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REVIEW

Nonlinear fiber optics

E. M. Dianov, P. V. Mamyshev, and A. M. Prokhorov
Institute of General Physics, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Moscow
(Submitted January 26, 1987)
KvantovayaElektron. (Moscow) 15, 5-29 (January 1988)
The advantages of fiber waveguides over bulk nonlinear media are demonstrated. A review is
given of the main nonlinear effects which occur during propagation of laser radiation in fiber
waveguides. The most interesting applications of nonlinear fiber optics are discussed.

INTRODUCTION as an intermode dispersion. In turn, each mode is subject to a

The progress already made in the development of fiber chromatic dispersion
optics and of waveguide fabrication technology has provided
2nc
highly transparent fiber waveguides (see, for example, Ref. λ2
1). Initially such waveguides have been used only as passive
light-transmitting media (mainly in fiber-optic communica- λ d*n Δη

tion lines). However, it has been found that because of a

c dV· Xc dV* (1)
number of unique properties these waveguides are also An important role is played by the sign and magnitude of the
promising nonlinear optical media so that a new branch of dispersion D; for example, it is true of the nonlinear dynam-
quantum electronics in the form of nonlinear fiber optics has ics of propagation of ultrashort pulses in a waveguide. In the
appeared and is growing rapidly.2"* spectral range of the transparency of quartz glass wave-
We shall review these remarkable properties of fiber guides there are regions with a positive dispersion of group
waveguides, the main nonlinear effects which occur in such velocities u gr \D{A) > 0 in the range Λ < 1.3 μΐη] or with a
waveguides, and the most interesting applications of nonlin- negative dispersion [D(A) <OforA> 1.3/im], and near 1.3
ear fiber optics. μπι there is a wavelength Ao which is characterized by D(A0)
= 0 (Fig. 2—see also Ref. 6). It should be pointed out that
1. ADVANTAGES OF FIBER WAVEGUIDES OVER BULK
the dispersion of each waveguide mode is not identical with
NONLINEAR MEDIA
the dispersion of the material from which the waveguide is
The simplest fiber waveguide consists of a light-guiding made: it consists of the material and waveguide contribu-
core (diameter 2a) with a refractive index « c o and a reflect- tions represented by the first and second terms in Eq. (1).
ing cladding with a refractive index n c l < « c o . The transverse Therefore, changes in the waveguide parameters, such as 2a
distribution of the field in fiber waveguides is determined by and Δη, can alter the waveguide dispersion and, in particu-
the competition between the diffraction and refraction pro- lar, it can shift λ0 right up to λ = 2 μπα (Ref. 7).
cesses, and remains practically constant during propagation
The progress made in the technology of fabrication of
of radiation along a fiber waveguide.
quartz glass waveguides has ensured that the losses are now
Figure 1 shows the dependences of the normalized
propagation constant b,m on a dimensionless frequency pa-
rameter V (V= 2παλ ~'Λ]ΠΙΟ — η\λ) representing different
modes with the indices / and m propagating in a waveguide
with a step refractive index profile,5 and also the distribution
patterns of the near fields of these modes. We can see that the
difference between the refractive indices of the core and
cladding An = nconcl, the core diameter, and the radiation
wavelength λ determine the propagation regime in a wave-
guide: if V< 2.4, only one mode propagates in a waveguide,
whereas for V> 2.4 the propagation is of multimode nature.
Typical values of the parameters of single-mode waveguides
are 2a~3-10/xm and Δ η ~ 10" 2 -10- 3 .
We can see from Fig. 1 that in multimode waveguides
different modes have different propagation constants: klm FIG. 1. Dependence of the normalized propagation constant blm on the
= (2π/λ )(« C | + b,mAn), which gives rise to what is known characteristic parameter V for different LPlm waveguide modes.

Sov. J. Quantum Electron. 18 (1), Jan. 1988 0049-1748/88/010001-15S04.10 © 1988 American Institute of Physics 1

mo 1x0
-5 -
-10 -
-15 -
FIG. 2. Spectral dependence of the dispersion of the group velocities in a
single-mode fiber waveguide.
6
less than 1 dB/km in a fairly wide range of near-infrared
wavelengths. The energy losses are determined in practice
only by fundamental mechanisms, such as the absorption in
the wings of electronic bands and the Rayleigh scattering in
the short-wavelength range and the infrared absorption at
long wavelengths. The total losses in a multimode fiber
waveguide are shown in Fig. 3a and the minimum losses of
0.25 dB/km correspond to the wavelength of λ = 1.55 μΐη
(Ref. 8). Even lower losses can be achieved in single-mode
waveguides because of a reduction in the Rayleigh scattering
as a result of addition of small amounts of dopants to the
quartz glass used in the waveguide fabrication (Fig. 3b—see
also Ref. 9).
The nonlinear properties of quartz glass fiber wave-
guides are determined mainly by the third-order nonlinear
susceptibility ^ 3 , whereas the second-order susceptibility χ2
should vanish since fused quartz is an isotropic medium.
We shall indicate below the nonlinear effects observed
in quartz glass waveguides and the corresponding coeffi-
cients representing the efficiency of nonlinear processes
compared with a traditional nonlinear material, such as CS 2 .
Stimulated four-photon processes, phase self-modulation,
and the optical Kerr effect are due to the real (nonresonant)
component of χ3 the value of which is ^ ^ ( S i C ^ )
~W-2x%R(CS2). Stimulated Raman (STRS) and Bril-
louin (STBS) scattering processes are due to the imaginary
part of χ} and it is found that the gain is gSTRs(SiO2)
~ 10~3gSTRs (CS 2 ) andg S T B S (SiO 2 ) ~ l ( r 2 g S T B S (CS 2 ).
We can see that quartz glass is considerably inferior (by
several orders of magnitude) to CS 2 in respect of its nonlin-
ear properties. One can therefore ask the question: why
*,dB/km
Oh
0.2
0.85 0.9 1.0 1.1 12 ΙΑ λ,μ™ 11 1J 1.5
a b
Sov. J. Quantum Electron. 18 (1), Jan. 1988
quartz glass fiber waveguides are used so widely in nonlinear
optics? It would seem that the pump power thresholds for
the observation of nonlinear properties in these waveguides
should be several orders of magnitude higher than in tradi-
tional materials. However, the efficiency of nonlinear pro-
cesses is governed not only by the nonlinear coefficients, but
also by the product A of the pump power density and the
length of interaction of radiation with a nonlinear medium.
We shall now consider the values of Λ in the cases of a
bulk nonwaveguide medium (Anw) and of fiber waveguides
(Aw) at pump powers Ρ less than the critical self-focusing
value Ps{. In the case of a bulk medium the experimental
geometry is as follows: pump radiation is focused by a lens in
a nonlinear medium to form a spot of radius r0 (Fig. 4a).
Because of diffraction the size of the spot increases in the
course of propagation of light in the medium in accordance
2 l/2
with the formula r{z) = ro[\ + (ζλ /2vnr0) ] , where η is
the refractive index of the medium and ζ is the distance to the
constriction. In the case of a bulk nonwaveguide medium of
length L, we have
dz< J
"n» — JI/-2 (z) (2)
It therefore follows that in the case of an unbounded
bulk nonlinear medium the product in question is Anvi
= Ρ 2πη/λ and it is independent of the degree of focusing of
radiation in the medium, i.e, it is independent of the radius of
the constriction r0 (because a reduction in r0 increases the
diffraction divergence of the radiation), but is simply deter-
mined by the radiation power P.
In the case of a fiber waveguide the effects of diffraction
are compensated completely by the refraction in the reflect-
ing cladding, so that the transverse dimensions of radiation
inside the waveguide are constant along its length L and the
product Aw is defined as follows (Fig. 4b):
Aw «PL/πα 2 =(/>/πα)(Ι/α). (3)
Comparing this expression with that for^ n w and bear-
ing in mind that the radius of single-mode waveguides a is of
the order of λ, we find that for a given pump power the
advantage in the case of a waveguide is of the order oiL/a:
(4)
FIG. 3. Spectra of the optical losses in a graded multimode fiber
waveguide with a GeO2-doped quartz glass core 8 (a) and of a
single-mode fiber made of pure SiO2 glass' (b). The dashed line
represents the theoretical limit set by the Rayleigh scattering.
i μπ\
Dianovefa/.

