent granulite-facies metamorphism. Based on the global distri-
bution of late Pan-African high temperature/low pressure granulite ter-
ranes (Harley, 1992), Wilde et al. (1999, 2000, 2003) suggested that the
Jiamusi block may have drifted north from a peri-Gondwana position
close to Australia, along with the Tarim and North China cratons. How-
ever, this cannot explain the similarity of the zircon age populations of
the Jiamusi/Khanka block with the other blocks in the CAOB that clearly
evolved locally within the Paleo-Asian Ocean. Wilde et al. (1997) had
earlier suggested that the Jiamusi block may have collided with Siberia
at ~ 500 Ma. The later identification of an extensive, 1000 km-long,
granulite facies terrane along the southern margin of the Siberia Craton
(albeit affecting magmatic rocks) metamorphosed at ~ 490–480 Ma
(Donskaya et al., 2000; Gladkochub et al., 2008; Khain et al., 2003;
Salnikova et al., 1998, 2001) appeared to give this some credence. The
Siberian massifs were considered to be derived from the Aldan Province
in Siberia, possibly becoming detached in the late Mesoproterozoic
(Gladkochub et al., 2008; Khain et al., 2002; Kuzmichev et al., 2005),
when they were incorporated into the Sayang–Baikal orogen, undergo-
ing high-grade metamorphism at ~ 500 Ma as a result of northward
subduction of the Paleo-Asian Ocean beneath the Angara-Anabar
Province of the Siberia Craton. Variants of this proposal by Zhou et al.
(2010b,c) were based on the idea that the Jiamusi/Khanka block itself
might once have been a part of Siberia. They postulated the Jiamusi–
Khanka(–Bureya) block was detached from the Sayang–Baikal belt
and moved south and west (using present-day co-ordinates) across
the Paleo-Asian Ocean (Fig. 6) to dock with the CAOB in the Early
Jurassic. Limited paleomagnetic data from the Bureya block (quoted in
Khanchuk et al., 2015) indicate it may have occupied a more northerly
position in the Cretaceous, suggesting local re-arrangement of the
blocks during closure of the Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean.
Germane to this debate is the broader distribution of ~ 500 Ma
granulite-facies rocks in both China and Russia. Zircon U–Pb studies
in the Erguna (Zhou et al., 2011a) and Xing'an (Zhou et al., 2011b)
blocks identified that they are distributed widely in these blocks. So
far, they have not been identified in the Songliao block, although
500 Ma zircons are abundant in Paleozoic clastic sediments in the
northern part of the block (Zhou et al., 2012). This distribution led
to the proposal that the combined Chinese blocks (Erguna–Xing'an–
Songliao–Jiamusi/Khanka) rifted away from the Sayang–Baikal belt
sometime between 450 and 300 Ma (Zhou and Wilde, 2013; Zhou
354 S.A. Wilde / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 345–362

Fig. 5. Simplified geological map of the Jiamusi–Khanka block, showing the distribution of the Mashan and Heilongjiang complexes and associated deformed and metamorphosed granitoids.
Modified from Wilde et al. (2015).

et al., 2011b) (Fig. 6), probably during opening of the Mongol-
Okhotsk Ocean (Kelty et al., 2008). They later became incorporated
in the evolving fold belts close to the southern margin of the CAOB.
A further variant of this model is that the Chinese and Siberian
belts evolved simultaneously at the southern and northern margins
of the CAOB, respectively, on opposite sides of the Paleo-Asian
Ocean (Wilde et al., 2015). The Chinese components in both models
now define the NE China Khondalite Belt (Fig. 7), which extends for
N1300 km along the southern margin of the CAOB. Note that both
models still require rifting of the Jiamusi–Khanka(–Bureya) block
from the eastern margin of the CAOB in the Permian in order to ex-
plain the nature and development of the Heilongjiang Complex, as
discussed above. This implies Paleo-Pacific subduction affected the
southern margin of the CAOB from at least the late Permian/Early Tri-
assic, thus overlapping with final closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean.
5.3. Evidence from the granitoids
It has been estimated that ~50% (or ~200,000 km2) of the exposed
land surface of the CAOB in China is composed of granitic rocks (Wu
 S.A. Wilde / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 345–362 355

Fig. 6. Cartoon sketch showing the possible source region of the NE China Khondalite Belt in the Sayang–Baikal Orogen.
Modified from Gladkochub et al. (2008), Salnikova et al. (1998) and Zhou et al. (2010b).