The maximum waveguide length L is limited in princi-
ple only by the losses in the waveguide and can reach tens of
kilometers, when L /a amounts to 109—10'°. Such a colossal
advantage in respect of the value of Aw compensates for the
smallness of the nonlinear coefficients of quartz glass and
reduces significantly the thresholds for the observation of
nonlinear processes in quartz waveguides (sometimes to
milliwatt pump powers). This result is not due to so much
the great lengths of waveguides, as the waveguide nature of
the propagation of radiation. It should be stressed that we
are comparing the cases of a waveguide of finite length and of
an unbounded bulk medium.
Reduction in the threshold powers of nonlinear pro-
cesses in fiber waveguides greatly extends the capabilities of
nonlinear fiber optics, because it is possible to use then laser
radiation sources of relatively lower power and capable of
tuning in a wide spectral range, and also to operate at a high
repetition frequency (this is true, for example, of dye, color-
center, and other lasers).
The transition from bulk nonlinear media to fiber wave-
guides not only reduces quantitatively the threshold powers
of nonlinear processes, but also has certain qualitative ad-
vantages. It is well known that self-focusing of radiation 1 0 1 1
is frequently the main negative factor at high laser radiation
powers and, in particular, it prevents in practice the utiliza-
tion of a number of nonlinear effects. This is due to the fact
that self-focusing of a radiation beam usually makes the
beam highly inhomogeneous in space and self-focusing is
frequently accompanied by optical breakdown and damage
to the medium.
Therefore, one of the most important advantages of fi-
ber waveguides is that a number of nonlinear processes can
occur effectively in the absence of self-focusing of radiation,
which is fundamentally impossible in the case of bulk non-
waveguide media. This will be discussed in greater detail
when the effects of phase self-modulation will be considered.
Another important advantage of fiber waveguides is the
ability to realize (by varying the waveguide parameters,
such as 2a and An) both single-mode and multimode propa-
gation conditions in a waveguide. This is manifested most
strikingly in the case of stimulated four-photon processes.
2. STIMULATED FOUR-PHOTON PROCESSES
A detailed theoretical description of four-photon pro-
cesses can be found in Ref. 12, whereas here we shall concen-
trate on the methods of ensuring phase matching in these
processes when they occur in multimode and single-mode
fiber waveguides.
In a stimulated four-photon process two pump photons
of frequency vp dissociate into Stokes and anti-Stokes pho-
tons: vp + vp ->vs + va. It follows from the law of energy
conservation that Δν = va — vp = vp - vs, i.e., the Stokes
and anti-Stokes frequency shifts are equal. However, the
Sov. J. Quantum Electron. 18 (1), Jan. 1988
FIG. 4. Experimental geometry used in the case of bulk non-
waveguide media (a) and fiber waveguides (b): 1) nonlinear
medium; 2) core; 3) cladding; 4) laser beam.
conservation applies not only to the energy, but also to the
momentum of photons, so that the phase-matching condi-
tions for the wave vectors are k p + k,, = ks + ka, where
k(A) = 2πη{λ)/λ.
In an isotropic bulk medium with normal dispersion it
is not possible to achieve phase matching in a collinear inter-
action: ks + ka > 2kp. Phase matching in media of this kind
is attainable only when the waves interact at certain angles
(this is known as the vector phase matching), but then the
interaction length is clearly short and the process as a whole
is ineffective.
In fiber optics there are methods for compensating the
material dispersion in order to achieve phase matching in
four-photon processes occurring in both multimode and sin-
gle-mode waveguides. As pointed out already, in the case of
multimode waveguides in addition to the material dispersion
there is also the intermode dispersion. Therefore, in multi-
mode waveguides we can readily ensure phase matching in a
collinear interaction when the material dispersion is com-
pensated by the intermode effect if the pump, Stokes, and
anti-Stokes waves participating in a four-photon process
represent different waveguide modes.13~16
Stimulated four-photon processes in fiber waveguides
can be observed in the following experimental setup. Radi-
ation representing the first or second harmonic of a Q-
switched YAG:Nd laser is coupled by a lens into a low-mode
fiber waveguide of length from 10 cm to 10 m and stimulated
four-photon processes become effective when the power
reaches a value of the order of 1 kW. The radiation coupled
out of the waveguide by an exit lens is focused, after reflec-
tion by a diffraction grating, on a screen or a photographic
film. Variation of the angle at which the pump radiation is
coupled into a waveguide and of the degree of focusing
(which makes it possible to excite preferentially specific
groups of modes in a fiber waveguide), various mode combi-
nations of the Stokes-anti-Stokes generation can be ob-
tained. Figure 5 shows the images of various four-photon
processes expanded as a spectrum on a screen.15 The fre-
a Ρ S
β
LP,, 1',,'LPti
9
LP,, IP%:, IP,·
LP,, LP%, LP,,
w iv.cm
FIG. 5. Expansion as a spectrum of the image of the near-field distribution
at the exit of a waveguide 10 m long obtained for various stimulated four-
photon processes.
Dianove/a/.
quency shifts for various combinations of pump modes can
reach 5500 c m " 1 . Tuning of the frequency shift for a specific
mode combination may occur as a result of a change in the
waveguide parameters, such as la and Δ«. We can see from
Fig. 5 that stimulated four-photon processes can be used as
means for selective excitation of waveguide modes.
The efficiency of transformation of the pump energy
into the energy of the Stokes-anti-Stokes components can
reach tens of percent, i.e., waveguide parametric oscillators
can be used effectively as tunable laser radiation sources.
Knowing the experimental values of the frequency shifts, we
can determine the dispersive properties of waveguides such
as the differences between the propagation constants of var-
ious modes and between their group delays. By way of exam-
ple, we can cite our experimental observations of lifting, with
the aid of four-photon processes, of the degeneracy between
the LPj ι modes with orthogonally distributed lobes, asso-
ciated with a slight ellipticity of the core. 1 6
Figure 6 illustrates the process when both pump pho-
tons propagate in the LP01 mode, whereas the Stokes and
anti-Stokes photons are in the LPX t mode. The frequency
shift is about 2800 c m " 1 , but the frequency shift for the LPX ,
modes with different directions of the lobes differ by 200
c m " 1 , which is due to the difference between their propaga-
tion constants amounting to Δ/c /k ~ 10 " 4 . Therefore, four-
photon processes make it possible to detect readily fairly fine
effects.
In addition to the above method of ensuring phase
matching in four-photon processes in multimode wave-
guides by compensation of the material dispersion with the
intermode dispersion, there are also methods for achieving
phase matching in single-mode fiber waveguides. Since the
dispersion in a single-mode waveguide consists of the mate-
rial and waveguide (or intramode) components, it follows
that near zero of the material dispersion (Λ —1.3 μτα) it is
possible to compensate the material and waveguide disper-
sions of a waveguide and thus achieve phase matching.
Stokes-anti-Stokes generation with frequency shifts up to
thousands of reciprocal centimeters has been achieved in
this way.17
A different method for attaining phase matching in sin-
gle-mode waveguides involves the use of birefringence which
occurs in certain types of waveguides, i.e., the use of the
difference between the refractive indices for two specific di-
rections of polarization of radiation. Therefore, if the pump
radiation in a waveguide is polarized along the "slow" axis
(i.e., an axis with a high refractive index) and the Stokes-
anti-Stokes components are polarized along the "fast" axis,
then phase matching is achieved as a result of a certain fre-
quency shift which depends on the birefringence.18'19 The
experimental frequency shifts in the Stokes-anti-Stokes gen-
eration can be used to determine the birefringence of a wave-
guide.
ΙΡ,,ΊΡ,,
FIG. 6. Expansion as a spectrum of the image of the near-field distribution
at the exit of a waveguide in the case when both pump photons participat-
ing in a stimulated four-photon process propagate in the LPm mode.
Sov. J. Quantum Electron. 18 (1), Jan. 1988
Therefore, stimulated four-photon processes in wave-
guides can be characterized by a high energy efficiency of
conversion (up to tens of percent) when the phase-matching
conditions are satisfied and this can be achieved over long
(up to tens of meters) interaction lengths as a result of the
material dispersion which is balanced out either by the inter-
mode dispersion in multimode waveguides or by the intra-
mode dispersion or birefringence in single-mode wave-
guides. This makes it possible to construct fiber-optic
parametric laser radiation converters, which are efficient
and tunable in the visible and near-infrared parts of the spec-
trum.
No studies have yet been made of frequency modulation
of radiation in four-photon processes in fiber waveguides
although these would be of considerable interest, particular-
ly in the generation of ultrashort light pulses.
3. STIMULATED RAMAN AND BRILLOUIN SCATTERING
The stimulated Raman effect represents the scattering
of light by vibrations of molecules in a medium and it has
been observed in various bulk nonlinear media. Moreover,
the theory of STRS is now highly developed (see, for exam-
ple, the review of Y.-R. Shen on p. 278 in Ref. 20). The main
relationships governing STRS in bulk media naturally apply
also to fiber waveguides, but nevertheless STRS in the wave-
guides is characterized by a number of special features.
It is known that the growth of the Stokes component of
STRS is exponential and the gain increment is
G (Δν) =,g (Δν) PL/5, (5)
where P/S is the pump power density; g(\v) is the gain in
STRS characterized by a frequency shift Δν, which is in-
versely proportional to the wavelength; in the case of quartz
glass we have g = 0.92 X 10" " cm/W at λ = 1 μνη and
Δ ν = 440-460 cm " • (Ref. 21). When STRS originates from
spontaneous noise, the growth of the Stokes component
reaches saturation (when the pump and STRS powers be-
come equal) at G = 16 (Ref. 22). In the nonwaveguide case,
it follows from Eqs. (2) and (5) that the gain increment is
w =g (Δν) ΖπηΡΙλ. (6)
Knowing the self-focusing power and the STRS gain,
we can use Eq. (6) to find readily that in the case of both
quartz and such a traditional nonlinear material as CS 2 the
saturation of STRS originating from spontaneous noise is
practically impossible in the nonwaveguide case in the ab-
sence of self-focusing. However, in the case of waveguides it
follows from Eqs. (3) and (5) that the STRS threshold is
readily reached in the absence of self-focusing and that in the
case of long waveguides it can reach several watts. This ex-
tends considerably the opportunities for experimental inves-
tigations and practical applications of STRS.
We shall concentrate our attention on the consequences
and practical applications of STRS in waveguides associated
with the presence of a wide STRS gain profile of quartz glass
waveguides. The spectrum of spontaneous Raman scattering
in a quartz glass extends in practice from 0 to 1000 cm ~ ! and
it consists of a number of inhomogeneously broadened lines
of vibrational resonances corresponding to different modes
of the lattice vibrations.23 The maximum of the STRS gain is
obtained for a frequency shift of 440—460 cm " l and when
Dianove/a/.
waveguides are pumped with cw pump radiation or with suf-
ficiently long pulses, the frequency shift in the course of
STRS corresponds to the maximum gain (Fig. 7).
However, in the case of picosecond pumping the nature
of STRS can change significantly in an extended dispersive
medium such as a waveguide.24 This is due to the fact that
the dispersion causes the STRS and pump pulses to become
separated in a waveguide so that the effective length of their
interaction L eff may be considerably less than the total
length of the waveguide L. The effective interaction length
depends on the pump radiation wavelength λρ and on the
frequency shift Δν
LdUPAv), if Ld<L,
where Ld (λρ ,Δν) =τ/\υ~λ — vs~ ' |; r is the duration of the
pump pulses; vn and vs are the group velocities of the pump
radiation and of the Stokes component characterized by a
frequency shift Δν.
For these reasons the frequency shift in STRS excited
by picosecond pump pulses is not governed by the maximum
of the STRS gain but by the maximum of the gain increment:
G(Ap,Av) = g(Av)/>Leff(Ap,Av)/S. In fact, tuning of the
wavelength of a 30-ps radiation pulse generated in an optical
parametric oscillator near zero dispersion of the group ve-
locities in a waveguide at wavelengths in the range 1.17-1.35
μπι has made it possible to achieve tuning of the frequency
shift of the Stokes component of STRS (relative to the pump
line) practically from zero to 500 cm ' in a single-mode
waveguide of length 250 m. The experimental dependence of
the frequency shift on the pump wavelength agrees with the
theoretical curve calculated from the spectral dependence of
the gain increment (Fig. 8).
The wide STRS gain profile and the low threshold
pump powers make it possible to construct efficient STRS
fiber amplifiers as well as cw and synchronously pumped
picosecond STRS lasers. The emission wavelength of an
STRS waveguide laser can be tuned continuously between
several Stokes components by an intracavity dispersive com-
ponent (such as a prism) or by varying the resonator length
in the case of STRS synchronously pumped lasers.25 In the
latter case the dependence of the laser emission wavelength
on the resonator length can also be used to determine the
dispersion of the group velocities in a waveguide. At present
studies are being made of synchronously pumped STRS
waveguide lasers which, together with dye and color-center
lasers, can be expected to become reliable sources of picose-
cond and subpicosecond pulses of radiation tunable in a wide
spectral range.
IS
FIG. 7. Spectrum of cascade STRS in a waveguide with L = 250 m,
λ = 1.064 μτη, and r = 150 ns. The frequency shift between the STRS
components corresponds to the gain maximum of 440—460 cm ~ '.
Sov. J. Quantum Electron. 18 (1), Jan. 1988
Av, cm
500
«S
m
wo
0
1.15 W 1.1S I.SO λρ, μΓΠ
FIG. 8. Dependence of the frequency shift of STRS radiation on the pump
wavelength (L = 250 m, Pp = 300 W, r = 30 ps). The experimental
points and the calculated curve are shown. A discontinuity of the curve is
due to equality of the gain increments for two different frequency shifts at
λ= 1.17 μΐη.
Conversion of multisoliton pulses by STRS and also
STRS amplification of signals in fiber-optic communication
lines will be considered in later sections of the present re-
view.
We shall now briefly mention the scattering of light by
acoustic phonons, i.e., stimulated Brillouin scattering
(STBS), which is a nonlinear effect with the lowest thresh-
old in fiber waveguides. Only the backward STRS is ob-
served in waveguides (because the frequency shift between
the pump and scattered waves in the forward direction van-
ishes), when the frequency shift is proportional to the pump
frequency and in the case of quartz glass waveguides operat-
ing at λ = 0.53μΐη it amounts to 32.25 GHz. The STBS gain
is over two orders of magnitude higher than the STRS gain
(£STBS = 4.5X 10~9 cm/W) and the threshold pump pow-
ers for STBS can amount to several milliwatts.2 However,
since an STBS line is very narrow ( ~ 100 MHz) and its
efficiency decreases proportionally to the ratio of the width
of the STBS line to the width of the pump line (in the case of
wide-band pumping), the Raman process frequently pre-
dominates over the Brillouin scattering. Moreover, in the
case of pulsed pumping the length of interaction between
STBS and pump radiation is short because of the backward
nature of the scattering process. It should be mentioned that
in the case of narrow-band pumping the STBS gain is practi-
cally independent of the wavelength and for wide-band
pumping it decreases on increase in the wavelength at λ ~ 2
(Ref. 2).
Phase conjugation as a result of STBS in multimode
glass fiber waveguides, the discovery of which was reported
in Refs. 26 and 27, makes it possible to use such fibers as
STBS phase-conjugation mirrors in laser radiation ampli-
fiers.
The discovery of "traveling" STBS in single-mode fiber
waveguides was reported in Ref. 28. The spatial length of a
pump pulse needed for the observation of "traveling" STBS
is less than the waveguide length and the pump power is such
that the scattering does not reach saturation. The time struc-
ture of the scattered wave observed in the "traveling" case
corresponds to noise fluctuations from which the scattering
grows and this makes it possible to investigate statistical
properties of the scattering process.
Moreover, STBS waveguide lasers transforming cw la-
ser radiation into a periodic sequence of more powerful
Dianovefa/.
pulses are of considerable interest. 29 ' 30 The resultant pulses
accumulate the pump energy stored during the time taken to
traverse the resonator and may be of duration an order of
magnitude less than the relaxation time of a hypersonic
wave.30
4. PHASE SELF-MODULATION OF LASER RADIATION
Nonlinear fiber optics has made a major contribution to
the progress in generation of ultrashort light pulses. One of
the most promising nonlinear optical methods for the gener-
ation of such pulses is compression of initial laser pulses
based on self-modulation in a nonlinear medium. This meth-
od makes it possible not only to generate such pulses but also
to concentrate a major part of the pump pulse energy in a
compressed pulse.
The method can be described as follows. During propa-
gation of a light pulse with an envelope | E{ t) \2 in a nonlinear
medium characterized by an intensity-dependent refractive
index η = n0 + 2n2 \E(t) | 2 different parts of a pulse experi-
ence different additional phase shifts:
ΔΦ (/) =(2π/λ) n2L \E (t) \V2,
where n2 is the nonlinear refractive index. Consequently, a
pulse becomes spectrally broadened and acquires frequency
modulation; if n2 >0, then a frequency shift at the leading
edge of a pulse is in the Stokes (red) direction, whereas at the
trailing edge the frequency shift is in the anti-Stokes (blue)
direction in the spectrum (Fig. 9) 3 1 :
db>®(t) 2π d | Ε (t) | a
r
dt
If such a pulse is transmitted by a dispersive delay line with a
negative dispersion of the group velocities (άυν/άλ <0),
the blue frequency components catch up with the red ones
and the pulse can therefore be compressed to a duration set
by the reciprocal of the width of the spectrum.