et al, 2011). Additionally, coeval volcanic rocks also form extensive
areas, especially in the Great Xing'an Range (J.H. Zhang et al., 2008,
2010; Wu et al., 2011). The ability to relate granitoid chemistry, at
least in a broad manner, to tectonic setting means that additional infor-
mation may be gained from the magmatic rocks in the CAOB with re-
spect to events associated with both the Paleo-Asian and Paleo-Pacific
oceans. This will be briefly examined, starting with the Permian, since
this is the key time with respect to the topic of this review. An important
aspect will be the timing and distribution of A-type, I-type and S-type
granitoids.
Wu et al. (2002, 2011) examined the distribution of Permian, Trias-
sic, Early Jurassic and Late Cretaceous A-type granites within the eastern
CAOB. The late Permian rocks appear to be restricted to a linear zone in
the Xing'an Block and were attributed to slab-break-off following clo-
sure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean (Wu et al., 2002). The Early Triassic gran-
itoids are dominantly A-types and they are sparsely distributed
throughout the area, being most abundant in the Xing'an and Songliao
blocks (Wu et al., 2011); their formation was linked to post-collisional
extension following closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean. The Late Triassic
to Early Jurassic A-type granites are much more widespread and Wu
et al. (2002) invoked large-scale lithospheric delamination to explain
their distribution. The Late Cretaceous A-types are locally distributed
and were considered to be related to lithospheric delamination associat-
ed with roll-back of the Pacific plate (Wu et al., 2011). In summary, the
Permian and Triassic A-type events probably reflect extension following
closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean, whereas the Late Cretaceous A-types
overlap in time with widespread delamination throughout north–east
China (Wu et al., 2005), which led to extensive crustal thinning and
‘decratonization’ (Yang et al., 2008), most likely associated, at least in
part, with roll-back of the Pacific plate.
However, the dominant granitoids in the eastern CAOB are Jurassic
in age (Fig. 8) and the bulk of these are I-types, formed in a collisional
setting (Wu et al., 2011). There has been debate as to whether the I-
types might be related to activity in either, or both, the Paleo-Asian
and Paleo-Pacific oceans. But, if it is accepted that closure of the
Paleo-Asian Ocean was along the Solonker–Xra Moron–Changchun–
Yanji suture in the late Permian/Early Triassic (Wu et al., 2007b; Xiao
et al., 2003), then they cannot be related to events associated with
the Paleo-Asian Ocean. Hence, it has been argued they must be related
to Paleo-Pacific subduction (Wu et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2010), al-
though an alternative minority view is that they may reflect a far-
field effect of closure of the Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean farther north in
Russia (Meng et al., 2003). Wu et al. (2007b, 2011) argued that
magmatism in the Great Xing'an Range might be related to the
collisional event that brought the Jiamusi block in contact with the
Songliao block, or re-united it with the Songliao block in the model of
Zhou et al. (2009). The Jurassic I-type granites therefore most likely
evolved in a collisional environment associated with the westward ad-
vance of the Paleo-Pacific plate beneath north–east China. This gave
way to extension in the Early Cretaceous (Fig. 8), associated with
roll-back of the Paleo-Pacific plate. Importantly, there is a magmatic hi-
atus at ~ 150–140 Ma throughout north–east and eastern China (Wu
356 S.A. Wilde / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 345–362
Fig. 7. Geological map of NE China showing the distribution of khondalitic sedimentary rocks and associated rocks (with representative published ages) across all tectonic blocks, defining
the NE China Khondalite Belt.
Modified from J.B. Zhou et al. (2011b) and Wilde and Zhou, 2015
et al., 2005), explained as the switch between collisional and exten-
sional tectonics as a result of a change in dynamics of the Paleo-
Pacific plate (Fig. 8).
Fig. 8. Probability plot of Phanerozoic granitoids in NE China. There is a lack of granitoids at
~230 Ma and ~150 Ma related to changes in tectonic regime (see text for details).
Modified from Wilde et al. (2015) and Wu et al (2011).
In support of the above ideas, there is evidence of a general eastward
younging of magmatism from the Jurassic through to the Cretaceous
(Wu et al., 2011) throughout north–east China, from the Erguna block
in the northwest to the accretionary complexes along the Pacific mar-
gin. Sun et al. (2013c) reviewed the geochronological data from
north–east China and showed that there was a general eastward
younging from ~160 Ma to ~100 Ma over a distance of N1000 km.
6. Microcontinental blocks in the Chinese CAOB: what is
the evidence?
An assumption that is prevalent in the literature is that the various
blocks in the Chinese part of the northeastern CAOB (Fig. 3) are discrete
crustal units that were assembled in the Paleozoic, with the boundaries
defined by major suture zones. As an example of this view, Wu et al.