The degree of spectral broadening and, consequently,
the maximum degree of compression in an experiment is
proportional to the product of the pump power density and
the length of interaction with the medium:
2 ing), we can find the dispersion in the delay line (represent-
Substituting the value of L \E{§) \ in the above expres-
sion for an unbounded bulk nonwaveguide medium of Eq.
\£(D\l
-o.s 1 o.s t/T,
1 ^ \
\
0 o.s tit
FIG. 9. Envelope of a laser pulse \E{t)\2 (a) and frequency modulation in
the pulse (b) due to its propagation in a nonlinear medium inducing phase
self-modulation.
6 Sov. J. Quantum Electron. 18 (1), Jan. 1988
(2) (and bearing in mind that |£·(0)| 2 = SvP/nocS), we
obtain
Δω ^ 2π Ρ2πη0 4π
3
η, 16π Ρ
do)
and substituting in place of Ρ the familiar expression for the
critical self-focusing power Ps{ = cX1 /32ττ2«2 (Ref. 11), we
find that (Δω/Δωο)πνι <π/2, i.e., in a bulk nonwaveguide
nonlinear medium a significant spectral broadening due to
phase self-modulation and, consequently, a high degree of
compression of pulses is fundamentally impossible (up to
appearance of self-focusing) because of the diffraction ef-
fects. Experiments on compression of picosecond pulses by
phase self-modulation in bulk nonlinear media under self-
focusing conditions 3 2 " have not been followed by extensive
applications. Therefore, the availability of single-mode fiber
waveguides in which it is possible to achieve—in the absence
of self-focusing at powers from a few watts to hundreds of
kilowatts—homogeneous (over the transverse cross section
of a beam) spectral broadening of laser pulses by a factor of
hundreds has provided extensive opportunities for the gen-
eration of ultrashort pulses.
(7)
5. DELAY LINES WITH A NEGATIVE DISPERSION
OF GROUP VELOCITIES
Compression of laser pulses, which are spectrally
broadened and frequency-modulated by phase self-modula-
tion in fiber waveguides, is performed in dispersive delay
lines characterized by a negative dispersion of the group ve-
locities. The most successful delay line is that using two par-
(8)
allel diffraction gratings.34 Such a delay line operates as fol-
lows (Fig. 10a). Let us assume that a beam with similar
frequency components ν and ν + Δν is incident on one of the
gratings at an angle a. The grating diffracts these compo-
nents to the wth order at angles φ and φ + δφ, respectively.
After diffraction by the second grating the two beams are
again parallel, but in the case of the red frequency compo-
nent ν the optical path in this delay line is greater than for the
blue frequency component ν + Δν and the difference is rep-
resented by the segments ef +fc. Then, using the diffraction
equation τηλ — d(cos a + cos φ) (dis the distance between
(9) the grating lines and m is the order of diffraction of the grat-
ing the derivative of the time delay with respect to the radi-
ation frequency):
dt R
I m \2 λ3
csin*cp
where Δν is in reciprocal centimeters and Β is equal to the
segment af, which is the distance between the gratings along
the diffracted beam.
It follows from Eq. (11) that the dispersion in a delay
line can easily be varied by, for example, altering the distance
Β between the gratings. The optimal value of this distance
for the compression of pulses of duration τ with linear fre-
quency modulation and spectral width Δν can be found from
Eq. (11):
2
c sin2 φ (12)
λ5
It is clear from Fig. 10a that the output beam is broad-
ened along one spatial coordinate (segment be) when this
dispersive delay line is used. In the compression of pulses of
initial duration r the broadening is
Dianove/a/.

h=Tdc sin ai'mX. (13)
The broadening h is strongest when relatively long ( ~ 100
ps) pulses are compressed. This shortcoming is avoided in a
modified delay line by introduction of a mirror which re-
turns the radiation back to the delay line (Fig. 10b). 35 A
double trip in this dispersive line restores the initial geomet-
ric dimensions of the light beam. For a given distance
between the gratings the second arrangement exhibits twice
as large a dispersion as the arrangement shown in Fig. 10a.
6. COMBINED EFFECTS OF SELF-MODULATION
AND GROUP VELOCITY DISPERSION
We have already considered phase self-modulation of
pulsed laser radiation in a nonlinear medium without
allowance for the dispersion in this medium. However, the
dispersion can play an important role in nonlinear dynamics
of propagation of ultrashort light pulses in an extended non-
linear medium such as a fiber waveguide.
A theoretical analysis allowing for both the dispersion
and nonlinearity is usually carried out subject to the follow-
ing assumptions.36'37 An electric field in a waveguide is re-
garded as transverse (for waveguides with a small difference
between the refractive indices of the core and cladding
Δ«<^1 this approximation is fully justified5) and is repre-
sented by
ψ (.ν, //, ζ, 0 ^ χ / 2 η (x, y){% (ζ, t) exp [ί (ωί—kz)]+ c.c. },
(14)
where η {χ, y) describes the normalized transverse spatial
distribution of the field considered in the linear approxima-
tion (below the critical self-focusing power the transverse
distribution of the field is practically unaffected by nonlin-
earity), "7(0,0) = 1; the slowly varying amplitude of the
time envelope W (z,t) is subject to the nonlinear interaction
(z is the coordinate along the waveguide axis; χ andy are the
transverse coordinates; t is time). We shall carry out this
analysis in the second approximation of the dispersion theo-
ry, i.e., we shall expand the wave number Λ(ω) in powers of
Δω and include only terms up to the second order of small-
ness.
In this case the effective electric field E(z,t) averaged
over the transverse coordinates satisfies the following non-
linear Schrodinger equation
• dE 1 d2k d2E 1 n2 u ΙΕΊ2 ρ - ρ Π 51
dz 2 d ω2 dτ
2
' 2 HQ
Here, r = t — z/vgr is the time which travels with the pulses;
vgT = άω/dk is the group velocity of the radiation; γ is
the linear loss factor; A:o = 2πηο/Λ; E(z,t) = & (z,t) ((η 4 )/
(f]2))xl2, where the angular brackets denote integration
Sov. J. Quantum Electron. 18 (1), Jan. 1988
FIG. 10. Schematic diagram of a dispersive delay line based on
two diffraction gratings (with equal segments ab = ae) (a) and
of a modified dispersive delay line in which the transverse di-
mensions of a beam are restored at the exit (b). One mirror
(M, ) is tilted so that the reflected radiation is propagated above
the plane of the figure and the other mirror (M2) is located
above the plane of the figure.
over the transverse coordinates.
The quantity E(z,t) is related to the radiation power
P{z,t) as follows: \E(z,t)\2 = %vP(z,t)/nocSeir, where the
effective area of the transverse cross section of the waveguide
Equation (15) allows for the simultaneous effects of
phase self-modulation (second term on the right-hand side
of the equation) and dispersion of the group velocities (first
term on the right-hand side), and it describes well the non-
linear dynamics of propagation of picosecond radiation in a
waveguide. In the case of femtosecond pulses and a strong
nonlinearity the assumption of slowness of changes in the
time envelope of a pulse compared with the period of an
optical oscillation becomes invalid and then the equation
should include additional terms responsible in particular for
asymmetrization of the time envelope of a propagating
pulse. 36 " 42 It should be pointed out also that if d 2k /dor = 0,
then Eq. (15) may contain dispersion terms of higher or-
der. 43 · 44
It follows from Eq. (15) that the dynamics of nonlinear
propagation of pulses along a waveguide depends qualita-
tively on the sign of the dispersion of d2k /άω1 and that inter-
esting and practically useful effects may be observed both
when d2k /άω2 > 0 (positive dispersion of the group velocity
is dvgT/dA > 0) and when d2k /άω2 < 0 (negative dispersion
of group velocities). One should stress once again an impor-
tant advantage of quartz glass fiber waveguides: in the spec-
tral range of the transparency of quartz glass there are re-
gions of positive and negative dispersions of the group
velocities, and moreover the dispersion can be varied within
a fairly wide range. The simultaneous effects of phase self-
modulation and dispersion deform the time envelope of a
pulse propagating in a waveguide: if d2k /άω2>0, the pulses
2 2
become longer, but if d k /άω < 0, they become shorter.