(2007b) noted that the precise timing of collision between the Erguna
and Xing'an blocks was unknown, but that it probably occurred in the
Ordovician, based on the presence of arc rocks of that age along the
northern margin of the Xing'an block. They further postulated that the
composite Erguna–Xing'an block accreted to the Songliao block along
the Hegenshan–Heihe suture in the Late Devonian to early Carbonifer-
ous (as earlier suggested by Ye et al., 1994). The collision of these blocks
(now the eastern segment of the so-called Central Mongolian
microcontinent) with the North China Craton is the event that led to
the closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean and has been discussed extensively
in this manuscript. Likewise, the role of the Jiamusi/Khanka block in this
story has also been discussed above.
 S.A. Wilde / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 345–362
Even a decade ago, it was being questioned if the Chinese blocks re-
ally were microcontinents with the implication they had a crystalline
basement of likely Precambrian age. Evidence from the Songliao block
showed that it was largely composed of accreted arc complexes (Wu
et al., 2001a), with further work in the other blocks largely supporting
this view. In particular, although Meso- to Neoproterozoic zircons are
recorded from many Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks across the region,
actual rocks of Precambrian age are extremely sparse, only being rela-
tively abundant in the Xing'an block (Zhou et al., 2011b), where a
hornblende–plagioclase gneiss from near Xinghuadukou records a zir-
con U–Pb age of 783 ± 8 Ma and the Xilinhot Complex (see below) con-
tains some Meso- to Neoproterozoic magmatic components. There is
the possibility that some metasedimentary rocks in the Mohe Complex
of the Erguna block may have been deposited prior to ~600 Ma (Zhou
et al., 2011a), but this cannot be confirmed on the currently-available
data.
Another important piece of evidence comes from a study of the
Jiamusi and Khanka blocks. As outlined above, they appear to share a
common history and constitute a single crustal unit (see Wilde et al.,
2010; J.B. Zhou et al., 2010a). The broader implication of this is that
the Dunhua–Mishan Fault that separates them cannot be a major crustal
suture (Wilde et al., 2010).
One of the most important, and intriguing, aspects of recent work in
the eastern Chinese CAOB has been the recognition that khondalitic
sedimentary rocks and associated igneous rocks, metamorphosed to
granulite facies at ~ 500 Ma, are present in the northern parts of
both the Erguna and Xing'an blocks (Zhou et al., 2011a,b), as well as in
the Jiamusi and Khanka blocks, where they were known to be present
for many years (Wilde et al., 1999, 2010). They have so far not been
identified in the Songliao block although, as noted above, ~500 Ma de-
trital zircons are abundant in Paleozoic metasedimentary rocks in the
Tieli area (Zhou et al., 2012), suggesting they may once have been
present. This distribution has led to the suggestion that a 500 Ma belt
of khondalitic sediments, referred to as the ‘NE China Khondalite Belt’,
extended for N1300 km across northern China (Zhou and Wilde,
2013; Zhou et al., 2011b) (Fig. 7). It is very difficult to explain how sim-
ilar rocks with an identical metamorphic age could form independently
in separate crustal blocks. The implication therefore is that the blocks —
if they were ever truly separate units — came together prior to ~500 Ma.
This is supported by recent work on the Toudaoqiao Complex, an
ophiolite located along the suture between the Erguna and Xing'an
blocks. The mafic rocks here record an age of 511 ± 2–5 Ma (Zhou
et al., 2015), similar to the granitoids within the NE China Khondalite
Belt, suggesting widespread activity at ~500 Ma ago. Furthermore, the
Toudaoqiao ophiolite is cut by a granitic intrusion with an age of
492 ± 1 Ma (Zhou et al., 2015), indicating accretion of the Erguna and
Xing'an blocks between 511 and 492 Ma.
As noted above, because rocks of similar metamorphic age are
present along the southern margin of the Siberia Craton (Donskaya
et al., 2000; Gladkochub et al., 2008; Khain et al., 2003; Salnikova
et al., 1998, 2001), the possibility has been explored as to whether the
Chinese rocks originated from Siberia (Zhou et al., 2010b) or whether
there might have been two coeval belts formed on opposite sides of
the Paleo-Asian Ocean (Wilde et al., 2015). However, further detailed
work on the intervening areas is required to resolve this issue.
One important point has never previously been made: the NE China
Khondalite Belt everywhere lies north of the Songliao–Xar Moron–
Changchun–Yanji suture. Therefore, all the blocks originated from pro-
cesses operating on the northern side of the Paleo-Asian Ocean. In
other words, they must have had a Siberian connection. It thus seems
likely that these earliest known components of the eastern Chinese
CAOB formed along the margin of the Siberia Craton, either as part of,
or in close proximity to, the Sayang–Baikal orogen (Fig. 6). Their initial
separation might be attributable to early Paleozoic back-arc spreading.