We shall consider specifically pulses which can be de-
scribed by Ε(0,τ) = Ευ sech(r/? 0 ).The total duration at
midintensity of this pulse is r 0 = 1.76i0. We shall estimate
the length of the waveguide, i.e., the self-interaction length
zsi (Ref. 45) in which there is a characteristic change in the
envelope of a pulse (self-compression or self-elongation).
Ignoring initially the dispersion effects, we find from Eq. (9)
that the spectral broadening of a pulse in the distance z si is
2π (16)
"Γ
where t0 ~ 1/Δω0 is the initial pulse duration. Now, ignor-
ing the nonlinearity we shall assume that the dispersion
spreading of the spectral component with a frequency shift
Δω occurring in the distance zsi is equal to the initial pulse
duration r n :
Δ ω \d-k,'d<o2\ z s l =<„. (Π)
Dianovefa/.
Equations (16) and (17) allow us to find the self-interaction
length:
(18)
Here, the dispersion length is t\\d2k /da>2\ ' —zd and it
represents the dispersion broadening of a pulse in the linear
case, whereas the nonlinear length is zn, = [(2π/λ)η2\Ε0\2/
2 ] ~' and it represents the length of a waveguide in which the
spectrum of a pulse broadens approximately by a factor of 2.
Equations (16) and (18) readily yield the spectral
broadening of a pulse in the distance equal to the self-inter-
action length:
Aco
(19)
Equation (19) provides an estimate of the self-com-
pression of a pulse in the case when d 2k /dco2 < 0, whereas if
d2k /άω2 > 0, it determines the degree of possible subsequent
compression of a pulse in an external dispersive delay line.
More accurate values of the compression obtained by solving
Eq. (15) will be given later.
7. COMPRESSION OF LASER PULSES USING "DISPERSION-
FREE" PHASE SELF-MODULATION
We shall initially consider the case when the length of a
waveguide L is considerably less than the self-interaction
length: L4,za. In this case the waveguide dispersion plays
practically no role [this is known as "dispersion-free" phase
self-modulation when the first term on the right-hand side of
Eq. (15) can be ignored ] and a pulse propagating in a wave-
guide retains its shape, but becomes spectrally broadened
and acquires frequency modulation in accordance with Eqs.
(8) and (9).
Our computer optimization of a dispersive delay line
intended for compression of such frequency-modulated
pulses [described by sech2 ( r / r 0 ) or having a Gaussian pro-
file] carried out for different values of the compression
(3 < ΔΦ 0 < 60) shows that the optimal dispersion of the de-
lay line is given by (see also Ref. 46):
(1.6— (0). (20)
The degree of compression of the pulses which is then at-
tained
1+0.57 ΔΦ(0) (21)
using "dispersion-free" self-modulation in a waveguide rises
linearly with ΔΦ(Ο), i.e., with the waveguide length and
with the power coupled into the waveguide. However, the
maximum possible value of ΔΦ(0) is limited by STRS in a
waveguide, which depletes a pump pulse by conversion to
Stokes components and distorts the linear frequency modu-
lation of a pulse.47"49 If the dispersion spreading of pump and
STRS pulses in the length of a waveguide is considerably less
than the duration of the pump pulse, we can readily com-
press the maximum attainable compression. Substituting the
critical pump power for STRS in a waveguide22
PCT/Sefr=\6!gL (22)
into Eq. (9) for ΔΦ(0), we find that before the appearance
of STRS a pulse experiences the maximum additional phase
shift
Sov. J. Quantum Electron. 18 (1), Jan. 1988
cr
=32 nN2/kg, (23)
where N2 = Airn2/noc. In the case of quartz glass, we have
N2 = 3 : 2 X 1 0 " l o cmVW and g = 0.92x19' cm/W
(λ — 1 μτη, linear polarization of the radiation), so that
ΔΦ Κ ss33. In the case of depolarized radiation the values of
N2 and g should be replaced with the polarization-average
values 5N2 /6 and g/2 (Ref. 2), which gives ΔΦ Ο Γ ~55.
Therefore, before the appearance of STRS the maximum de-
grees of compression given by Eq. (21) amount to 20 and 32
for linearly polarized and depolarized radiations, respective-
ly. It should be pointed out that these values are in a sense the
properties of the waveguide material because we can see
from Eq. (23) that Δ Φ α is independent of the waveguide
parameters or of the radiation wavelength (because the non-
linear refractive index N2 is practically independent of the
wavelength in a wide spectral range and the STRS gain is
inversely proportional to the wavelength2).
Such "dispersion-free" phase self-modulation was in-
vestigated by us in the case of compression of pulses emitted
by a YAG:Nd laser with active mode locking and Q switch-
ing (when the repetition frequency of the β switching pulses
was up to 1 kHz). 4 7 Laser radiation was coupled by a lens
into a single-mode waveguide (in these experiments we used
waveguide segments of lengths from 10 cm to 10 m), where
the radiation was broadened spectrally and acquired fre-
quency modulation because of phase self-modulation. The
duration of a pulse (45 ps) remained constant at the wave-
guide exit. The power corresponding to the appearance of
STRS in the waveguide decreased on increase of the wave-
guide length L and, depending on L, ranged from 1 to 100
kW. At the STRS threshold it was found that in all cases the
radiation spectrum increased in width to 18 cm ' in accor-
dance with Eq. (23) (Fig. l l a ) . Pulse compression took
place in a dispersive delay line with a diffraction grating and
a circular cross section of the exit beam was formed by a
system with double passage of the radiation. In contrast to
the system shown in Fig. 10b, one grating and a right-angled
prism were used in place of two gratings.
The grating (65 lines/mm) operated in a near-autocol-
limation regime and the distance between the grating and
prism calculated from Eqs. (11) and (20) amounted to ~ 3
m. The exact adjustment of this distance was made in the
experiments on the basis of the minimum duration of the
compressed pulses. A 22-fold compression of the pulse dura-
tion (from 45 to 2 ps) was achieved in these experiments.
The maximum power of the compressed pulses was ~ 500
kW when the energy transmission of the delay line, governed
primarily by the grating efficiency, was 40%. Although the
bulk of the energy of a compressed pulse was contained in
the central peak, as demonstrated by the autocorrelation
function shown in Fig. lib, the pulse still had wide low-
intensity pedestal wings. The existence of a pedestal in a
compressed pulse was due to nonlinearity of frequency mod-
ulation inside the whole compressed pulse at the exit of the
waveguide in which "dispersion-free" phase self-modula-
tion took place.
A method for suppressing the pedestal by filtering off
the outer Stokes and anti-Stokes spectral components, when
the linear frequency modulation law was no longer obeyed,
was proposed in Ref. 50 (see Fig. 9b). This was achieved
Dianove/a/.
experimentally by means of a stop placed in front of a mirror
AT, in a dispersive delay line shown in Fig. 10b.
8. COMPRESSION OF LASER PULSES USING "DISPERSIVE"
2 2
PHASE SELF-MODULATION (d k/du> > 0)
A theoretical analysis of the propagation of pulses
based on Eq. (15) in the case when d2k /άω2 > 0 and γ = 0
can be found in Refs. 37, 46, 51, and 52. As long as ^Jzd/zn]
< 1, the nonlinear effects play practically no role and the
spectrum of the pulses does not broaden, whereas the dura-
tion of the pulses increases because of linear dispersive
spreading. If ^zd/znl > 1 the nonlinearity becomes signifi-
cant and the spectrum of a pulse broadens in the course of
propagation, so that a time envelope of a pulse broadens
faster than in the case of linear dispersive broadening. There-
fore, for a waveguide of length z o p t =;2.5zsi a pulse increased
in duration assumes a near-rectangular profile. It is very im-
portant to note that the linear law of frequency modulation
applies practically throughout the pulse, so that in the case
of compression in a dispersive delay line it is possible to gen-
erate pulses without a pedestal.51 The degree of possible
compression is
:0.63 (24)
for the optimal dispersion in a delay line
(25)
The use of a waveguide of length L > z o p l is undesirable for
the subsequent compression of the pulses because then the
spectrum of the pulses hardly broadens and the linearity of
frequency modulation may break down because of a nonlin-
ear interaction of the wings of a pulse with its edges.53'54
It therefore follows that the waveguide dispersion on
the one hand limits the degree of compression of the pulses
[see Eq. (24)], but, on the other hand, the simultaneous
effect of both dispersion and phase self-modulation linear-
izes frequency modulation of a pulse and makes it possible to
generate high-contrast compressed pulses.