Because the extent of known khondalitic rocks is limited, it may be
that only small fragments occur within each of the crustal units.
357
However, if this is the case, they probably acted as nuclei around
which arc and accretionary complex rocks accumulated during evolu-
tion of the Paleo-Asian Ocean.
The above discussion has evaluated whether the whole of the so-
called blocks in the eastern Chinese CAOB can be regarded as
microcontinental fragments, with the conclusion drawn that this can-
not be correct. However, the Xilinhot (or Xilin Gol) complex in Inner
Mongolia (part of the Xing'an block), located in the southern part of
the Baolidao arc-accretion complex (Fig. 2), was originally considered
to be of Precambrian age based on Rb–Sr and Sm–Nd evidence (Xu
et al., 1996). But this was later questioned with the acquisition of
younger ages (Chen et al., 2009; Shi et al., 2003) and not resolved
until quite recently when it was shown that both Precambrian and
Paleozoic rocks are present in the complex. Some granitic gneisses re-
cord Mesoproterozoic ages of ~ 1390 Ma (Sun et al., 2013a) and are
cut by gabbros with an age of ~ 740 Ma (Ge et al., 2011), establishing
the presence of at least some Meso- to Neoproterozoic rocks. So, in sum-
mary, the extent of microcontinental blocks with a basement of crystal-
line material is extremely limited in the eastern CAOB of China.
7. Synthesis
From this review, it is evident that the weight of evidence sup-
ports the view that the Solonker–Xar Moron–Changchun suture
marks the terminal closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean in NE China.
Its eastward extension most likely swings south–east from Chang-
chun toward Yanji, where it is marked by a change in Permian flora
from Angaran to the north to Cathaysian south of the suture. Indeed,
it is the floral characteristics of the sediments that provide some of
the most definitive evidence for tracing the suture along its whole
length. There are, however, still some issues with the exact nature
and extent of the Solonker–Xar Moron–Changchun–Yanji suture. It
was noted above that Xiao et al. (2003) excluded the Xar Moron
Fault from the suture zone in the Solonker area. Y. Li et al. (2014)
widened the suture to the south to include the Xar Moron Fault in
the type area and hence incorporate the Ondor Sum subduction–ac-
cretion complex into the Solonker suture zone. However, they show
the northern boundary as the Linxi Fault in the east, whereas other
workers consider the Linxi Fault marks the southern boundary.
Clearly more work is required to resolve these issues. However, the
interpretation of the deep seismic section across the Solonker and
adjacent sutures is consistent with the geological interpretation
(Zhang et al., 2014), although the extensive intrusion of post-
collisional granitoids has obscured many of the features related to
the actual collision north of the Solonker suture.
With respect to timing of closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean, there ap-
pears to be growing support that it was diachronous (S. Li et al., 2014;
Xiao et al., 2009), closing first in the west near the Tarim Craton and fi-
nally in the east near Changchun. A scissor-like motion has been postu-
lated (Xiao et al., 2009), similar to final closure of the Mongol-Okhotsk
Ocean in Russia. Evidence from fossils and sedimentary facies analysis
indicate that closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean in NE China was complet-
ed entirely within the Permian, whereas evidence from the magmatic
record suggests it may have continued into the Triassic. This in part re-
flects the time-delay that occurs when a collisional setting changes to a
syn-orogenic one, and then to a post-orogenic setting, with a final
change to an extensional setting following collapse of the orogen. In
the Cretaceous of northeast China, there was only a short hiatus in
magmatism of ca. 10 million years, but the complex nature of the
CAOB and the fact that it involved mountain building and not delamina-
tion of the lithosphere may mean that the transition took considerably
longer.
With respect to the early history of the CAOB in NE China, the origin
of the various terranes has been an ongoing issue of debate. The data
and reasoning presented here indicate that the Chinese blocks evolved
north of the Solonker–Xar Moron–Changchun–Yanji suture and thus
358 S.A. Wilde / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 345–362
form part of the overall Paleozoic accretionary terranes that grew
out from the Siberia Craton. Of particular importance are the oldest
components (Mashan Complex and equivalents) that consist of
khondalitic sediments and associated deformed mafic and felsic mag-
matic rocks. These all show a remarkable uniformity with respect to
granulite-facies metamorphism at ~ 500 Ma and appear to define a
N1300 km-long belt named the NE China Khondalite Belt (Zhou et al.,
2011b). A N1000 km belt of coeval granulite-facies magmatic rocks is lo-
cated along the southern margin of the Siberia Craton (Salnikova et al.,
1998) and it appears likely they formed together in this location, with
the Chinese components rifted away as a result of back-arc spreading.