Propagation of pulses in a waveguide was investigated
in Ref. 53 using Eq. (15) and allowing for the losses ι
a •»
r,~2ps
-a -s ο s tdel, ps
b
FIG. 11. Spectrum of radiation pulses of 45 ps duration and 20 kW power
obtained from a Q-switched YAG:Nd laser with active mode locking after
propagation through a waveguide 50 cm long (a) and the autocorrelation
function of pulses compressed in a dispersive delay line (b).
Sov. J. Quantum Electron. 18 (1), Jan. 1988
the results demonstrated that the losses limit spectral broad-
ening and may hinder linearization of frequency modulation
of the propagating pulses.
As in the "dispersion-free" case of phase self-modula-
tion, the appearance of STRS in a waveguide prevents effec-
tive compression of the pulses. We shall estimate the maxi-
mum compression of picosecond pulses as a result of
"dispersive" phase self-modulation before the appearance of
STRS in a waveguide. We shall use Eq. (22) to find again the
critical pump power for STRS in a waveguide, but instead of
L we shall use not the full waveguide length but the length of
dispersive spreading of pump and STRS pulses: Ld
= ro[(d2k /du)2)2vcAv] ~',whereAvis the frequency shift
between the pump and STRS radiations (in reciprocal centi-
meters). The critical power Pcr calculated in this way can
then be substituted into Eq. (24), which shows that
(26)
However, as in the analogous case of "dispersive-free"
phase self-modulation, this expression is independent of the
waveguide parameters and of the radiation wavelength, but
it does depend on the material from which the waveguide is
made. In the case of linearly polarized radiation and quartz
glass waveguides, we find that r c o m p - 0 . 0 5 ^ ( r c o m p and r 0
are in picoseconds).
The case of "dispersive" phase self-modulation and
consequent compression of the pulses had been investigated
using the first harmonic of radiation from a cw YAG:Nd
laser with active mode locking alone. 55 Pulses of 60 ps dura-
tion and of 130 W power were coupled into a single-mode
waveguide 880 m long (with losses 1 dB/km), as shown in
Fig. 12, where the simultaneous effects of phase self-modula-
tion and a positive dispersion of the group velocities caused
spectral broadening of the pulses to 42 cm ', increased their
duration to about 180 ps, and imparted a rectangular shape
(Figs. 13 and 14). As in the experiments described in the
preceding section, compression of these pulses and genera-
tion of a high-quality beam were ensured by using a disper-
sive delay line based on a diffraction grating and a right-
angled prism with double passage of the radiation. The
grating was operated in a near-autocollimation regime. The
distance between the grating and the prism [see Eq. (12) ]
was ~ 5.7 m for a grating with 651 lines/mm, but 0.8 m for a
grating with 1200 lines/mm.
FIG. 12. Schematic diagram of the apparatus: 1) YAG:Nd laser; 2)
lenses; 3) waveguide; 4), 5) mirrors; 6) diffraction grating; one mirror
(5) is tilted so that the reflected beam travels above the plane of the figure
and the other mirror (4) is above the plane of the figure.
Dianove/a/. θ

FIG. 13. Emission spectrum of a cw YAG:Nd laser with active mode
locking at the exit of a waveguide 880 m long.
Linearity of frequency modulation of the pulses at the
waveguide exit was demonstrated by an exceptionally high
quality of the pulses compressed in the dispersive delay line
to 550 fs and free of a pedestal (Fig. 14c). The power of the
compressed pulses was 4.8 kW when the energy transmis-
sion of the delay line was 50%. The experimentally achieved
110-fold degree of compression was to the best of our knowl-
edge the maximum achieved for single-stage compression
systems in the spectral range of positive dispersion of the
group velocities in a waveguide. The experimental results
were described satisfactorily by the relationships derived
above.
Investigations of compression of ultrashort pulses using
waveguides and an external dispersive delay line are pro-
ceeding rapidly in various laboratories throughout the
world. We shall mention only some typical results: a 12-fold
compression of pulses (5 ps) from a dye laser reported in
Ref. 56, an 80-fold compression of pulses (33 ps) of the sec-
ond harmonic of a YAG:Nd laser with active mode locking
given in Ref. 35, a 45-fold compression of pulses (80 ps) of
the first harmonic of a similar laser achieved in the study
described in Ref. 57, and a 7-fold compression of high-power
pulses (5 ps) from an Nd phosphate glass laser was attained
using multimode graded-index waveguides.58 A particularly
interesting result was a 50-fold compression of YAG:Nd la-
-180 -no
FIG. 14. Autocorrelation function of the radiation intensity at the entry
into a waveguide (a), at the exit from a waveguide (the triangular auto-
correlation function corresponds to a rectangular pulse) (b), and at the
exit from a dispersive delay line (c).
10 Sov. J. Quantum Electron. 18 (1), Jan. 1988
ser pulses of 100 ps duration at the wavelength of λ = 1.32
59
μηι achieved using waveguides with a shifted dispersion,
because compressed pulses with λ = 1.32 μτη could then be
reduced in duration again in the second stage by the multiso-
liton compression method (see Sec. 10).
A two-stage compression system can ensure higher de-
grees of compression than one employing a single stage. This
60
approach was used to achieve a 65-fold compression of dye
laser pulses to a duration of 90 fs, whereas in Ref. 61 it was
reported a 450-fold compression of garnet laser pulses (90
ps) reduced their duration to 200 fs.
The development of femtosecond pulse amplifiers
based on dye lasers (colliding pulse method) made it possi-
ble to compress such pulses in fiber waveguides. It was re-
ported in Ref. 62 that compression of pulses of 40 fs duration
after spectral broadening in a waveguide 7 mm long genera-
ted pulses of the lowest reported duration of 8 fs, consisting
of just four oscillations of the optical field. These very short
pulses open up new possibilities in spectroscopy and in stud-
ies of ultrafast processes in various branches of physics, bio-
logy, and chemistry.
In pulse compression systems utilizing diffraction grat-
ings (Fig. 10b) the spectrum of pulses on the mirror M, is
distributed along one spatial coordinate. When an ampli-
tude-phase screen is placed in front of this mirror, it is possi-
ble to generate pulses of different shapes.63
9. GENERATION OF FREQUENCY-TUNABLE ULTRASHORT
PULSES BY SPECTRAL FILTERING OF PHASE-MODULATED
LASER RADIATION IN FIBER WAVEGUIDES
An effective method for the generation of frequency-
tunable bandwidth-limited ultrashort light pulses is based
on spectral filtering after phase self-modulation of pulsed
radiation in a fiber waveguide without recourse to dispersive
delay lines and a negative dispersion in a waveguide.64 It is
clear from Fig. 9 that the maximum frequency shift toward
the Stokes and anti-Stokes parts of the spectrum experienced
by a pulse phase-modulated in a fiber waveguide (in the case
of "dispersion-free" phase self-modulation) is attained at
the points of inflection of the envelope of a pulse at its leading
and trailing edges, respectively. Moreover, at these points of
inflection there is no frequency modulation so that spectral
separation of the outer Stokes or anti-Stokes frequency com-
ponents (Fig. 15a) can generate pulses which are free of
frequency modulation and appear at a frequency shifted rel-
ative to that of the pump radiation (Fig. 15b).
-m -ίο ο 20 άί/Δ% -1.0 -0,5 O.S t/t,
a
FIG. 15. Computer-calculated spectrum of a phase-modulated pulse (a)
and a pulse /(/) before spectral filtering (continuous curve) and the
Stokes (chain curve) and anti-Stokes (dashed curve) pulses obtained
after spectral filtering (b). The arrows indicate the parts of the spectrum
selected by spectral filtering in the Stokes and anti-Stokes regions-
ΔΦ(0) = 6 6 .
Dianov et a/. 10
 Theoretical calculations demonstrate that in the case of
optimal filtering the power of bandwidth-limited pulses gen-
erated in this way is equal to the power of the initial pulses
and their duration is several times less (Fig. 15b).
In our experiments we employed pulses generated in a
β-switched garnet laser (20 kW, 50 ps) with active mode
locking, emitting at/I = 1.064/zm. After spectral broaden-
ing in a single-mode fiber waveguide of 50 cm length and
spectral filtering, the generated pulses had no pedestal and
were of 10 ps duration at a frequency shifted relative to that
of the pump radiation. The frequency of the pulses generated
in this way could be varied by altering the waveguide length
or the pump power. The tuning range was inversely propor-
tional to the duration of the initial pulses and when the dura-
tion was 50 ps, it amounted to 20 cm ~ l , whereas for 5 ps, it
was already 200 cm ~'.