However, the nature and timing of this event is currently unconstrained.
The blocks now located in NE China in close proximity to the North
China Craton (Erguna, Xing'an, Songliao) reveal few Precambrian
rocks in surface outcrop, with only the Xing'an block containing more
widespread rocks of Meso- to Neoproterozoic age (Sun et al., 2013a;
Zhou et al., 2011a), including the Xilinhot Complex (Ge et al., 2011;
Sun et al., 2013a). Hence, Precambrian basement rocks are rare in the
eastern Chinese segment of the CAOB and substantial microcontinental
blocks are absent.
Much has been made in the literature of the northward drift of the
Gondwanan continents to amalgamate with Eurasia, a process that in-
volved the Tarim and North and South China cratons in the Paleozoic,
Fig. 9. Cartoon sketches of the possible relations between the Nadanhada Terrane and the Jiamui–Khanka block during formation and accretion from the Triassic to the Cretaceous;
(a) 210–180 Ma, (b) 180–130 Ma.
Modified from Zhou et al. (2015).
and which is continuing to the present day. Events in the Paleo-Asian
Ocean partly reflect this, with only minimal terrane accretion along
the margins of the Tarim and North China cratons as they moved rapidly
northward, whereas the Siberia Craton was the site of accretion and the
bulk of the CAOB grew out from its margins. Closure of the Paleo-Asian
Ocean occurred when this northward movement was terminated by
collision along the Solonker–Xar–Moron–Changchun–Yanji suture
zone. Hence the tectonic setting changed in the late Permian–early Tri-
assic from one dominated by north/south-directed movement to one
dominated by east/west movement when Paleo-Pacific plate motion
became the dominant controlling tectonic factor in the region.
Activity associated with the Paleo-Pacific plate had a strong influ-
ence on the late-stage development of the CAOB. It appears to have ex-
tended a considerable distance westward, accounting for Jurassic and
Cretaceous magmatism at least as far inland as the Great Xing'an
Range. The Jurassic granitoids are I-types and can be interpreted as
the result of collision of the Paleo-Pacific plate with the CAOB, and
their great extent reflects the strong westward motion of that plate. Ear-
lier post-collisional rifting and extension in the Triassic, following clo-
sure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean, resulted in the Jiamusi/Khanka block
being ripped off the eastern margin of the CAOB, with the development
of a Red Sea-type rift (Zhou et al, 2009). But they were soon re-united
again in the Early Jurassic as a result of strong westward motion of the
 S.A. Wilde / Tectonophysics 662 (2015) 345–362
Paleo-Pacific plate. However, from about 160 Ma, there was a distinct
younging of magmatic activity across north-eastern China (Sun et al.,
2013c) that resulted from roll-back of the Paleo-Pacific plate. This was
accompanied by extensive delamination at ca. 125 Ma (Wu et al.,
2005; Yang et al., 2008).
It has always been recognised that the Nadanhada Terrane is related
to circum-Pacific subduction. What recent studies have shown is that
events in the terrane extend back to the Triassic and thus are coeval
with activity associated with closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean. Of partic-
ular significance is the recognition that the timing of events in the
Nadanhada Terrane is similar to those in the Heilongjiang Complex
(Zhou et al., 2014), meaning there was coeval activity on both the east-
ern and western margins of the Jiamusi/Khanka block (Fig. 9). The
Jiamusi/Khanka block reconnected with the CAOB between 210 and
180 Ma (Zhou et al., 2009), with the Yuejinshan Complex of the
Nadanhada Terrane possibly accreting to the eastern margin of the Jia-
musi block at around the same time, although there is currently no geo-
chronological data to support this. The more extensive Raohe Complex
is better constrained geochronologically, and it accreted to the east
Asian margin between 137 and 128 Ma, defined by the youngest zircon
age in a sandstone and the age of intrusive granite, respectively (Zhou
et al., 2014).
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Rob Govers (Editor-in-Chief), Alfred Kroner
and an anonymous reviewer for their thoughtful suggestions that
have helped to improve the manuscript. This is The Institute for Geosci-
ence Research (TIGeR) publication number 626. This contribution is
dedicated to Brian Windley, whom I first met half a century ago when
I was a ‘freshman’ and he was a recent PhD graduate about to embark
on a stellar career. It took another quarter of a century for our paths to
cross again (in Madagascar), but then it became a regular occurrence,
particularly in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt; an area close to both
our hearts. Brian is like the Energizer battery man: always charging
around in the field: long may the charge be with you!
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