Spectral filtering with simultaneous separation of the
Stokes and anti-Stokes frequency components generated
Stokes and anti-Stokes pulses at, respectively, the leading
and trailing edges of the envelope of the initial pulse. There-
fore, the method made it possible to generate a pair of time-
synchronized ultrashort pulses with a continuously variable
frequency shift between them. It could also be used to dis-
criminate against the pedestal in ultrashort pulses and to
increase the contrast of mode-locked laser radiation. Since
the pulses were generated at a frequency shifted relative to
the pump radiation frequency, the background radiation
typical of some of the lasers employed would be effectively
filtered off.
In the case of second harmonic pulses the width of the
phase-matching curve of a nonlinear crystal could be used as
a spectral slit selecting specific components and this would
simplify experimental implementation of the method de-
scribed above.
The duration of pulses formed by the spectral filtering
method was found to be several times less than the duration
of the leading edge of the initial pulses. When the pump pulse
was "depleted" by STRS under saturation conditions, the
remaining fragments of the pump pulse had steep edges in
the time profiles. For example, pumping of waveguides with
radiation of 60 ps duration generated pulses of duration 2 ps
48
at these edges. A detailed analysis of the method of spectral
filtering in the case of STRS in a waveguide can be found in
Ref. 49.
10. MULTISOLITON COMPRESSION OF PULSES AND RAMAN
SELF-SCATTERING OF MULTISOLITON PULSES
Quartz glass waveguides exhibit a negative dispersion
of the group velocities in the wavelength range λ > 1.3 μΐη.
The solution of Eq. (15) for d 2k /dm1 < 0 and γ = 0 can be
found in Refs. 65-74. We shall consider the main features of
nonlinear dynamics of pulse propagation by considering
pulses of the type Ε(0,τ) = Ea sech(r/i o ). If ^jzd/znl < 1 ,
the nonlinearity plays no significant role and the pulses
broaden dispersively. If ^jzd/znl = 1, then phase self-modu-
lation resulting in a frequency shift of the leading part of the
pulse in the red direction and of the trailing edge of the pulse
in the blue direction in the spectrum is balanced out com-
pletely by dispersion which delays the red frequency compo-
nents relative to the blue ones. A pulse then propagates along
a waveguide without a change in its profile or spectrum, i.e.,
11 Sov. J. Quantum Electron. 18 (1), Jan. 1988
the soliton pulse propagation regime is attained (the solitons
are called fundamental). If the initial pulse amplitude is
higher than that of a fundamental soliton, then initially the
nonlinearity predominates over the dispersion effects and
the pulse is self-compressed. The dynamics of propagation of
such pulses is fairly complex, but in the case when ^Jzd/znl
= N, where Ν is an integer (these pulses are called N-soliton
pulses or a bound state of Ν solitons), the initial profile of a
pulse and its spectrum are restored in one soliton period: z 0
= nzd/2. The dynamics of propagation of a pulse with
Ν = 3 in one soliton period z0 is demonstrated in Fig. 16.
A fundamental soliton is stable against small perturba-
tions, whereas the bound state of solitons is unstable, i.e., in
the presence of specific perturbations it may split into un-
bound solitons.
As pointed out already, if ^jzd/zn] > 1, a pulse is initially
self-compressed. At higher values of yjzd/znl the maximum
degree of pulse self-compression72·73 r 0 / r c o m p ~4.1 ^jzd/znl
is achieved in a waveguide of length 73
'opt • : (0.5+1. (27)
i.e., the optimal self-compression length tends to 0.5zsi. This
multisoliton compression mechanism makes it possible to
achieve a high degree of pulse compression. The limitations
on the degree of self-compression of femtosecond pulses,
which arise when additional terms in Eq. (15) are allowed
for, are discussed in Ref. 42.
The method of multisoliton compression suffers also
from a serious shortcoming: the compressed pulses have a
wide pedestal and the fraction of the energy carried by the
pedestal increases on increase in the degree of compression
(Fig. 17).
Experiments on multisoliton pulse compression were
reported in Refs. 72 and 76-78. For example, in Ref. 72 it
was reported that a 27-fold compression was achieved for
pulses of 7 ps duration generated in an NaCl color-center
laser emitting at λ = 1.55 μπι, whereas in Ref. 78 a 22-fold
compression of pulses of 2 ps duration was achieved at
λ = 1.32 jum (initial pulses of 2-ps duration were obtained
by compressing 100-ps pulses emitted by a cw YAG:Nd laser
with active mode locking in a waveguide with shifted disper-
sion and a diffraction grating compressor 59 ). As predicted
FIG. 16. Computer-calculated dynamics of the envelope of a three-soliton
pulse \E(Z,T)\2 (a) and its spectrum Ι(ζ,ω) (b) in the case of propagation
in a waveguide.75 We can see that there is a waveguide length for which the
maximum self-compression of the pulse is achieved and also a length equal
to the soliton period z 0 at which the initial profile and the spectrum of the
pulse are restored.
Dianove/a/. 11
 ο.οι ιο
f/ζ, -0.5
FIG. 17. Computer-calculated dynamics of propagation of a 50-soliton
pulse along a fiber waveguide. The compressed pulse is over 200 times
shorter than the initial pulse, but it carries only — 8% of the total radi-
73
ation energy.
by the theory, the pulses compressed in this way had a wide
pedestal. A polarization method for suppressing the pedestal
was proposed in Ref. 79: it is based on utilization of the
observation that because of the Kerr effect the polarization
states of a low-intensity pedestal and a compressed spike are
different at the exit from a fiber waveguide. This method was
used72 to suppress partly the pedestal of compressed pulses.
A method for eliminating the pedestal by spectral filtering
was proposed in Ref. 80.
A theoretical treatment 81 dealt with STRS conversion
of multisoliton pulses demonstrating the feasibility of trans-
forming a three-soliton pulse into a one-soliton Stokes fre-
quency pulse, characterized by a high energy efficiency. The
Stokes pulse is then much shorter and has a greater ampli-
tude than the pump pulse. In these calculations it is assumed
that the group velocities of the STRS and pump radiations
are equal, so that the pump and Stokes pulses should propa-
gate as different modes of a multimode waveguide in order to
achieve compensation of the material dispersion by the in-
FIG. 18. Qualitative illustration of the formation of a seed at the Stokes
frequency which passes then through an STRS amplifier. The STRS gain
spectrum is shown on the right.
12 Sov. J. Quantum Electron. 18 (1), Jan. 1988
0.0S5
Z/Zd =0.056
·( ο 1 t/t,
FIG. 19. Computer-calculated dynamics of STRS conversion of a 10-
soliton pump pulse in a waveguide when STRS grows from a seed Stokes
pulse." The STRS pulse is shown shaded.
termode dispersion. Moreover, such a conversion is predict-
ed by the calculations only on the assumption that a regular
"seed" at the Stokes frequency with a fully determinate am-
plitude is applied to the input of a waveguide.
An effective method for generating compressed pulses
without a pedestal at a high energy efficiency utilizes multi-
soliton compression and the Raman self-scattering of pulses
in a single-mode fiber waveguide, the discovery of which was
reported in Ref. 77 (see also Ref. 82). This method can be
described as follows. The spectrum of the STRS gain of
quartz glass extends practically from 0 to 1000 cm " '. The
spectrum of a multisoliton pulse propagating in a fiber wave-
guide becomes broader because of phase self-modulation
and a part of it (shown shaded in Fig. 18) lies within the
STRS amplification region. Therefore, the pulse itself
creates a Stokes-frequency seed needed for subsequent STRS
amplification. In view of the negative dispersion of the group
velocities the pump pulse is compressed and this results in a
time overlap of the various spectral components of the pulse.
The Stokes-frequency seed is then amplified because of
STRS in the field of other frequency components of the
pump pulse and the spectrum of the pulse is shifted toward
the Stokes region. The Stokes pulse is then delayed because
of dispersion relative to the pump and it acquires energy
moving across the pump pulse (Fig. 19).
In the experiments on the Raman self-scattering of
multisoliton pulses77 use was made of an optical parametric
oscillator with a nonlinear barium sodium niobate crystal
pumped synchronously by the second harmonic of a Q-
switched garnet laser with active mode locking.84 The para-
metric oscillator emitted smooth pulses of 30-ps duration
Dianove/a/. 12

Pn = 900 W
so
Ί ' t-
«5
/ \
50
J\
i» ISS 1.58 λ, μΓΠ
FIG. 20. Radiation spectra at the exit of a waveguide of length 250 m
obtained by increasing the power of 30-ps pulses from 50 to 900 W.
and was continuously tunable in the spectral range 0.74-1.9
μΐη by variation of the temperature of the nonlinear crystal.
The experiments were carried out in the spectral range cor-
responding to the minimum losses in the waveguide (1.5-
1.65 μΐη).
Figure 20 shows the spectra of the radiation emerging
from a single-mode waveguide (Z. = 250 m) when the initial
power of a pulse (30 ps) was increased from 50 to 900 W at
the pump wavelength λρ = 1.54 μτα. An increase in the ini-
tial power broadened the radiation spectrum because of
phase self-modulation and when the power was 80 W a
Stokes wing appeared in an initially symmetric spectrum:
this wing was due to the Raman self-scattering of a pulse
which at a pump power of 900 W contained up to 50% of the
radiation energy. Determination of the autocorrelation
function of the intensity at the frequency of the Stokes wing
showed that a pulse of 160-fs duration was formed and it was
free of a pedestal (Fig. 21). The power of this pulse estimat-
ed from the energy of the Stokes wing was 60 kW, which was
80 times greater than the power of the pump pulses. The
experimentally achieved 190-fold compression of the pulse
was the maximum attained for single-stage systems. When
the pump wavelength was varied within the range 1.5-1.65
μΐη, it was found that the duration of the compressed Stokes
pulses varied from 160 to 250 fs.
The STRS self-scattering of a pulse 77 · 82 in which the
Stokes frequency components were subject to STRS amplifi-
cation in the field of the anti-Stokes components could play
an important role in nonlinear dynamics of propagation of
pulses in a fiber waveguide. This effect was in fact observed
also later and reported in Refs. 85 and 86. Therefore, the
T, = 160 fs
'del. P S
FIG. 21. Autocorrelation function of a pulse at the Stokes frequency.
13 Sov. J. Quantum Electron. 18 (1), Jan. 1988
simultaneous use of the effects of STRS, phase self-modula-
tion, and dispersion in fiber waveguides is a promising meth-
od for the generation of ultrashort laser pulses.
A 2-switched STRS laser with a resonator containing a
waveguide segment was proposed theoretically in Ref. 87.
Cascade generation of the Stokes components beginning
from the spontaneous noise level occurring in such a laser
because of the simultaneous effects of STRS, phase self-mod-
88
ulation, cross modulation, and negative dispersion of the
group velocities at a higher Stokes component can result in
separation of single noise peaks and generation of short soli-
ton pulses.
A report of building of a soliton STRS waveguide laser
89
attracted considerable attention. A fiber waveguide was
placed inside the resonator and pumped synchronously with
10-ps pulses from a color-center laser (λ = 1.46μπι) operat-
ing near the lasing threshold at the Stokes frequency
(Λ = 1.56μηι), which generated pulses of ~ 300 fs duration
(with a weak but wide pedestal). The power of these pulses
was that expected for a fundamental soliton.
Self-compression of pulses in fiber waveguides in a re-
gion of negative dispersion of the group velocities was also
used in a soliton laser described in Ref. 90. It was a synchron-
ously pumped color-center laser with a feedback loop con-
taining a segment of a single-mode fiber waveguide. In the
absence of this feedback the laser emitted pulses of 8-ps du-
ration, whereas the feedback loop with a waveguide of length
from 0.65 to 30 m made it possible to vary the pulse duration
from 0.21 to 2 ps. A bound state of two solitons formed inside
this laser and this restored its profile in a double trip through
the waveguide. Theoretical models of such a laser were con-
sidered in Refs. 91 and 92.
11. NONLINEAR EFFECTS IN FIBER-OPTIC
COMMUNICATION LINES
Nonlinear effects during propagation of optical radi-
ation along waveguides can play also a negative role in fiber-
optic communication lines. For example, STRS and stimu-
lated four-photon parametric processes convert the
radiation at the fundamental wavelength into radiation with
other wavelengths, which may result in loss of the transmit-
ted data and also in crosstalk in the case of lines utilizing
wavelength-division multiplexing (including coherent
lines). The power of spectrally narrow laser radiation in co-
herent communication lines is limited by STBS. Phase self-
modulation of laser pulses broadens the radiation spectrum
and, together with dispersion, can result in additional
spreading in time of pulses encoding the transmitted data
and in overlap of these pulses. All these effects should be
allowed for in the design of fiber-optic communication lines.
However, the nonlinear phenomena can also be utilized
positively in communication lines. It is possible to use STRS
amplification of a signal to compensate for the radiation
losses in communication lines and to use a waveguide trans-
mitting data also as an amplifying medium with a wide gain
profile.2^1·22'93 Fast optical switches and gating devices based
on the Kerr effect in waveguides94'95 are suitable for the use
in fiber-optic communication lines. It is suggested in Ref. 96
that STBS amplification could be employed to separate the
carrier in coherent communication lines under homodyne
operating conditions.
Particularly attractive is the possibility of utilizing soli-
Dianoveia/. 13
tons in communication lines. Since in the soliton scheme of
pulse propagation the nonlinearity and dispersion balance
each other out (see Sec. 10) and the profile of a pulse does
not change during propagation, it follows that in principle
methods could be used to construct communication lines
with the greatest bandwidth. Therefore, it is particularly in-
teresting to note the experimental realization of the soliton
propagation of pulses of 7-ps duration generated by a color-
center laser emitting at the wavelength of 1.55 μχα, when
these pulses were coupled into a waveguide which was 1 km
71
long.
One of the problems in constructing a soliton communi-
cation line is the interaction of solitons in a waveguide when
they are separated by short time intervals; depending on the
initial conditions and losses in a waveguide solitons may re-
pel or attract each other or they can merge into a single
75 97 99
pulse, or they can repel and attract periodically. · ' The
interaction between solitons, which may be undesirable in
communication lines, can be avoided by ensuring that the
separation between them is sufficiently large (approximate-
ly an order of magnitude greater than the pulse duration).
The main problem in the construction of soliton com-
munication lines is the presence of losses in waveguides
which not only attenuate the signal but cause broadening of
soliton pulses on the time scale. 4 3 1 0 0 1 0 1 Amplification as a
result of STRS and lossy soliton lines makes it possible to
stabilize the amplitude and duration of soliton pulses. 102 - 104
Experiments on STRS amplification of soliton pulses in
waveguides were reported in Ref. 105. In the absence of such
amplification pulses of 20-ps duration (Λ = 1.56μΐη) were
broadened by a factor of 1.5 (due to the losses) in a single-
mode waveguide of length 10 km, but when the losses were
compensated by STRS amplification in the opposite direc-
tion, the pulses retained the same duration during their
propagation in the waveguide.
A careful theoretical analysis made in Ref. 104 demon-
strated the feasibility of constructing soliton fiber-optic
communication lines with periodic compensation for the
losses by STRS amplification characterized by a pass band of
2.9 Χ 104 GHz-km, rising to 3 χ 105 GHz-km and an error
probability less than 10~~9 in a wavelength-division multi-
plexing system.
CONCLUSIONS
In the present review we considered briefly the main
nonlinear effects which occur during propagation of laser
radiation in fiber waveguides and we discussed practical uti-
lization of these effects. We can summarize the results by
saying that nonlinear fiber optics, which had made it possi-
ble to increase greatly the efficiency of some nonlinear pro-
cesses and at the same time to avoid self-focusing of radi-
ation and the associated undesirable effects (such as optical
breakdown of matter, etc.), has effectively given a second
lease of life to the already known nonlinear optical methods
for conversion of laser radiation and has provided several
new methods, in addition to stimulating theoretical research
on nonlinear optics. It should be pointed out that the poten-
tialities of nonlinear fiber optics are far from exhausted and
that extensive experimental and theoretical investigations of
the subject are proceeding currently in many research estab-
lishments throughout the world.
The progress in the technology of fiber waveguides and
14 Sov. J. Quantum Electron. 18 (1), Jan. 1988
the appearance of new types of waveguides extend the poten-
tialities and open up new avenues of application of nonlinear
fiber optics. One should mention here the development of
waveguides made of fluoride glasses for which it is in princi-
3
ple possible to ensure that the losses are at a level of 10 ~
dB/km in the wavelength range 2-4 μτη, as well as poly-
crystalline and single-crystal waveguides which can com-
bine the advantages of waveguides with high values of the
nonlinear coefficients.
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Translated by A. Tybulewicz

15 Sov. J. Quantum Electron. 18 (1), Jan. 1988 Dianov et al. 15